NDT&E International 132 (2022) 102731

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

NDT and E International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ndteint

Thermosonic inspection of carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites

using an airborne haptic ultrasonic phased array
R.L. Watson a, D.R. Billson b, D.A. Hutchins b, F. Ciampa a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
b
School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper reports the development of a contactless non-destructive evaluation technique using an air-coupled
Non-destructive evaluation haptic ultrasonic phased array to induce thermosonic frictional heating in damaged carbon fibre reinforced
Thermosonics polymer composites. Haptic ultrasonic systems consist of controllable, narrowband, and high-power piezoelectric
Ultrasonics
transducer arrays that are capable of electronically steering and shaping the ultrasonic beam on the surface of
Infrared imaging
Composite materials
test samples. Localised thermal images of the damaged area were observed using an infrared camera. It was
Phased array found that the intensity of the thermosonic heating reduced with increased distances between the ultrasonic
excitation location and the damage. This approach allowed the ultrasonic focal point to be moved across the
sample to identify the areas of damage, without moving either the array or the infrared camera, thus significantly
decreasing the time needed for inspection.

1. Introduction defects, both for reasons of safety and for reducing the downtime of a
component or structure. Development of techniques which allow rapid
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composites make up today in-situ examination and assessment of composite structures in a wide
a significant proportion of modern aerospace structures, and their use is variety of industries would be very useful.
increasing in the automotive sector. The high stiffness and strength of A wide range of NDE techniques are in used for the assessment of
CFRP materials coupled with weight savings and fatigue resistance are composite materials, including acoustic emission, ultrasonics (both
driving this increasing use. For example, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner uses linear and nonlinear), digital image correlation, x-ray radiography, and
composites to account for nearly 50% of the airframe weight [1], infrared (IR) thermography [5,6]. However, these methods tend to
whereas the Airbus A350 XWB wing design is predominantly made from require either continuous monitoring of a structure or removal of the
composites and the plane is 53% composite overall [2]. Use of composite parts for inspection. Automated techniques exist that scan newly man­
materials in these safety-critical applications requires rigorous in­ ufactured pieces such as wing spars in ultrasonic immersion baths for
spections for defects or damage to ensure safe operation. defects, and wings can be inspected using rolling contact or water im­
Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) of CFRP and composite materials in mersion systems whilst still in the production facility. Conventional
general is therefore essential, both during their production and when in ultrasonic testing using contact arrays and a couplant is a widely used
service. Significant failures may occur from manufacturing defects or procedure for imaging composite structures, but requires multiple test
damage sustained during service [3]. A wide number of types of damage locations to investigate a large component. Air-coupled ultrasonic
of interest in composites includes low velocity impacts, high velocity scanning overcomes the need for water immersion or the use of couplant
impacts, static overload, fatigue, moisture ingress, lightning strikes or [7], but is limited by acoustic impedance mismatch at the air/sample
overheating [4]. One of the difficulties with impact damage in com­ boundary and the significant loss of energy at the interface.
posites is that significant subsurface damage may be present with no Current ultrasonic inspection methods use linear ultrasound with the
visible or only barely visible surface damage present. This requires system either in a send/receive mode with two transducers arrange­
assessment of the entire volume of the composite to ensure it is safe for ment, or a pitch-catch with a single transducer looking at reflections to
use. It is thus essential that NDE methods are available to detect such identify when damage is present. These linear operations analyse the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Ciampa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2022.102731
Received 4 June 2022; Received in revised form 28 July 2022; Accepted 24 August 2022
Available online 3 September 2022
0963-8695/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

