WEEK 1-2

DATE:
TOPIC: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: by the end of this lesson, I should be able to:
i.define reproduction
ii.state the types of reproduction
iii.explain the process of reproduction
iv.draw the male and female reproductive system

COLD TASK: what is reproduction?

Reproduction is simply the ability of a living organism to give rise/birth to offsprings of its own kind.

What is Reproduction?

Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring that is biologically

similar to the organism. Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species, generation after
generation. It is the main feature of life on earth.

Types of Reproduction

There are basically two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

“Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single organism gives rise to a
new individual.”
Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes, and therefore, the offsprings produced
are genetically identical to the parent. The organisms produced by asexual reproduction are less diverse
in nature. This type of reproduction is practised widely by unicellular organisms.

The process involves rapid population growth and no mate is required for the process. However, a lack
of genetic diversity makes organisms more susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.
Asexual reproduction is further divided into:

1. Binary Fission: In this, the cell splits into two each cell carrying a copy of the DNA from the
parent cell. For e.g, amoeba.
2. Budding: In this, a small bud-like outgrowth gives rise to a new individual. The outgrowth
remains attached to the organism until it is fully grown. It detaches itself and lives as an
individual organism. For e.g. hydra.
3. Fragmentation: In this, the parent organism splits into several parts and each part grows into a
new individual. For e.g. Planaria

4. Sporogenesis: In this type of reproduction, a new organism grows from the spores. These can be
created without fertilization and can spread through wind and animals.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS
Did you know that plants can grow and reproduce without seeds or spores? Vegetative propagation is a
process in which plants reproduce from stems, roots and leaves. It is a form of asexual reproduction seen in
plants. In fact, horticulturists use propagation methods such as grafting and budding to improve the plants.
Let us learn more about vegetative propagation.

TYPES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative Propagation by Roots

In this process, new plants grow out of the modified roots called tubers. In fact, in some plant species, roots
develop adventitious buds. These buds grow and form new plants/sprouts under the right conditions. For
example, Sweet potato and Dahlia. These sprouts can be separated from the parent plant and when planted
in other areas, new plants are formed.

Vegetative Propagation by Stems

Vegetative propagation occurs through stems when new plants arise from the nodes. This is where buds are
formed, which grow into new plants. Stems that grow horizontally on the ground are called runners. As
these runners grow, buds form at the nodes, which later develop the roots and shoots, resulting in the
formation of a new plant. Example – Cyanodon; Mint etc.

The bulb is the round, swollen part of the underground stem. Within the bulb lies the organ for vegetative
propagation such as the central shoot that grows into a new plant. Bulbs have a bud surrounded by layers of
fleshy leaves. A few examples include Onions, Garlic, and Tulips etc.

We can find stem tubers in plants like potatoes. This part is the swollen apical part containing many nodes
or eyes. Every eye has buds. New plants originate from these buds.

Vegetative Propagation by Leaf

Plants like Bryophyllum, Begonia etc., have adventitious buds coming out from the notches of the leaves.
These buds develop into new plants.
Cutting

Cuttings are the most common method employed by gardeners to grow new plants. A portion of the stem is
cut and planted in the soil, which develops roots and further grows into a new plant.

Grafting

In grafting, we use two closely related plants to produce a new plant that has the desired, combined traits
of both the parent plants. One plant is the stock, of which we take the root system and the other is the
Scion, of which we use the shoot system. In this method of artificial vegetative propagation, we attach the
scion to the stock of the second plant. In general, we use grafting for a variety of plants such as roses,
apples, avocado etc.

Budding

In this method, we take a bud with a small portion of the bark from the desired plant. Then we insert it into
a small slit made in the bark of the other plant. Next, we tie both the plants together and do not allow the
buds to dry.

Marcotting

The branch that forms the marcott is partially cut, wrapped in a specific propagation mixture and left to

form an established root system over a period of up to 3 months. Once the roots are well-established,

the branch is completely removed and is ready to plant into a pot or into the ground.

