INTRODUCTION

How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10

“Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new living organisms
similar to them. It is one of the important characteristic of life”.

All organisms produce offspring and thereby maintain their kind. The means by
which organisms reproduce vary remarkably between species. Reproduction is an
orchestrated process. It needs the coordinated preparation of many tissues in female
starting from maturation of ovum, its release its transportation, fertilization and also
the preparation of uterine wall to receive developing egg and its implantation. The
preparation for reproduction are cyclic in mammals. The change in structural and
functional characteristics of both male and female reproductive tissue occur as a
prelude to reproduce. These are mediated by hormones. It is also concerned with
the asexual development of the embryo from structures other than egg and also with
the regeneration of lost or damaged parts and repair of defects.

Purpose of Reproduction: Reproduction is aimed at multiplication and perpetuation

(stability) of the species. In other words it provides group immortality by replacing the
dead individuals with new ones.

Basic Features of Reproduction: The modes of reproduction vary in different

organisms. However all of these have certain common basic features. These are –

 replication of DNA
 cell division
 formation of reproductive bodies or units
 development of reproductive bodies into offsprings

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

There are two main types of Reproduction in living organisms :

 Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction
Differences between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

S.No. Asexual Sexual

1. It is uniparental uni / biparental

2. Gametes are not formed formed

3. Reproductive organs are not needed needed.

4. No fertilisation fertilisation occur

5. Offsprings are similar to parent different

6. New characters do not appear appear

7. No variation variation present

8. No evolution evolution takes place

9. Definite process Indefinite process

10. Generation leads to extinction Not so

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
Production of offsprings by a single parent without the formation and fusion of
gametes is called as asexual reproduction. It is more primitive type of reproduction. It
ensures rapid increase in number.
Characteristic
 It involves only one parent and no formation of gametes.
 The offspring produced is direct replica of the parent leaving no scope for
variation.
 This is also called as vegetative or somatic reproduction and common in
plants and lower animals
 Occurs by budding, binary fission, multiple fission, sporulation and also the
regeneration.
 Protozoans, sponges and coelenterates reproduce mainly by this way.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

1. Binary fission – Amoeba, Euglena, Vorticella

2. Multiple fission – Amoeba, Plasmodium, Monocystis

3. Plasmotomy – In multinucleate protozoans e.g.opalina, Pelomyxa.

4. Exogenous budding – Hydra, Syllis, Salpa

5. Internal budding or – Spongilla, Few marine sponges by Gemmule formation

6. Fragmentation – Asterias(Star fish)

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

(i) Fission:

It is the simplest form of reproduction in which unicellular organism either divides into
two or many organisms.
It is also divided into two types:

 Binary fission: Binary fission, meaning "division in half", refers to a method

ofasexual reproduction. It is the most common form of reproduction
inprokaryotesand occurs in some single-celled eukaryotes. After replicating its
genetic material, the cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The
genetic material is also equally partitioned, therefore, the daughter cells are
genetically identical (unless amutationoccurred during replication) to each
other and the parent cell. Transverse binary fission divides the cell across the
short axis (e.g., most bacilli-shaped bacteria), longitudinal binary fission
across the long axis (e.g.,Trypanosoma), and random binary fission across no
defined axis (e.g.,Amoeba). Some biologist use this term for multi-cellular
organisms that asexually reproduce by dividing into two (e.g., some star fish).
This is also known as fragmentation. Spirogyra, a type of algae also
reproduces by binary fission.

Binary fission in Amoeba

2. Multiple fission: Sometimes the nucleus divides several times, into many
daughter nuclei. The daughter nuclei arrange at the periphery of the parent
cell, and a bit of cytoplasm around each daughter nuclei is present. Nucleus
develops an outer membrane. Finally the multi-nucleated body divides into
many daughter cells. e.g. Plasmodium.

Reproduction by multiple fission

  Budding: Formation of a daughter individual from a small projection which is

called as bud, arising on the parent body is called as budding.
Budding is also of two types:

Exogenous budding: [External budding] In this, bud arises from the surface of

parent body. e.g., Hydra.

Budding in Hydra: A bulge appears on the body as a result of repeated mitotic

division in the cells resulting in the formation of lateral out-growth called bud. This
bud enlarges in size by further division of cells and attains the shape of parent. It
then separates from the parent body and starts behaving as new Hydra.

Budding in Hydra

Endogenous budding: [Internal budding] In this, bud arises inside or within the

parent body. e.g., Sponges.