difference between the received signal and the one which was sent to ultrasonic frequency was used that was able to generate localised ther­
look for ultrasonic changes indicative of any damage. The signal from mosonic clapping, especially if it could be localised and scanned over the
small amounts of damage in linear ultrasound is typically small in sample. Solodov et al. [27] have shown both modelling and experi­
relation to the transmitted signal. This makes it a challenge to detect and mental results to determine local defect resonance frequencies of
identify the damage. For this reason, nonlinear ultrasound has an machined flat-bottomed holes in polymers. This use of modelling to
advantage in some situation where a signal at a different frequency is predict local defect resonance frequencies allowed the use of lower en­
detected due to nonlinearity at the defect [8]. Nonlinear ultrasonics has ergy air-coupled ultrasound to observe thermosonic effects with trans­
been suggested as an approach that could be useful in some situations for ducers centred around the resonance frequency.
the detection of damage in composites [9]. One limiting factor in many This paper describes an approach whereby piezoelectric air-coupled
inspections is the need for couplant [8], which has been shown to impact arrays are used as the excitation of composite CFRP samples. These ar­
on the accuracy of some measurements [10–13]. Removing the need for rays use a set of resonant piezoelectric 40 kHz transducers as ultrasonic
contact with the surface would thus be of advantage. sources, from which focussed and narrowband high energy excitation
For these reasons, researchers have been investigating other tech­ can be generated, thus reducing the problem caused by the high
niques for the inspection of composites. One of these is thermography reflectivity at the air/sample interface. Use of these phased ultrasonic
[14], which is an inherently rapid process with the ability to test large arrays allows the focussed excitation to be electronically controlled
areas investigated in a single measurement without disassembly or including swept over the sample surface and the intensity and modu­
contact with the surface. Traditional thermography works by applying lation varied, while the arrays themselves remain stationary, speeding
heat to objects under study and measuring the heat propagation through up the process of sample examination. Such arrays have been developed
the samples using an IR camera [14]. Defects can modify heat conduc­ for use in haptics, which is concerned with the generation of artificial
tion, so that damaged areas can be identified. It is known, however, that touch sensations through the application of forces or vibration [28]. The
orientation of defects and their in-depth location influence detectability use of an array to produce a mid-air tactile response was first presented
[15]. by Iwamoto et al. [29], who showed that phase delays between array
An alternative approach is thermosonics, which uses the nonlinear elements could be used to focus their array. Hoshi et al. [30] also used
response of damaged material to the applied ultrasonic excitation to this approach to control the position of the focal point in 3D space using
generate frictional heat at damage interfaces. Such heat can then be constructive interference. Note that ultrasonic arrays for use in air have
detected via IR imaging cameras as a change in the surface temperature. also been reported at low amplitudes, for use in various activities such as
Thermosonics has been shown to detect defects which may not be found imaging, levitation, particle manipulation and other applications,
by traditional thermography, especially if the defect has only a minor [31–34].
effect on heat flow [16,17]. The self-heating of the damaged area in This applied excitation will generate a normal force at the surface at
thermosonics allows rapid identification of the location of damage and the focal point on the surface of the sample. Depending on the size of the
allows for more detailed inspection by other routes if required [18]. focal region and the excitation frequency, a range of elastic modes can
Thermosonics has been used in previous work to monitor the efficacy of be generated in the composite sample (assumed here to be in the form of
metal bonding [19] and to inspect aluminium components subject to a parallel-sided thin plate). Predominantly these are likely to be both
fatigue loading [20], as well as electrical connections in silicon-based longitudinal waves that travel through the thickness of the sample and
electronic substrates [21]. Thermosonics has also been used to inspect guided waves (e.g., the A0 Lamb wave mode) that will radiate laterally
composites [22], e.g., by using mechanical vibration induced by a me­ away from the source. Longitudinal waves are likely to be most effi­
chanical shaker to give amplitude modulated lock-in vibro-thermog­ ciently generated by the focused air-coupled excitation source, provided
raphy [23]. Another common approach is the use of an ultrasonic horn it is thick enough to support them, although shear waves and other
to excite the sample [24,25]. Both approaches require the vibration guided wave modes could also be generated at lower efficiencies. It
source to be in contact with the sample surface. would be expected that the induced vibrations will be of greatest
The wave field generated by an ultrasonic horn - or any other magnitude at the location of the focal region of the array – even for
contact-type mechanical excitation method - generates vibrations that at guided waves this would be the case. In the experiments to be described
locations of damage result in nonlinear asynchronous motion on either here, the A0 Lamb mode is most likely to be generated, as the plate
side of a defect such as a crack. These asynchronous vibrations in the thickness was much less than the wavelength of longitudinal waves in
material result in a range of motion typically referred to as clapping, the composite material. This localized reaction, and the scanning of the
where the surfaces of the damage rub together and generate heat focal point of the array across the sample surface, would allow multiple
through friction [16]. This localised heating is what makes the tech­ rapid thermosonic measurements to be made in a single experiment.
nique so powerful, as only the damaged portion results in significant This increase in speed of measurement, without the need to relocate
friction and localised heating. This localised response can also highlight equipment, could make this a suitable system for a wide range of non-
damage which may not be visible due its orientation with traditional contact NDE measurements.
thermographic techniques. The selectivity of thermosonics as a NDE
technique makes it an area of much interest in the safety-critical 2. Experiment
investigation of CFRP materials.
However, there is still the problem that contact is usually made to the Samples of 3 mm thick CFRP composite plates of 250 mm by 230 mm
sample by the ultrasound generation system. For this reason, the current size were obtained from Easy Composites (Stoke on Trent, United
authors have investigated a new air-coupled haptic ultrasonic excitation Kingdom). Each sample had one side with a gloss finish the other as a
system for thermosonics. This removes the need for direct contact with peel-ply matte. The peel-ply matte side was used for infrared detection
the sample, allowing for a more rapid thermal inspection. The primary of thermosonically-induced temperature rises to avoid the presence of
challenge with using airborne ultrasound for insonifying a sample is the unwanted reflected light from ambient sources [Fig. 1(a)]. Ultrasonic
poor efficiency of energy transfer between air and the solid material. excitation was also on the same side of the sample. This is an important
This is dependent upon the relative differences between the acoustic point – most NDE inspections are needed as single-sided measurements,
impedance of air and that of the composite. Zalameda et al. [26] pro­ as access to both sides is often not possible. One of the sheets [Fig. 1(b)]
posed the use of air-coupled acoustic signals at frequencies of up to 2 was damaged using a 13.5 mm ball bearing and a manual hydraulic
kHz and at very high intensities (105 dBA) and were able to observe press, so that ball bearing travelled 6.75 mm (the radius) compressing
thermosonic effects in composite core materials. This very high level of and deforming the sample against a soft support structure causing
incident sound intensity would, however, not be necessary if a higher visible damage on the matte surface, the deformed surface was then