REPRODUCTION IN SPIROGYRA

Spirogyra are free-floating green algae present in freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, etc.
Spirogyra are commonly known as “water silk or pond silk”. They have a filamentous and unbranched
vegetative structure. They are named after their beautiful spiral chloroplasts. There are around 400
species of Spirogyra found.
Vegetative Reproduction of Spirogyra
 Spirogyra species can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual, or vegetative,
reproduction occurs by simple fragmentation of the filaments. Fragmentation is responsible
for the vegetative reproduction in such algae. The cell walls of two adjoining cells weaken and
form fragments, which turn into filaments through their cellular division. In some cases, this
filament breaks due to external injuries to the cell as well.

Sexual reproduction in spirogyra occurs by a process known as conjugation, in which cells of two

filaments lying side by side are joined by outgrowths called conjugation tubes. This allows the contents

of one cell to completely pass into and fuse with the contents of the other. The resulting fused cell

(zygote) becomes surrounded by a thick wall and overwinters, while the vegetative filaments die.
 REPRODUCTION IN RHIZOPUS

It reproduces by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.

Vegetative Reproduction in Rhizopus

Sometimes the thallus of the Rhizopus breaks accidentally or due to some other factors into the few
fragments, after which each fragment give rise to a new thallus on favourable conditions.

Asexual Reproduction in Rhizopus

The asexual reproduction can take place through both sporangiospores and chlamydospores.
REPRODUCTION IN PARAMECIUM
Asexual Reproduction in paramecium is by binary fission. The mature cell divides into two cells and each
grows rapidly and develops into a new organism. Under favourable conditions, Paramecium multiplies
rapidly up to three times a day. Binary fission divides a cell transversely and followed by mitotic division
in the micronucleus. Macronucleus divides amitotically. The gullet also divides into two halves. Although
the favoured mode of reproduction in Paramecium is mostly asexual, they reproduce sexually too, when
there is a scarcity of food.

Sexual reproduction in Paramecium is by various methods.

In conjugation, two complementary paramecia come together and there is a transfer of genetic
material. An individual has to multiply asexually 50 times before reproducing by conjugation.

In the process of conjugation, the conjugation bridge is formed and united paramecia are known as
conjugants. Macronuclei of both the cells disappear. The micronucleus of each conjugant forms 4
haploid nuclei by meiosis. Three of the nuclei degenerate. The haploid nuclei of each conjugant then
fuse together to form diploid micronuclei and cross-fertilization takes place. The conjugants separate to
form exconjugants. They are identical, but different from the earlier cells. Each exconjugate undergoes
further division and forms 4 daughter Paramecia. Micronuclei form a new macronucleus.
 REPRODUCTION IN SNAILS
How fast do snails multiply?
Some snail species are sexually dimorphic (distinct male and female individuals), and other snails are
simultaneous hermaphrodites (both male and female at the same time). In either case, most snails rely
on sexual reproduction to generate offspring; i.e., sperm of one snail enters the body of another snail to
fertilize its eggs. Some hermaphroditic snails, however, will reproduce asexually, meaning their own
sperm fertilizes their own eggs.
What happens after snails mate?
After snails mate, the female lays jelly-like eggs either at the top of the water's surface (freshwater
snails), on a plant's stem (freshwater snails), behind a rock (saltwater snails), or in moist soil (land snail).
The eggs typically hatch within 2-4 weeks.
How long do snails take to mate?
It can take at least an hour for snails to dance around each other. This allows them to get into a position
that enables their genital openings to touch one another.
 REPTILE REPRODUCTION

Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Males have one or two penises that
pass sperm from their cloaca to the cloaca of a female. Fertilization occurs within the cloaca, and
fertilized eggs leave the female’s body through the opening in the cloaca. In a minority of species, the
eggs are retained inside the female’s body until they hatch. Then the offspring leave the mother’s body
through the cloaca opening.
 REPRODUCTION IN FISHES