Budding in yeast: A small bud like out-growth appears at one end of the parent cell
which gradually enlarges in size. The nucleus also enlarges and divides into two
daughter nuclei. One nucleus remains in the parent cell and other goes to the
daughter. When the bud attains almost similar size like parent, a constriction
appears at the base of the bud separating it from the parent. However, sometimes a
chain of buds can also be seen.
Budding in Yeast

During the process of budding, the bud remains attached to the parent body so as the
derive it’s nutrition from the parent but as it matures, it gets detached from the parent
body.
Fragmentation: It is a type of reproduction or the regeneration ability of the
organism to replace their lost part. In this process an entire new organism can grow
from certain pieces or of the parent organisms. e.g. Flatworm.

Example: define asexual reproduction in fungi.

Answer : Fungi reproduce asexually by means of sporulation and fragmentation.

Fragmentation :

This is a type of asexual reproduction in fungi which is similar to the vegetative

reproduction in some plants. In this process, a detached fragment of the fungal
hyphae gives rise to a new individual under suitable conditions.

Sporulation :

In fungi, other than yeasts, the most common type of asexual reproduction is
sporulation. The process of formation of spores is called sporulation. . The spores
formed in sporangia are called sporangiospores which are formed by several mitotic
divisions. Asporangiospores germinate to develop into an organism with many
vegetative hyphae.eg: mucor

Conidia :

In this process the fungal hyphae differentiate into structures like sporangia,
conidiophoresetc., which will give rise spores or condidia by mitotic division. eg:
Asperigillus

Spore formation:

A spore is a single or several-celled reproductive structure that detaches from the

parent and gives rise, directly or indirectly to a new individual.

Spore formation takes place mostly in bacteria and fungi. In fungi e.g. Rhizopus,
Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium etc., spores are formed in a sac-like structure called
sporangium at the tips of fungal hyphae. The nucleus divides inside the sporangium
and gets surrounded by a small mass of cytoplasm forming a spore. After attaining
maturity, the sporangial wall ruptures releasing the spores. The spores are covered
with thick walls that protect them until they come in contact with another moist
surface and can begin to grow.

These spores can be non-motile called aplanospores or motile called zoospores.

Formation of sporangia and spores in a fungus (Rhizopus)

 Regeneration

Regeneration is defined as a natural ability of some simple multicellular organisms to

replace worn out parts, to repair damaged parts or to regrow cast off organs. It takes
place mostly in Hydra, Planaria, sponges, etc. If sometimes the individual is
somehow cut or broken into many pieces, many of these pieces grow into separate
individuals. But regeneration is not same as reproduction since most organisms
would not normally depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

Regeneration is performed by specialised cells. These specialised cells proliferate

and make large number of cells. Different cells from the mass of cells undergo
change to become various cell types and tissues. These changes takes place in an
organized sequence referred to as development. Complex multicellular organisms
cannot give rise to new individuals by regeneration. This is because they have
complex body organization.

Vegetative propagation: Plant undergoing vegetative reproduction propagates by a

part of their body other than a seed. This part is called propagule. Vegetative
reproduction is of different types.
Natural method: There are many plants which propagate naturally. Some plants
propagate by roots e.g. sweet potato, guava, etc.; some by stems like ginger,
banana, potato, strawberry; etc.; some by leaves like Bryophyllum, Begonia, etc.

Artificial method: There are some plants which propagates artificially by following

methods :

Cutting: This is the very common method of vegetative propagation practised by the

gardeners all over the world. It is the process in which a vegetative portion from plant
is taken and is rooted in the soil to form a new plant. e.g. Grapes, Sugarcane etc.

Layering: In this process the development of adventitious roots is induced on a stem

before it gets detached from parent plant, e.g., Mango, roses etc

It is of three types:

 Mound layering: In the process of layering the lower stem branch of plant is used.
Leaves are removed from this stem. Then it is bent close to the ground, pegged and
covered with the moist soil in such a way that it's growing tip remains above the soil
surface. This pegged down branch is called as layer. After a few days the covered
portion of stem develops roots. This stem is then detached from the parent plant and
is grown separately into a new individual. e.g. Jasmine

The formation of adventitious roots in a layer can be hastened by injuring the 'layer' by
tonguing, ringing or notching.
 Air layering: It is adopted in those plants where stem cannot be bent to the ground.
In this process the stem is girdled (i.e. ring of the bark is removed). Then it is
covered with moist moss or cotton and wrapped with a polythene sheet to preserve
the moisture. After few weeks adventitious roots develop from the injured part. The
branch along with roots is then separated from the parent plant and planted to grow
into a new plant. e.g. Orange, Pomegranate etc.
 