2
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

Fig. 1. Surface photographs of CFRP samples (a) as received, (b) after the introduction of a single point of damage, and (c) after the introduction of five points of
damage plate. These are the matte side of the CFRP samples; the ball bearings used to case the damage acted on the other (gloss) side of the sample.

pressed back to flat. Another sample [Fig. 1(c)] was damaged with a
range of ball bearing sizes (13.5, 12, 10, 8 and 6 mm) in the same way.
The multiple damage locations were placed approximately 40 mm from
the centre. Photographs of the damage on the matte surface are shown
both before and after damage was introduced in Fig. 1.
The apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 2(a), and the ultrasonic
source used in these experiments (an Ultrahaptics Stratos Explore ul­
trasonic array) is shown in Fig. 2(b). Fig. 3 is a photograph of the
experimental set up, with a CFRP composite plate containing damage
shown in situ on a foam cushioning layer.
This ultrasonic array generated a powerful focused ultrasound
response, having been designed originally for use in haptic systems. It
consisted of an array of 256 (16 × 16) by 167 mm square piezoelectric
airborne transducers operating at an excitation frequency of 40 kHz. The Fig. 3. Photograph of the experimental apparatus.
array was controlled by software which allowed the ultrasonic beam to
operate with a focal spot at multiple point on the sample surface which defect, the two sides of the defect react differently to the vibration
was situated at a distance of 300 mm from the array. The 40 kHz signal resulting in rubbing and friction generating local heating. Excitation
produced by the array could be adjusted in both intensity and modula­ scanned across the sample through control of the array allows a range of
tion, and in our case was a signal with a duty cycle of 200/100 ms on/off points on a sample under inspection to be inspected without moving
which was repeated for the duration of the excitation period. The either the apparatus or the sample.
strongly pulsed nature was used to locally excite the sample through the Infrared imaging was carried out with an FLIR A6571 camera with an
thickness. As mentioned earlier, A0 mode Lamb waves would be the Indium Antimonide sensor producing a 640 × 512 pixel image with a
most likely elastic mode to have been generated, but the measurements spectral range of 3–5 μm, a thermal sensitivity of 20 mK, and the ca­
focussed on locally exciting specific regions of the composite surface, so pacity to record data at rates of up to 125 Hz. It was able to detect the
to observe any thermosonic local increase in temperature from the temperature changes of over 0.05 ◦ C due to thermosonic heating. In the
presence of damage at that location (and where the A0 amplitude would work presented here, image capture was undertaken at 10 Hz over
be at its highest before dissipating laterally along the composite plate). longer time periods to record the ultrasonically induced heating on the
The advantages that this array were (i) the high intensity ultrasonic matte sample surface, as shown in Fig. 2(a). Research IR software
output and (ii) the fact that the focal point of the ultrasound could be (Teledyne FLIR LLC, Wilsonville, Oregon, USA) was used to initially
moved in a programmable manner. This ability to move the focal point view the results and to output images and movies of the recorded frames.
allowed scanning of the thermosonic excitation across the sample. High Subsequent processing with Matlab highlighted the changes in temper­
intensity ultrasound results in general vibration in the sample and of the ature that occurred during ultrasonic excitation. The temperature of