Fish reproduce by bearing live young or by laying eggs. Livebearers give birth to fully formed and

functional young called fry. The eggs are fertilized and hatch within the female. Nearly all fish reproduce
sexually, and most species have separate sexes. Those without separate sexes avoid self-fertilization by

producing sperm and eggs at different times. Each fish typically produces a large number of gametes. In

most fish species, fertilization takes place externally. These fishes are oviparous. Eggs are laid and

embryos develop outside the mother’s body. In a minority of fish, including sharks, eggs develop inside

the mother’s body but without nourishment from the mother. These fish are ovoviviparous.

HOW DO BIRDS REPRODUCE?

Birds reproduce by internal fertilization, during which the egg is fertilized inside the female. Like reptiles,
birds have a cloaca, or a single exit and entrance for sperm, eggs, and waste. The male brings his sperm
to the female cloaca. The sperm fertilizes the egg. Then the hard-shelled egg develops within the
female. The hard-shelled eggs have a fluid-filled amnion, a thin membrane forming a closed sac around
the embryo. Eggs are usually laid in a nest.
 METAMORPHOSIS
This refers to a change in form or transformation of the body. Metamorphosis is the process that occurs
in animals following the embryonic stage during normal development and allows the identification of
different structural forms. Additionally, animals that undergo metamorphosis experience significant and
apparent changes in their body features due to cell proliferation and differentiation.

Metamorphosis occurs in the majority of insects, amphibians, and other invertebrates. However, these
creatures exhibit both incomplete and complete metamorphosis. One species cannot display both these
categories, however, it does indicate that certain species undergo incomplete metamorphosis while
others go through complete metamorphosis.

The main distinction between an incomplete and complete metamorphosis is that an incomplete
metamorphosis contains stages that resemble the mature form and three life cycle phases: eggs,
nymphs, and adults. Whereas, a complete metamorphosis only has one adult stage and four life cycle
stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

Complete metamorphosis occurs in wasps, ants, and fleas while incomplete metamorphosis occurs in
termites, praying mantis, and cockroaches.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

“Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the production of an offspring by the fusion
of male and female gametes.”

In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes are formed to produce an offspring. These gametes
are either formed by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex.

This process is usually slow and complex compared to asexual reproduction. The organisms so produced
are genetically diverse. Thus, they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions. Humans and
many multicellular organisms exhibit a sexual mode of reproduction.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Plants reproduce by sexual and asexual means. Vegetative reproduction is the main mode of plant
reproduction. Roots such as a corm, stem tuber, rhizomes and stolon undergo vegetative propagation.

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place through pollination in which the pollen grains from the anther
of a male flower transfer to the stigma of the female flower.
 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Animals reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and
female gametes. This process is known as fertilization. Fertilization can be external or internal. External
fertilization is the process in which the male sperm fertilizes the female egg outside the female’s body.
On the contrary, in internal fertilization, the fusion of male and female gametes takes place inside the
body of the female.

Asexual reproduction involves reproduction processes such as binary fission, budding, fragmentation,
etc. The organisms have no reproductive systems and therefore no formation of male and female
gametes takes place.

ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION are:

 Variations: Due to recombination and crossing over, sexual reproduction brings about variations
in species. Variations are essential for the individuality and evolution of species.
 Better adaptability: Increased variability due to sexual reproduction helps in better adaptability
of species.
 Evolution: It helps in the evolution of species.
 Harmful traits can be removed by a selection of better-adapted individuals or maybe not be
expressed due to the reshuffling of gene pairs.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system in man consists of testes, vas deferens (sperm duct, penis and glands) and
testes. There are two testes in male animal, each testes is oval in shape and is housed in a wrinkled sac
called scrotum which hangs out of the body behind the penis.
  The scrotum: This functions as a thermo-regulator that protects the sperm from high
temperature. The body temperature is too high for the formation of sperm hence the testes are
positioned out of body that is slightly lower than the normal body temperature.
 Each testes is made of a large number highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules and
interstitial cells which lie with the seminiferous tubules.
 The seminiferous tubules: This produces the sperm while the interstitial cells produce
testosterone (the sex hormone).
 Vas deferens: These are small number of tubes which are connected with seminiferous tubules
and unite to form epididymis, vas deferens collect sperms from the seminiferous tubules to the
epididymis.
 Epididymis: This is highly coiled tube about 6 meter long which receives sperm from vas
deferens. Sperm are temporarily stored to mature and develop in the epididymis.
 Urethra: It serves as a passage for both urine and sperm
 Seminal vesicle: The seminal vesicle is a small sac where sperms are stored. It is located close to
the posterior end of vas deferens. It secretes seminal fluid. Seminal fluid contains fructose which
provides energy for the sperm.
 Glands: Three glands open into the male reproductive system. These are seminal fluid gland,
prostate gland and cowper’s gland.
 These three glands secretes seminal fluid in which sperm cells swim. The fluid activates sperm
into swimming. It provides food for the sperm and lubricates the passage. The sperm swim
freely in the seminal fluid. The acidity of the urine is neutralized by the seminal fluid.
 The seminal fluid plus the sperm make up the semen.

Functions of male reproductive system

1. Formation of sperm to fertilize the eggs of the female
2. It produces male hormones (testosterone)
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, fallopian tube or oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina
and vulva.
Structure of the Female Reproductive system

Ovaries: These are two oval-shaped structure located in the abdominal cavity on the side of the uterus.
Each ovary is held in position by ligaments. Ovaries are small and short, each contains thousands of
undeveloped egg (ova). It is only when a girl has reached the age of puberty (9-15years) that a ripe egg is
released alternatively each month by the ovaries. The ovaries stop producing eggs at about the age of
45-55years, a condition referred to as menopause.
Functions of the Ovaries
1. Ovaries produce and release mature egg.
2. They produce female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone).

Fallopian Tube (Oviduct): This arises from the uterus as a narrow tube of about (9-13cm) long. The free
ends are funnel-shaped and are lined with cells having cilia. When an egg is released, the cilia direct the
egg into the fallopian tube. Fertilization takes place in this tube.
Functions of Fallopian Tube
1. Directs the release egg from the ovary to itself.
2. Fertilization takes place inside the oviduct.
3. The fertilized egg (zygote) is pushed to the uterus by the cell of the fallopian tube
 Ovulation is the release of matured egg into the fallopian tube by the ovaries.

Uterus (womb): The uterus is a wide and thick-walled muscular chamber of about 8cm long and 5cm
wide. Two fallopian tubes enter into it at the top while the lower narrow part terminates as a neck or
cervix. The inner side of the uterus is lined with endometrium (layer well supplied with blood and food
to receive fertilized egg)

Functions of Uterus
1. Implantation of fertilized egg (zygote): Implantation is the attachment of the fertilized egg to the wall
of the uterus.
2. The uterus provides a place for the attachment of foetal placenta. Before the development of
placenta, the uterus provides nutrients for the embryo.
3. Before the development of placenta, the uterus provides nutrients for the embryo

Cervix
The cervix is a ring of muscle with tiny aperture that closes the lower end of the uterus where it joins the
vagina. It controls the opening and closing of the vagina during birth and intercourse.

Vagina
The vagina leads from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. It is an elastic and muscular
tube of about 10-14cm long. The opening of the vagina is partially covered by a thin membrane called
hymen. If the hymen is intact, it means that the girl is still a virgin. However the hymen can be torn
during vigorous physical exercise such as athletics or during sexual intercourse.
Function of the Vagina
1. It receives the male penis which deposits sperm into it.
2. It serves as birth canal during the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus.
3. The woman menstruate through the vagina

Vulva
The external female organ are collectively called vulva. These include the two thick fold of skin covered
the public hair called labia major and labia minora.
Function of Vulva
1. It protects the opening of the vagina.