Grafting: The process of joining together of two different plants in such a manner

that they live as one plants is called as grafting. Out of the two plants one is rooted in
the soil and is known as the stock. The other part consists of a small shoot bearing
one or more buds it is known as scion. Their union is carried out in such a way that
their cambium must overlap each other. e.g. Mango, roses etc.

Methods of grafting.

There are four methods of grafting. They are

  Approach grafting
 Cleft grafting (or) Wedge grafting
 Tongue grafting
 Bud grafting

Approach grafting : Ex: sapota, Mango, Guava etc.

 In this method both scion and stock remain rooted. A small slice is cut off from
the stem of scion and stock.
 Scion is bent towards the stock. The two cut surfaces of the scion and stock
are brought together and tied with a tape.
 In course of time the two stems get united. Then the top of the stock and the
base of the scion are cut off.

Cleft grafting (or) wedge grafting

 The stem of the stock is cut across. A 'V' shaped insertion is made at the end
of the stock.
 The scion is cut in shape. The scion is inserted into the 'V' shaped root stock.
The point of union is held in position and a waxed tape is put around the
junction.

Tongue grafting : This method is used on stocks that are relatinely small.
   Top of the stock is cut diagonally and in an upward direction. Scion is cut
diagonally in downward direction.
  A second cut is given from above downwards, which forms the tongue, such
that the notch or tongue of the scion closely fits with that of stock.
  Union is tied with twine and covered with a waxed tape.

Bud grafting : Ex. Apple, orange, rose etc.

1. A 'T' shaped incision is made on the bark of the stock.

2. A bark is removed on either side of vertical cut.

3. A single bud scion with a little wood is placed in the incision of below the bark and
held in position applying tape.

Advantage of vegetative propagation.

1. Vegetative propagation helps to maintain fixed qualities and characteristic features

of the parent plant.

2. For Example in ornamental plants with attractive flowers and leaves or any other
interest ingvariatiion in one plant can be continued in next generation through
vegetative propagation.

3. Such plants can be produced in large numbers in a short time.

4. Vegetative reproduction offers uniform root stock for budding or grafting.

5. This root stock can be selected from a plant that is immune to diseases.

6. In this method it would be possible to develop new varieties with useful

characters.

7. It can be used to grow other varieties by means of grafting.

8. Vegetative propagation is a very useful method of reproduction in plants that

rarely pro duce flowers.

 Micro propagation: It has now become possible due to recent techniques to

produce a large number of plantlets from a small piece of tissue taken from the shoot
tip or other suitable plant parts. This method of propagation is called as micro-
propagation. It involves the process of tissue culture. e.g., Orchids. ornamental
plants etc.

Mechanism of micro propagation:

  A small piece of plant tissue placed in a culture medium divides rapidly to

form a shapeless lump called ‘callus’.
 The callus is then placed in different culture media to stimulate the
development of root and shoot.
  Tiny plantlets are formed from just few cells which are transplanted into pots
or soil where they can grow to form mature plants.

Advantages of micro propagation

 It is a fast technique producing many plantlets from a small plant tissue in few
weeks and using very little space. In other words, it is quite economical.
 The plants produced by tissue culture are disease free.

Significance of vegetative propagation

(A) It is used to propagate a plant in which viable seeds are not formed or very few
seeds are produced. e.g. Orange, pineapple, banana etc.

(B) Vegetative propagation helps us to introduce plants in new areas where the seed
germination fails to produce mature plant due to change in environmental factors and
the soil.

(C) Vegetative propagation is a more rapid, easier and cheaper method of

multiplication of plants.

(D) By this method a good quality of a race or variety can be preserved.

(E) Most of the ornamental plants are propagated through vegetative propagation.
e.g. Rose, Tulip etc.

Significance of asexual reproduction:

The significance of asexual reproduction is that it is a means for a rapid and

significant increase in the numbers of individuals. (Weeds, for instance, are
successful partly because of their great capacity for vegetative reproduction.) The
cells that result from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to their parent
cells. In addition, vegetative reproduction in the bryophytes and pteridophytes is a
means of bypassing the somewhat lengthy and moisture-dependent sexual process;
that is, the motile swimming sperm characteristic of these groups require the
presence of water, which may be a limiting factor in drier times.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
Involves two individuals (of different sexes) as male and female to produce
respective gametes.

