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Copyright © 2017 Lisa McLendon
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Introduction
1.0
WHY WE NEED GRAMMAR
2.0
GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION
2.1 General Writing Tips
2.2 Before You Begin
2.3 Starting to Write
2.4 Structure
2.5 Transitions
2.6 Common Pitfalls
2.7 Editing
3.0
PARTS OF SPEECH
4.0
SPELLING AND STYLE
4.1 How to Improve Your Spelling
4.2 Common Spelling Errors
4.3 Affixes and Common Spelling Rules
4.4 Contractions
4.5 Possessive Pitfalls
4.6 Dates and Times
4.7 Numbers
5.0
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
5.1 Subjects and Predicates
5.2 Subject-Verb Agreement
5.3 Objects
5.4 Clauses
5.5 Subordinators
5.6 Phrases
5.7 Complements
5.8 Misplaced Modifiers
5.9 Parallel Construction
6.0
VERBS
6.1 Conjugation
6.2 Person
6.3 Number
6.4 Aspect and Tense
6.5 Mood
6.6 Voice
6.7 Action Verbs and Linking Verbs
6.8 Modal Verbs
6.9 Consistent Tense and Sequence of Tenses
6.10 Phrasal Verbs
6.11 Verbals
7.0
DETERMINERS
8.0
NOUNS
8.1 Compound Nouns
8.2 Possessives
8.3 Collective Nouns
8.4 Count Nouns and Noncount Nouns
8.5 Definite and Indefinite Articles with Nouns
8.6 Plurals
8.7 Proper Nouns
8.8 “Verbing” Nouns
9.0
ABBREVIATIONS
9.1 Initialisms
9.2 Acronyms
9.3 Shortened and Clipped Forms
9.4 Portmanteaus
9.5 Pluralizing Abbreviations
10.0
PRONOUNS
10.1 Personal Pronouns
10.2 Subject and Object Pronouns
10.3 Possessives
10.4 Pronoun Agreement
10.5 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
10.6 Relative Pronouns
10.7 Demonstratives
10.8 Interrogative Pronouns
10.9 Indefinite Pronouns
10.10 Dummy Subjects
11.0
ADJECTIVES
11.1 Order of Adjectives
11.2 Comparatives and Superlatives
11.3 Proper Adjectives
11.4 Compound Adjectives
11.5 Indefinite Adjectives
11.6 Intensifiers
12.0
ADVERBS
12.1 Conjunctive Adverbs
12.2 Sentence Adverbs
13.0
PREPOSITIONS
14.0
CONJUNCTIONS
14.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
14.2 Correlative Conjunctions
14.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
15.0
INTERJECTIONS
16.0
PUNCTUATION
16.1 End-of-Sentence Punctuation
16.2 Joining Punctuation
16.3 Dividing Punctuation
16.4 All About Commas
17.0
USAGE AND STYLE TIPS
17.1 Word Usage
17.2 When Spell-Check Won’t Help
17.3 Grammar Conventions
17.4 Clichés and Wordiness
17.5 Grammar Myths
Glossary
Further Reading
Quiz Answer Keys
Practice Exercises and Quizzes
About the Author
A
s a linguist, an editor, and now a teacher—and a person who has
loved words her whole life—I love taking language apart to see how
it works, playing with it, and seeing what I can do with it. I spent
years in graduate school studying Slavic languages and then more
years in journalism; now I teach news editing at a university. I’m a
total geek about grammar, and I’m not ashamed to admit it. But I’m
definitely not a “grammar cop.” I like the label grammar cheerleader
a lot better, because grammar is a remarkable thing and a great tool
for us, so we should give it a hearty hoorah from time to time.
Having worked in both academia and journalism, I approach
language from several points of view: scholar, writer, and reader. I
recognize that living languages change, so grammar advice from a
century or even a couple of decades ago may not still be applicable
today. But I also recognize that when you’re trying to communicate
clearly, with credibility and authority, there’s a set of current
standards you need to follow so that readers focus on what you’re
saying rather than how you’re saying it. (Anyone who’s ever made a
typo on the Internet understands this.)
Teaching has given me new insight on grammar, though: Many
people are apprehensive about writing and public speaking because
they’re not confident in their grammar skills. The fact that some
guidebooks are complicated or snobby doesn’t help. So I’ve made it
a priority to “demystify” grammar:
It’s just a machine we all use already that occasionally has some
tricky parts. Once you learn the tricky parts, you can use that
machine like a pro.
A poster in my office reads, “Grammar is not a secret code.” It is
a code, sort of, but it’s certainly not a secret. Grammar is for
everyone, and everyone deserves to feel confident using it. The
bigger point is that I wrote this book not to scold, but to support. It’s
for writers who want to learn more about language and how to use
it according to current professional standards. Grammar doesn’t
have to be confusing and it doesn’t have to be technical. It does
take some practice—that’s what this book offers—and with practice,
you’ll be perfect.