Clitoris: This is a small erectile organ. It is a sensitive organ well supplied with blood vessels and nerves.
It causes excitement during sexual intercourse and accelerates orgasm in female. Like the penis it
becomes erected in sexual excitement.
Hymen-This covers the entrance of the vagina and is often referred to as virginity

THE STRUCTURE OF SPERM AND OVUM (gametes)

 Gamete can be defined as a reproductive cell which can take part in reproduction and
 Gametogenesis: The process by which gametes are formed.
 Sperm: The male gamete is called the sperm which are produced in the testis by the process of
spermatogenesis. The gamete is unicellular in nature that is it has haploid number of
chromosomes.
 The sperm cell consists of three parts namely; a head which contains the nucleus, a middle piece
and a whip-like tail called flagellum.
 The head (Acrosome): It is located at the anterior end of the head which contain lytic enzyme or
agent being used to dissolve egg membrane to enhance penetration of egg cell during fertilization.
 The nucleus which is present in the head of the sperm cell contains the genetic materials which
fuse with the nucleus of the egg or ovum to produce a zygote.
 The middle piece contain numerous mitochondria which generate the energy used by the sperm
cell to swim towards the egg
 Flagellum: The long whip-like tail that helps the sperm cell to move or propel.
Diagram of a sperm

Female Gamete
Egg (Ovum): This is the female sex cell or gamete which is produced in the ovary by a process called
oogenesis. The ovum is the female sex cell which is round in shape and large than the sperm.
 It consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus has haploid number of chromosome and is
surrounded by nuclear membrane.
 The cytoplasm has a yolk and is surrounded by two thin membranes; plasma and vitelline
membrane, jelly layer surrounds the vitelline membrane.
 The yolk provides a source of nourishment for the embryo especially at the early stage of
development.
 The nucleus contains chromosomes which carries the genes which are responsible for the
 transmission of character from the parent to the offspring.

 Fertilization: This is defined as the fusion of the nucleus of a sperm and the nucleus of an ovum
to form a zygote. The route of the released sperm is from the vagina—>cervix
—>uterus—>fallopian tube—> where fusion of sperm and ovum will take place.
  Implantation: This is the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus.

Development of Embryo in Man

The developing embryo in man consists of three distinct layers.
a) Amnion: It is a thin inner most membrane that covers the embryo.
 Amniotic cavity: This is the space between the amnion and the embryo is which is filled with
amniotic fluid.
Functions
i) The amniotic fluid protects the embryo from shock and mechanical injury.
ii) The amniotic fluid provides an even temperature for the embryo and allows the embryo to move
freely.
iii) The amniotic fluid keeps the embryo moist.
iv) The amniotic fluid is slippery and therefore helps for easy passage of the foetus during child birth.

b) Chorion
The chorion is the outermost membrane that surrounds the amnion.
Functions
i) It protects the embryo outside.
ii) It helps in the formation of placenta.

b) Allantois
The allantois grows out from the embryonic gut and fuses with the choroid villi in the uterine wall.
Functions
i) It is the part of the umbilical cord that carries foetal blood vessels to and from the chorionic villi, thus
serving for respiration, nutrition and excretion of foetus.

Gestation: This is the period between fertilization to parturition i.e. period of pregnancy to delivery.
Parturition: It is the process of giving birth.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

TYPES OF TWINS
i) Identical/monozygotic twin develops from the same egg. Non-identical twins are created when a
woman produces two eggs at the same time and both are fertilised, each by a different sperm. The
fertilised egg is called a zygote, and these non-identical twins are known as dizygotic or fraternal twins,
because they grew from two separate zygotes. The babies are no more alike than any other brothers or
sisters, and may be both male, both female and one of each.
ii) Non-identical/dizygotic twin develops from two different eggs. Identical twins occur in about one-
third of multiple pregnancies. Known as monozygotic twins, a single egg is fertilised then splits into two
(or, very rarely, three or more) creating identical babies with the same genes, physical features and sex.
They may or may not share a placenta. Characteristics such as size and personality depend on non-
genetic factors, so may be different.
iii) Siamese twins are attached together due to incomplete cleavage of the zygote.
iv) Triplets and higher order multiples: Triplets and higher order multiples are formed this way too but
may be in different combinations. For example, you may have a set of triplets where two are identical
and one is not.