Fig. 2. (a) Diagram showing the set-up of the array

and infrared camera to undertake thermosonic mea­
surements. The 300 mm separation between the array
and the CFRP composite plate is to ensure that the
required angle of the infrared camera allows mea­
surement of the entire surface of the sample to take
place. (b) Photograph of the Ultrahaptics Stratos
Explore array used in this work. The image shows the
array in a frame to allow it to be held above samples
without obscuring any of the array elements. The
active area of the array was 167 mm × 167 mm.

3
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

each pixel in the image at the start of the ultrasonic excitation was
subtracted from the corresponding pixel in all subsequent frames,
providing a measure of the changes in temperature during excitation.
This processing showed clear local heating during excitation. Upon
ceasing excitation, the local heating at the excitation site was observed
to decrease, gradually returning to the surrounding CFRP temperature.
Thermosonics results were recorded using a standard procedure using a
“clapper board” in the form of a warm object passed in front of the lens
to indicate the start of the experiment. Excitation with ultrasound from
the haptic array then took place over a 20–30 s time duration, so as to
allow sufficient time for local heating to be observed. The ‘clapper
board’ was then passed in front of the lens a second time, and the
incident ultrasonic signal was then switched off. IR data was then
collected for another 10–40 s to record the cooling of the sample before
the recording was stopped. The main ultrasonic output of the array was
limited to 40 kHz due to the array being composed of piezoelectric
airbourne transducers. The piezoelectric elements are resonant and their
dimensions control their principal emission frequency. With this
resonance-based property, harmonics are also generated. Fig. 4 shows
the results from a measurement taken in air, where the 40 kHz principal
frequency as well as the second and third harmonics at 80 kHz and 120
kHz respectively can be observed. The power from the array was
measured with a Bruel and Kjaer calibrated ultrasonic sensitive micro­
phone and found to be a linear response to variation in the power setting
and determined to be 68.9 Pa at 100%.

3. Results and discussion

For an undamaged sample, application of the 40 kHz signal with the

200 ms/100 ms on/off duty cycle for a 25 s exposure resulted in the
image shown in Fig. 5(a). Note that the temperature values of each pixel
in the frame had the initial temperature subtracted from them to show
localised heating. It can be observed that there was no obvious effect,
with a reasonably uniform temperature profile throughout. Without any
damage to allow clapping at the surfaces of the damage to occur, no
localised thermosonically generated heating was observed. With the
damaged sample containing only one defect [Fig. 5(b)], heating was
then observed directly, with the array focussed on the damage. With the
sample containing five defects, the sample was excited at the central
defect, but localised heating at the other four regions of damage can be
Fig. 5. (a) Thermosonic image of the undamaged sample subjected to pulsed
observed in Fig. 5(c). This indicates that a response is also being
excitation. No local heating was observed with undamaged samples. (b) As in
observed at some distance from the focal spot region, but only where (a), but now the focal spot was applied at the location of the single defect for
the sample with one defect only. The thermosonically-generated heated loca­
tion has been highlighted by a white ring. (c) Results for the sample with 5
defects, but with the focal spot located above the central one.

there was a defect. Note that in all three cases, removal of the ultrasonic
stimulation led to cooling of the samples back to ambient temperatures.
Fig. 5(a) confirms that thermosonic heating was not due to general
local heating of the CFRP substrate at the point of excitation. The best
excitation of a detectable IR signature and a temperature rise at the
surface was shown to be when the focal spot was directly above the
damage location – this was needed to induce the greatest degree of
“clapping” of the defect surfaces at 40 kHz. Further, Fig. 5(b) seemed to
indicate that little heating was detected at distances further away from
the defect, as would be expected, when excitation was directly above it.
To investigate this behaviour further, the focal region of the array was
moved away from the area of damage on the sample containing only one
defect. These results are shown in Fig. 6, where two different locations of
the array focal point on the sample surface is identified by the black
spots, both being at some distance from the known defect location. The
signature of the defect is visible in both cases but is much weaker than
when the focal spot was directly above the defect.
Fig. 4. Normalized frequency spectra output of the array. The 40 kHz driving Fig. 7 shows the apparent temperature difference of individual pixels
frequency is accompanied by the second and third harmonics at 80 kHz and over the duration of ultrasonic excitation. The apparent temperature as
120 kHz.