First, figure out what your goal is. That is, why are you writing? Are
you writing to inform? Enlighten? Persuade? Entertain? Explore?
Then, figure out what your point is. Are you writing a news story
about something that happened in your city? An analysis of imagery
in a novel? A summary of research findings? An argument for or
against a particular policy or viewpoint? Once you determine that,
stay focused.
Next, figure out who your audience is. Are you writing for the
general public? A scholarly audience? Children? Experts in a
particular field? Your peers? People whose first language is not
English? Your audience will determine how formal you want your
writing to be, what sort of vocabulary you will use, and how complex
your sentences and paragraphs will be.
Then, figure out what information you need to include and how
much detail you need to go into. Gather your facts and analyze
them. Always cite your sources!
Last, plan your composition. You don’t have to do a traditional
outline (though you may want to—lots of people find them helpful).
Some people write each piece of information on an index card or a
PowerPoint slide, to make it easy to put them in order and move
things around. Some people jot down a brief list of topics in the
order they want to write about them. There’s no one right way to
plan, but you should plan, so you know where you’re going and how
you’re getting there.
You don’t have to start at the beginning, but you should at least
start by writing a summary sentence. Think of it as the “elevator
pitch” or the “headline” for what you’re writing: It sums up what the
point is and why your readers should care. If the rest of your plan
doesn’t match this summary, that’s a red flag. It means you’ll need
to figure out whether to change your point or change your
information.
The first paragraph is the entry into your composition. It needs to
be clear and engaging, and it also needs to give the reader an idea
of what’s to come. You want to be specific about what your topic is,
but don’t get bogged down in details in that first paragraph.
Some people write down the details first, then go back and write
the transitions and summaries. Others write everything in order. Find
what works for you, but when you’re ready to write, write. Write it
all down—you’ll revise it later. It’s much easier to change something
you’ve already written than to fill a blank page, so the sooner you
get rid of the blank page, the better.
If you get stuck, talk it through. Find someone you know who’s
written for the audience you’re writing for—or perhaps someone who
is a member of that audience—and tell them about what you’re
writing. Explain why you’re writing. Talk about the interesting things
you’ve learned. Listen to any questions they might have.
2.4 Structure
■ Start with something good: You want to catch and hold the
reader’s attention. Be clear about what your point is and be as
interesting as you can be.
■ Stay focused on the point: Don’t wander off on a tangent that
doesn’t support or relate to your point. But, you might say, that
tangent is really interesting! If you find yourself saying that, think
about this: If it’s that interesting, why isn’t it your main point?
Maybe you need to revisit your plan (which is fine—writers do it
all the time).
■ Support your point with examples and facts. Even if you
are writing an opinion, having data or specific examples to back it
up makes your argument stronger. And always credit your
sources.
■ Flow from one idea into the next, both logically and through
use of transitions. You want the reader to stay with you and
understand the progression of ideas and information.
2.5 Transitions
When you’re linking ideas together, transitions are what help you
lead the reader from one idea to the next. They make your writing
flow smoothly and allow the reader to follow your train of thought.
Transition words or phrases can begin a sentence to tie that idea
to the previous idea. Sometimes you might need a whole sentence
or even a whole (brief) paragraph to transition between ideas. The
important thing is not to swerve from one idea to the next without a
transition.
Transitions usually fall into one of these categories:
TRANSITIONS
Think about the transition categories and then choose the
correct answer.
1. Which of these transitions sets up a contrast?
a. however
b. likewise
c. second
2. Which of these transitions sets up an example?
a. additionally
b. specifically
c. despite
3. Which of these transitions sets up an addition?
a. furthermore
b. although
c. due to
4. Which of these transitions sets up a result?
a. also
b. indeed
c. in effect
5. Which of these transitions sets up a conclusion?
a. first
b. to sum up
c. on the other hand
■ Wordiness: Why use five words when one would do? Excess
verbiage doesn’t make you sound smart, it just makes your
writing a slog to read. Too many words and not enough
substance will distract or bore readers, neither of which you
want.
■ Clichés: If something’s a cliché, it’s so well known that it’s lost
its “oomph.” You want your writing to be fresh and engaging, not
tired and dull. This doesn’t mean to never use clichés, but to stop
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runojen syy kaikki tyyni. Lue jotakin muuta minulle, jotain vähän
iloisempaa."
"Hän hourailee."
"Ei, viime yönä ensi kerran, mutta nyt paljon kamalammin kuin
silloin."
"Kuinka on, veli, onko sinusta tullut käytöllinen mies?" kysyi sairas
äkisti ja katsoi minuun niin selvästi ja ajattelevasti, että minä
tahtomattani säpsähdin ja yritin vastaamaan hänelle, mutta hän
jatkoi heti: "Minä, ystäväni, en ole tullut käytölliseksi mieheksi…
Minkäpä sille voi? Minä olen syntynyt haaveksijaksi…
Haaveksiminen, mielikuvitus… Mitä on mielikuvitus? Sohakevitsin
talonpoika [eräs henkilö Gogolin romaanissa: 'Kuolleet sielut'], se on
mielikuvitus… Voi voi!"