THE PLACENTA
 The Placenta (also known as afterbirth): This is an organ that connects the developing foetus to the
uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, provide thermo-regulation to the foetus, waste elimination,
and gas exchange via the mother’s blood supply, fight against internal infection and produce
hormones to support pregnancy. The placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to growing babies and
removes waste products from the baby’s blood. The placenta attaches to the wall of the uterus, and
the baby’s umbilical cord develops from the placenta. The umbilical cord is what connects the
mother and the baby. Placentas are a defining characteristic of placental mammals, but are also
found in some non-mammals with varying levels of development.

Structure of the placenta

FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA
i) It transfers mineral such as iron to the embryonic circulatory system.
ii) The placenta filters urea out of the baby’s blood and transfers it to the mother’s kidney.
iii) It exchanges carbon (iv) oxide from embryo’s blood for oxygen from the mother’s blood.
iv) It carries digested food from the mother’s blood and pass them to embryonic circulation by diffusion.
v) The placenta prepares certain hormones for both the embryo and the mother.
vi) It prepares antibodies that protect the embryo against infection.
vii) The placenta selects the substances to be passed into the embryo’s blood.

TEST TUBE BABIES

A test-tube baby is the product of a successful human reproduction that results from methods beyond
sexual intercourse between a man and a woman and instead utilizes medical intervention that
manipulates both the egg and sperm cells for successful fertilization. The term was originally used to
refer to the babies born from the earliest applications of artificial insemination and has now been
expanded to refer to children born through the use of in vitro fertilization, the practice of fertilizing an
egg outside of a woman’s body. The use of the term in both media and scientific publications in the
twentieth century has been accompanied by discussion as well as controversy regarding the ethics of
reproduction technologies such as artificial insemination and in vitro fertilization. The evolution of these
terms over time mirrors the perception of our ability to manipulate the human embryo, as seen by the
general public as well as the scientific community.

OTHER TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis are the processes of formation of male and female gametes.
Spermatogenesis leads to the formation of sperms, whereas oogenesis helps in the formation of ova.
The fertilization of sperm and ova leads to the formation of a zygote which further develops into an
embryo and then a fetus.
Hermaphrodites are living organisms who are either born with or can possess both male and female
reproductive organs at some point in their lifetime.

Menstrual Cycle
A menstrual cycle begins when you get your period or menstruate. This is when you shed the lining of
your uterus. This cycle is part of your reproductive system and prepares your body for a possible
pregnancy. A typical cycle lasts between 24 and 38 days.

Female Reproductive Organs

What is menstruation?

Menstruation is the monthly shedding of the lining of your uterus. Menstruation is also known by the
terms menses, menstrual period, menstrual cycle or period. Menstrual blood — which is partly blood
and partly tissue from the inside of your uterus — flows from your uterus through your cervix and out of
your body through your vagina.
Menstruation is driven by hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers in your body. Your pituitary
gland (in your brain) and your ovaries (part of your reproductive system) make and release certain
hormones at certain times during your menstrual cycle.

These hormones cause the lining of your uterus to thicken. This happens so that if a pregnancy would
occur, an egg can implant into your uterine lining. Hormones also cause your ovaries to release an egg
(ovulation). The egg moves down your fallopian tubes, where it waits for sperm. If a sperm doesn’t
fertilize that egg, pregnancy doesn’t occur. The lining of your uterus breaks down and sheds. This is your
period.

What is a menstrual cycle?