4
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

Fig. 7. Apparent temperature difference with time from starting ultrasonic

excitation of the haptic array. This data is from the CFRP sample containing
only one defect. These traces correspond to: blue solid line – the temperature
measured above the defect and coincident with the excitation location [from
Fig. 5(b)]; red dashed line – the temperature measured at the damage location
(within the white circle of Fig. 6(a)) but with the array focused at the black
spot; yellow dotted line – the temperature at the location of the focus of the
array in Fig. 6(a). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 6. Demonstration of a weaker thermosonic signature when the excitation

was not directly at the defect location. The array focal point of excitation is
indicated by the black spot in each case. The resulting thermosonic heating is
highlighted within the white ring. The excitation was moved diagonally (a) up
and right and (b) diagonally down and left from location of the defect.

measured by the IR camera will be affected by differences in emissivity

across the sample surface. To overcome this variation, the difference
from an initial apparent temperature measured at the start of ultrasonic
excitation has been plotted. As it can be observed, the pixels with a
0.1 ◦ C rise or greater are observed with the focal spot located at the
defect location (blue trace), data from Fig. 5(b). The other two other
traces that remain between 0 ◦ C and – 0.05 ◦ C were taken from Fig. 6(b).
The first (dotted red line) shows a small rise in temperature at the defect
location when the excitation was some distance away (the black spot).
This shows that the array focal point was generating some small increase
in surface temperature above the defect. The lower trace, measured at
the black spot excitation location in Fig. 6(b), shows very little surface
temperature increase with time, as would be expected. These tempera­ Fig. 8. The impact of array power level on the time and temperature change at
ture increases with time confirm that thermosonic heating requires the the defect when focussed on the single 13.5 mm defect.
presence of damage, but also that it can be excited at some distance from
the damage to produce defect signatures at the defect location.
magnitude of the apparent temperature difference also decreases with
To investigate the impact the power level from the array has upon
lower applied power. All of these traces are from the same single pixel on
the thermosonic response the power of the array was varied. Fig. 8
the sample studied without moving the sample or equipment between
shows the increasing time taken to reach a maximum apparent tem­
experiments with the range of applied powers. It is interesting to note
perature difference from excitation with lower power settings. The
that the 100% (full power) setting produces a lower maximum apparent
continued rise in apparent temperature difference with longer excitation
temperature difference than 90% but begins to heat up more rapidly.
times indicates that the length of excitation is another factor to be
The difference between 60% and 40% has a similar trend with more
considered when further developing thermosonic techniques. The
rapid initial heating at higher power. At 30% applied power, it can be
reduced power excitations were run for longer periods to determine if
observed that no heating trend is visible and insufficient power has been
there was a time dependent element to the thermosonic heating during
applied generate a measurable thermosonic response. This level of
excitation. Shorter times were used with higher power as these provided
power clearly shows that the point at which the excitation intensity is
adequate heating to identify the nature of thermosonic heating. The
insufficient to generate clapping with a single frequency application at

5
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

40 kHz.
The level of thermosonic temperature increases directly above the
damage area was now studied as the array focal spot was moved to
known distances from the defect location, and the excitation switched
on. This was undertaken at 100% power output from the array at dis­
tances of 20, 28, 40 and 60 mm. In general, temperature increases are
greater for smaller distances of the focal region from the defect, as it
might be expected.
The measurements at 20 and 28 mm are at a similar level to the 80%
power result shown in Fig. 8. Note also that there was an approximately
20% power drop in the behaviour of the response for each 20 mm moved
away from the damage. This diminution in the level of heating is to be
expected. The energy travelling through the sample away from the array
focus will decline due to the material properties. This reduction in en­
ergy arriving at the damage results in lower vibration levels and hence
less induced heating through reduced clapping action within the dam­
age. This lower intensity of heating in the area of excitation when at a
distance to the focal point of the array is consistent with results from
contact ultrasonic horn studies published by other authors [16,25]. The
presence of a measurable thermosonic effect when the array was focused
Fig. 9. The impact on temperature increase cause by moving the excitation
a distance away from an area of damage confirms that scanning of the
focus away from the region of damage, and studying the temperature rise at the
array across a sample at predetermined intervals is likely to be a viable
defect location.
technique to investigate an unknown sample. A linear scan through the
defect, for example, would excite the defects present both within the