Me istuuduimme.
"Entä vanhempanne?"
"Äitini on kuollut, mutta isäni elää yhä vielä Pietarissa. Veljelläni on
paikka virastossa, ja Vanja asuu heidän tykönänsä."
"Ja puolisonne?"
"Eikö ole reipas pikku tyttö minulla?" jatkoi Sofia Nikolajevna. "Hän
ei pelkää mitään, ja hyvin sukkela hän on lukemaan, saatan minä
sanoa hänen kiitokseksensa."
"Mitä, lapseni?"
"Ei, ei mitään, minä sanon sitte perästä päin."
"Hän on kuollut."
"Olenko minä nähnyt häntä, äiti?" kysyi pikku tyttö hiljaa kuiskaten.
"Ei, et ole, Lydia. Ah, mikä vahinko", kertoi Sofia Nikolajevna vielä
kerran.
"Niin, sellainen hän oli", lausuin viimeksi, "se mies, joka nyt on
mennyt pois ilman kiitosta, huomiota ja ihmisten hyväksymistä! Ja
ehkäpä ei maksa vaivaakaan valitella tuota puutetta. Sillä mitäpä
merkitsee ihmisten kiitos? Mutta minusta tuntuu tuskalliselta, jopa
loukkaavaltakin, että sellaisen miehen, jolla on sydän niin täynnä
rakkautta ja hellyyttä, piti kuolla, saamatta kertaakaan maistaa
vastarakkauden autuutta, voimatta herättää hellää myötätuntoisuutta
yhdenkään naisen sydämmessä, joka olisi ollut kyllin arvokas
hänelle. Olkoonpa niinkin, että mies sellainen, kuin me muut, ei
myöskään saa maistaa tätä autuutta, hän ei sitä ansaitsekaan, mutta
Pasinkov! Ja enkö minä ole elämässäni tavannut monta sataa
miestä, joita ei käy millään tavalla verrata häneen, mutta joita
kuitenkin nuoret, jalot naiset ovat rakastaneet! Täytyykö viimeinkin
uskoa, että muutamia vikoja, esimerkiksi itserakkautta tai
kevytmielisyyttä, täytyy välttämättä olla miehessä, ennenkuin nainen
voi kiinnittää sydämmensä häneen? Taikka pelkääkö rakkaus
täydellisyyttä, minä tarkoitan: inhimillistä, täällä maan päällä
mahdollista täydellisyyttä, katsooko se sitä vieraaksi ja
vaaralliseksi?"
"Sentähden, että minä sen tiedän, että minä tiedän sen ihan
varmaan."
Sofia Nikolajevna aikoi sanoa jotakin, mutta pysyi vaiti. Hän näytti
taistelevan sisällistä taistelua itsensä kanssa.
"Hän juuri."
"Ei, ei mitään."
"Vai niin, no, sitte ei ole muuta tällä kertaa; saat mennä nyt."
"Mikä tyttö?"
"Kyllä hän piti hänestä aina. Ja tyttö, niin, kun hän sai tietää, että
herra oli kuollut, oli hän joutua surusta aivan mielettömäksi. Muuten
ei ole mitään sanottavaa hänestä. Hyvä ja kelpo tyttö hän on."
"On."
"Sen hän kirjoitti minulle", sanoi hän "kun hän vielä oli
Novgorodissa ja ryhtyi opettamaan minua lukemaan ja kirjoittamaan.
Katsokaa toisiakin kirjeitä. On siellä niitä Siperiastakin. Olkaa hyvä ja
lukekaa ne."
Minä luin kaikki kirjeet. Ne olivat kaikki kirjoitetut hyvin
ystävällisesti, jopa hellästikin. Ensimmäisessä Siperiasta lähetetyssä
kirjeessä nimitti Pasinkov Mariaa paraaksi ystäväkseen, lupasi
lähettää hänelle rahaa Siperian matkaa varten ja lopussa olivat
seuraavat rivit:
"Kyliä näen, että hän oli hyvin rakastunut teihin", sanoin minä
antaessani tytölle kirjeet takaisin.
"Niin, kyllä hän piti paljon minusta", vastasi Maria kainosti ja kätki
kirjeet huolellisesti taskuunsa, kyynelien sill'aikaa hiljaa juostessa
pitkin hänen poskiansa. "Minä luotin aina häneen. Jos Jumala olisi
antanut hänen elää, hän ei suinkaan olisi hyljännyt minua. Antakoon
Jumala hänelle ijankaikkisen autuuden taivaan valtakunnassa."
Maria huokasi.