The menstrual cycle is a term to describe the sequence of events that occur in your body as it prepares
for the possibility of pregnancy each month. Your menstrual cycle is the time from the first day of your
menstrual period until the first day of your next menstrual period. Every person’s cycle is slightly
different, but the process is the same.

How long is a normal menstrual cycle?

The average length of a menstrual cycle is 28 days. However, a cycle can range in length from 21 days to
about 35 days and still be normal.

How many days between periods is normal?

The days between periods is your menstrual cycle length. The average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days.
However, cycles lasting as little as 21 days or as long as 35 days can be normal.

How long does a normal period last?

Most people have their period (bleed) for between three and seven days.

Is a three-day period normal?

A period is normal if it’s anywhere between three and seven days. While on the shorter end of the
range, some people have a menstrual period for three days. This is OK.

What are the four phases of the menstrual cycle?

The rise and fall of your hormones trigger the steps in your menstrual cycle. Your hormones cause the
organs of your reproductive tract to respond in certain ways. The specific events that occur during your
menstrual cycle are:

 The menses phase: This phase begins on the first day of your period. It's when the lining of your
uterus sheds through your vagina if pregnancy hasn’t occurred. Most people bleed for three to
five days, but a period lasting only three days to as many as seven days is usually not a cause for
worry.
  The follicular phase: This phase begins on the day you get your period and ends at ovulation (it
overlaps with the menses phase and ends when you ovulate). During this time, the level of the
hormone estrogen rises, which causes the lining of your uterus (the endometrium) to grow and
thicken. In addition, another hormone — follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) — causes follicles in
your ovaries to grow. During days 10 to 14, one of the developing follicles will form a fully
mature egg (ovum).
 Ovulation: This phase occurs roughly at about day 14 in a 28-day menstrual cycle. A sudden
increase in another hormone — luteinizing hormone (LH) — causes your ovary to release its egg.
This event is ovulation.
 The luteal phase: This phase lasts from about day 15 to day 28. Your egg leaves your ovary and
begins to travel through your fallopian tubes to your uterus. The level of the hormone
progesterone rises to help prepare your uterine lining for pregnancy. If the egg becomes
fertilized by sperm and attaches itself to your uterine wall (implantation), you become pregnant.
If pregnancy doesn’t occur, estrogen and progesterone levels drop and the thick lining of your
uterus sheds during your period.

At what age does menstruation typically begin?

People start menstruating at the average age of 12. However, you can begin menstruating as early as 8
years old or as late as 16 years old. Generally, most people menstruate within a few years of growing
breasts and pubic hair.

People stop menstruating at menopause, which occurs at about the age of 51. At menopause, you stop
producing eggs (stop ovulating). You’ve reached menopause when you haven’t gotten a period in one
year.

What are symptoms of getting your period?

Some people experience symptoms of menstruation and others don’t. The intensity of these symptoms
can also vary. The most common symptom is cramps. The cramping you feel in your pelvic area is your
uterus contracting to release its lining.

Other signs you’re getting your period are:

 Mood changes.
 Trouble sleeping.
 Headache.
 Food cravings.
 Bloating.
 Breast tenderness.
 Acne.

How does your period change over time?

Your menstrual cycle can change from your teen years to your 40s or 50s. When you first get your
period, it’s normal to have longer cycles or a heavier period flow. It can take up to three years for young
people to have regular cycles after they begin menstruating. A normal menstrual cycle is a cycle that:
  Occurs roughly every 21 to 35 days.
 Causes bleeding for between three and seven days.

Once you reach your 20s, your cycles become more consistent and regular. Once your body begins
transitioning to menopause, your periods will change again and become more irregular.

It’s also normal for your period to change during other life events that affect your hormones, such as
after childbirth or when you’re lactating.

What is considered an irregular period?