Fig. 10. Shows the apparent temperature difference

increase for excitation of the sample shown in Fig. 1
(c). The white circles highlight the damage locations
on the sample. (a) No excitation unprocessed image
showing apparent temperature with the defects
visible. (b) Excited at the centre (13.5 mm) defect. (c)
Excited at the top centre (12 mm) defect. (d) Excited
at the centre-right (6 mm) defect. (e) Excited at the
centre-left (8 mm) defect. (f) Excited at the bottom
centre (10 mm) defect. Red and yellow pixels indicate
higher temperatures. (For interpretation of the refer­
ences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)

6
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

focal region and the area immediately surrounding it, making them
visible with an IR camera. This has been done and can be seen in Fig. 10
(c), (b) and (f) in sequence for a scan down the figure starting at the top
with the excitation moving down.
A final set of measurements studied the sample with the 5 damage
sites [Fig. 1(c)], with the array focussed on each of the damage locations.
The range of damage sizes was from 6 to 13.5 mm in diameter. With the
array focus located on each damage local heating for each can be
observed in Figs. 10 and 11.
Fig. 9 shows that when the array focus is moved across the sample
containing a range of damage sizes, a thermosonic response at each
defect location is measured. It can be noted that with a 40 mm separa­
tion between the central defect and those surrounding it, some in­
dications might be expected based on the results of Fig. 8. This is most
clearly visible in Fig. 9(b), so that with excitation at the central damage,
the surrounding damage locations also exhibit thermosonic heating.
Excitation of the central defect can also be observed in Fig. 8 (c)–(f)
when excited at the locations of the surrounding defects.
The sizes of the damage created with the varying sized ball bearings
[Fig. 1(c)] vary significantly, with the 13.5 mm damage being more than
Fig. 11. A plot for the apparent temperature with respect to time for the focal
double the size of the damage from the 6 mm ball bearing as shown in
points on the different sized defects presented in Fig. 9.
Fig. 1(c). Fig. 11 shows that despite the significant disparities in the size
of the damage in the sample studied all of the damage locations show a
similar level of heating for the same array conditions. This similar level identification against the background noise in Figs. 5, 6 and 10 for both
of heating suggests that this method would allow even smaller defects to human and automated defect detection is being undertaken. For
be identified with a similar level of thermosonically generated apparent example, principal component analysis (PCA) - that is typically used for
temperature rise. With smaller damage locations the number of pixels background noise removal of thermal data - and lock-in techniques are
experiencing a thermosonically generated apparent temperature rise being investigated to achieve this.”
would reduce and make them more difficult to detect and measure. As
such smaller damage locations may require the camera to be focussed on Author Statement
a smaller area. This could be achieved by either locating the camera
closer to the sample or the use of a more powerful zoom lens on the Richard Watson: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Inves­
inspection to focus the IR camera more closely around the focal point to tigation, Writing- Original draft preparation. Duncan Billson: Concep­
assist with identifying smaller defects with a greater number of excited tualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing - Review & Editing.
pixels captured at the thermosonically-excited damage. David Hutchins: Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Francesco Ciampa:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acqui­
sition, Writing - Review & Editing.
4. Conclusions