Irregular menstruation describes anything that’s not a normal menstrual period. Some examples of an
irregular period are:

 Periods that occur less than 21 days or more than 35 days apart.
 Not having a period for three months (or 90 days).
 Menstrual flow that’s much heavier or lighter than usual.
 Period bleeding that lasts longer than seven days.
 Periods that are accompanied by severe pain, cramping, nausea or vomiting.
 Bleeding or spotting that happens between periods.

How much should I bleed during my period?

You can expect to lose between two and three tablespoons (tbsp.) of blood during your period. Some
signs of irregular period bleeding are:

 Bleeding through a tampon or pad every one to two hours.

 Passing blood clots larger than a quarter.
 Bleeding longer than seven days each time you have your period.

It’s normal to experience some variation in the amount of bleeding each cycle. It’s also important to
remember your normal may be different than someone else’s. Try not to compare. Talk to a healthcare
provider if you’re concerned about irregular or severe bleeding during your period.

How do I track my period?

It’s a good idea to be aware of your menstrual period. Not getting a period may not seem like a big deal,
but an irregular period can be a sign of a problem. Your healthcare provider will ask you about your
most recent period and menstrual cycles. Knowing what’s normal for you can be very helpful to your
provider.

Tracking your period can also be helpful in knowing when you ovulate, which is when you’re most likely
to get pregnant. It can also help you plan ahead or prepare for period bleeding during a special event or
vacation.

To track your period:

  Mark the first day of your period on a calendar with an X. This is day one.
 Continue to mark each day you’re bleeding with an X. Stop marking when your bleeding stops.
 When bleeding starts again, mark it with an X. This is day one again.
 You can then count the number of days between each first X to get the length of your cycle.
Count the number of X’s to see how many days bleeding lasts.

There are also apps that do all of this for you that you can download on your phone or tablet.

When should I worry about my period?

Contact your healthcare provider if:

 You haven’t had a period by the age of 16.

 You don’t get your period for three months or longer.
 You’re suddenly bleeding for more days than usual.
 You’re bleeding much lighter or much heavier than usual.
 You have severe pain during your period.
 You have bleeding between periods.
 You feel sick after using tampons.
 You think you might be pregnant — for example, you’ve had sex and your period is at least five
days late.
 Your period hasn’t come back within three months of stopping birth control pills and you know
you’re not pregnant.
 You have any questions or concerns about your period or possible pregnancy.

COMMON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH CONCERNS FOR WOMEN

 Endometriosis.
 Uterine Fibroids.
 Ectopic pregnancy
 Gynecologic Cancer.
 HIV/AIDS.
 Interstitial Cystitis.
 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
 Sexual Violence.

COMMON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH CONCERNS FOR WOMEN

 Erectile dysfunction
 Testicular cancer
 Benign prostatic enlargement
 Prostatitis
 Cryptorchidism
 Hydrocele
 Infertility
 Penis
 Prostate cancer
 Hypospadias
 Varicocele
 Circumcision
 Gonorrhea
 Hypogonadism
 Malignant prostatic tumors

TASKS
GUIDED PRACTICE
1. Write short notes on the following:
i. The different types of vegetative propagation
ii. Metamorphosis, types and examples
iii. Reproduction in birds
iv. Write the function(s) of the structure found in the male and female reproductive system
2. Define the following terms associated with the reproductive system: gamete, sperm, egg,
oogenesis, oogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilization, menstrual cycle, implantation, gestation,
parturition, dizygotic twins, monozygotic twins, test-tube babies
3. List 5 diseases of the male and female reproductive system.

INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
Hidden facts in Biology pages 307-308 (exercise 18.1)
Hidden facts in Biology pages 324 (exercise 18.4)
Hidden facts in Biology pages 325 (exercise 18.5)

HOT TASK
Hidden facts in Biology pages 334-336 (exercise 18.6)
Hidden facts in Biology pages 339 (exercise 18.7)

JOURNAL
Draw and label the structure of the following:
i. Different types of asexual reproduction ii. The male and female reproductive
system iii. Egg cell and sperm cell
PROJECT
Presentation on the diseases of the reproductive system