The application of a pulsed 40 kHz ultrasound signal from a Declaration of competing interest
commercially available air-coupled array applied to a damaged CFRP
sample has resulted in thermosonic heating being observed. The level of The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
the thermosonic response is dependent on both the distance from the lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
damage at which the array is focused and the incident power from the FC reports equipment, drugs, or supplies and travel were provided by
array. This results in a reduced level of heating as the array focus is the Leverhulme Trust.
moved away from the damage location. The haptic array allows elec­
tronic control of the focal point of the array to scan it across the sample. Acknowledgements
This, in conjunction with IR imaging, will allow the detection of damage
across a sample without contact. The need to make multiple measure­ FC acknowledges the Leverhulme Trust, award RPG-2019-303, for
ments in many locations as is the current practice to cover an entire supporting this research work. The authors would like to acknowledge
surface can be achieved with the use of an array to ensure all areas are the Engineering Build Space, Digital and Material Technologies Labo­
inspected. This development allows the use of an air-coupled array ratory, Frank Courtney and Engineering workshops at the University of
source and IR camera to make an entirely non-contact measurement to Warwick for use of their facilities and assistance with sample defect
determine if damage is present in a CFRP sample. This scanning ability preparation. Authors finally acknowledge Mr Ashvin Jeyakumar who
could allow large areas to be investigated more rapidly and effectively supported during the collection of thermal data.
than is currently possible. With Figs. 7 and 8 showing the increase in
both the rate of apparent temperature rise and final apparent tempera­ References
ture change due to thermosonic excitation focus being closer to the
[1] Heida JH, Platenkamp DJ. In-service inspection guidelines for composite aerospace
damage or applying more ultrasonic power a larger and hence more structures. In: Proceedings of the 18th world conference on nondestructive testing,
powerful array would also assist in making smaller defects clearly vol. 14; 2012.
visible. [2] Marsh G. Airbus A350 XWB update. Reinforc Plast 2010;54:20–4. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0034-3617(10)70212-5.
These results showing that the damage shows localized heating with
[3] Chapter 7 - Defects and damage and their role in the failure of polymer composites.
non-contact ultrasonic excitation at 40 kHz, which concurs with the Greenhalgh. In: Emile S, editor. Woodhead publishing series in composites science
existing literature on thermosonics. The use of an array source repre­ and engineering, ‘failure analysis and fractography of polymer composites’.
sents a significant development, with the electronic control of move­ Woodhead Publishing; 2009. p. 356–440. https://doi.org/10.1533/
9781845696818.356.
ment of the focal point across a sample being able to scan it and search [4] Baker AA, Jones R, Callinan RJ. Damage tolerance of graphite/epoxy composites.
for damage. Further development of this technique to enhance defect Compos Struct 1985;491:15–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-8223(85)90018-2.

7
R.L. Watson et al. NDT and E International 132 (2022) 102731

[5] Duchene P, Chaki S, Ayadi A, et al. A review of non-destructive techniques used for [21] Tomlinson WJ, Winkle RV, Blackmore LA. Effect of heat treatment on the shear
mechanical damage assessment in polymer composites. J Mater Sci 2018;53: strength and fracture modes of copper wire thermosonic ball bonds to Al-1% Si
7915–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2045-6. device metallization. 3. In: IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and
[6] Ciampa F, Mahmoodi P, Pinto F, Meo M. Recent advances of active infrared Manufacturing Technology, 13; 1990. p. 587–91. https://doi.org/10.1109/
thermography for non-destructive testing of aerospace components. Sensors 2018; 33.58864.
18(2):609. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18020609. [22] Fierro GPM, Ginzburg D, Ciampa F, Meo M. Imaging of barely visible impact
[7] Santos M, Santos J, Reis P, Amaro A. Ultrasonic C-scan techniques for the damage on a complex composite stiffened panel using a nonlinear ultrasound
evaluation of impact damage in CFRP. Mater Test 2021;63(2):131–7. https://doi. stimulated thermography approach. J Nondestr Eval 2017;36(4):69.
org/10.1515/mt-2020-0020. [23] Rantala J, Wu D, Busse G. Amplitude-modulated lock-in vibrothermography for
[8] Forsyth DS. Nondestructive testing of corrosion in the aerospace industry. In: NDE of polymers and composites. Res Nondestr Eval 1996;7:215–28. https://doi.
[Corrosion control in the aerospace industry], 111–130; 2009. 9781845693459. org/10.1007/BF01606389.
[9] Nagy Peter B. Fatigue damage assessment by nonlinear ultrasonic materials [24] Favro LD, Han X, Ouyang Z, Sun G, Sui H, Thomas RL. IR imaging of cracks excited
characterization. Ultrasonics 1998;36(1–5):375–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/ by an ultrasonic pulse. Proc. SPIE 4020 30 March 2000. https://doi.org/10.1117/
S0041-624X(97)00040-1. 12.381549. Thermosense XXII.
[10] Theobald P, Zeqiri B, Avison J. Couplants and their influence on AE sensor [25] Han X, Favro LD, Thomas RL. Detecting cracks in teeth using ultrasonic excitation
sensitivity. J Acoust Emiss 2008;26:91–7. and infrared imaging. Proc SPIE Biomed. Optacoustic. 15 June 2001. https://doi.
[11] Al-Khafaji SFA. The effect of coupling media on the pulse velocity of concrete”. org/10.1117/12.429316.
University of Leeds; 2017. [26] Zalameda JN, Winfree JP, Yost WT. Air coupled acoustic thermography (acat)
[12] Castaings M, Cawley P, Farlow R, Hayward G. Single sided inspection of composite inspection technique. AIP Conf Proc 2008;975:467–74. https://doi.org/10.1063/
materials using air coupled ultrasound. J Nondestr Eval 1998;17:37–45. https:// 1.2902697.
doi.org/10.1023/A:1022632513303. [27] Solodov I, Rahammer M, Derusova D, BusseG. Highly-efficient and noncontact
[13] Stoessel R, Krohn N, Pfleiderer K, Busse G. Air-coupled ultrasound inspection of vibro-thermography via local defect resonance. Quantitative InfraRed
various materials. Ultrasonics 2002;40:159–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041- Thermography J 2015;12:98–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/
624X(02)00130-0. 17686733.2015.1026018.
[14] Maldague XPV. [Nondestructive evaluation of materials by infrared [28] Culbertson H, Schorr SB, Okamura AM. Haptics: the present and future of artificial
thermography]. Springer London, Limited; 1993. p. 1–22. https://doi.org/ touch sensation. Annual Rev Control Robotic Autonomous Syst 2018;1(1):
10.1007/978-1-4471-1995-1. 385–409. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-control-060117-105043.
[15] Avdelidis NP, Hawtin BC, Almond DC. Transient thermography in the assessment [29] Iwamoto T, Tatezono M, Shinoda H. Non-contact method for producing tactile
of defects of aircraft composites” NDT&E International36; 2003. p. 433–9. https:// sensation using airborne ultrasound. 08. In: inProc. 6th Int.Conf. Haptics:
doi.org/10.1016/S0963-8695(03)00052-5. Perception, Devices Scenarios, ser. EuroHaptics; 2008. p. 504–13. https://doi.org/
[16] Han X, Favro LD, Ouyang Z, Thomas RL. Thermosonics: detecting cracks and 10.1007/978-3-540-69057-3_64.
adhesion defects using ultrasonic excitation and infrared imaging. J Adhes 2001;76 [30] Hoshi T, Takahashi M, Iwamoto T, Shinoda H. Noncontact tactile display based on
(2):151–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218460108029622. radiation pressure of airborne ultrasound. 3. In: IEEE Transactions on Haptics. 3;
[17] Dionysopoulos D, Fierro GPM, Meo M, Ciampa F. Imaging of barely visible impact July-Sept. 2010. p. 155–65. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2010.4.
damage on a composite panel using nonlinear wave modulation thermography. [31] Neild A, Hutchins DA, Robertson TJ, Billson DR. Imaging using air-coupled
NDT E Int 2018;95:9–16. polymer-membrane capacitive ultrasonic arrays. Ultrasonics 2004;42:859–64.
[18] Balageas D, Maldague X, Burleigh D, Vavilov VP, Oswald-Tranta B, Roche J-M, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultras.2004.01.065.
Pradere C, Carlomagno GM. Thermal (IR) and other NDT techniques for improved [32] Watanabe A, Hasegawa K, Abe Y. Contactless fluid manipulation in air: droplet
material inspection. J Nondestr Eval 2016;35:18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10921- coalescence and active mixing by acoustic levitation. Sci Rep 2018;8:10221.
015-0331-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-28451-5.
[19] Johnson DR, Chavez EL. Characterization of the thermosonic wire bonding [33] Zehnter Sebastian, Marco AB. Andrade and Christoph Ament, Acoustic levitation of
technique. 1976. https://doi.org/10.2172/7353285 [Combination of ultrasonic a Mie sphere using a 2D transducer array. J Appl Phys 2021;129:134901. https://
energy and thermocompression]”. United States: N. p. doi.org/10.1063/5.0037344.
[20] Fierro GPM, Ginzburg D, Ciampa F, Meo M. Nonlinear ultrasonic stimulated [34] Ochiai Yoichi, Hoshi Takayuki, Rekimoto Jun. Three-dimensional mid-air acoustic
thermography for damage assessment in isotropic fatigued structures. J Sound Vib manipulation by ultrasonic phased arrays. PLoS One 2014;9(5):e97590. https://
2017;404:102–15. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097590.