Many lower animals have both sexes in the same individual called hermaphrodite
(monoeciousor bisexual), e.g., flatworms, annelids.

In higher animals sexes are separate (unisexual) with apparent sexual dimorphism
i.e. male and female look different with different structures.

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Amphigony– Zygote is formed by the fusion of male and female gametes further of
two types :syngamy and conjugation.

1. Syngamy :Complete and permanent fusion of gametes.

2. Conjugation :Involves temporary union of two parents of the same species which
exchange their male pronuclei to form synkaryon and then separate to produce
daughter individuals. It corresponds to cross-fertilisation of higher animals.e.g.
Paramecium, other ciliates

Parthenogenesis (Virginal Reproduction)—Development of an egg (ovum) into an

individual without fertilisation by a sperm.

It is of two types : Natural and Artificial.

  Natural Parthenogenesis—occurs regularly in the life of certain animals. It

may be complete, incomplete or paedogenetic.

Complete (Obligatory) Parthenogenesis.

 Parthenogenesis the only form of reproduction in some animals and there is

no biparental sexual reproduction. Such organisms are represented by
females only and there are no males.

e.g. (i) Lacertasexicolaarmaniaca(Caucasian Rock Lizard)

(ii) Typhlinabrahmina(Smallest snake of India–15.2 cm)

Incomplete (Cyclic) Parthenogenesis

 Found in those animals in which both sexual reproduction and

parthenogenesis occur.

e.g.

 Honey bees–fertilized eggs (zygotes) give rise to queens and workers (both
females) and unfertilized eggs (ova) develop into drones (males).
 Aphids, wasps–cyclic parthenogenesis is found.
  Turkeys–40% males are produced by parthenogenesis.
 Paedogenetic Parthenogenesis (Paedogenesis)
 When larva produces a new generation of larvae by parthenogenesis, it is
called paedogenesis. Occurs in sporocystsand rediae of liver fluke.
 On the basis of sex of offspring, Natural parthenogenesis is classified into 3
types :

(i) Arrhenotoky–only males are produced, e.g. honeybees, wasps, ticks, mites and
certain spiders.

(ii) Thelytoky–only females are produced. e.g. Lacertasexicolaarmaniaca,

Typhlinabrahmina.

(iii) Amphitoky–parthenogenetic egg may develop into male or female e.g. Aphis
(aphid).

Artificial Parthenogenesis
Egg is induced to develop into a complete individual by artificial stimuli (physical or
chemical).

e.g., Eggs of annelids, molluscs, echinoderms, frogs, salamanders, birds (turkey,

hen) and even mammals (rabbit).

According to source of gametes

Endogamy – It involves self fertilisation. Thus uniparentale.g.Taenia.

Exogamy – It involves cross fertilisation. Thus biparental e.g. Earthworm, Leech,

Rabbit.

According to structure of fusing gametes.

Isogamy – Fusion of two gametes of identical structure e.g, monocystis.

Anisogamy – Fusion of two dissimilar gametes e.g., frog, rabbit, human.

Characteristics of sexual reproduction:

(i) It is generally bi-parental [i.e. it involves two parents]

(ii) It involves formation and fusion of gametes.

(iii) Cell divisions are both meiotic & mitotic during gamete formation and mitotic
during development of zygote into an offspring.

(iv) The off springs are not genetically identical to the parents.

(v) Fertilization in case of humans is internal.

(vi) Infants can be fed on mother's milk.

(vii) Parental care is very well developed.

Significance of sexual reproduction:

(i) It results in multiplication and perpetuation of species.

(ii) It contributes to evolution of the species by introducing variation in a population

much more rapidly than asexual reproduction.
REPRODUCTION IN A FLOWERING PLANT
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
REPRODUCTION IN A FLOWERING PLANT
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves transformation of diploid sporophytic
cells into haploid gametophytic cells by meiosisand subsequent fusion of haploid
gametes of opposite sex to form diploid zygote. The zygote then develops into an
embryo which ultimately forms a diploid plant body. In flowering plants, all these
steps of sexual reproduction occur within specialized reproductive organs, called the
flowers.

Structure of the flower :Morphologically flower is a modified shoot meant for sexual
reproduction of the plant. Typically, it is a condensed branch in which internodes
have become condensed, bringing nodes very close to one another, and the leaves
are modified to form floral whorl that directly or indirectly participate in the process of
reproduction.

The flower is commonly borne on short or long stalk called the pedicel. It has an
upper swollen region known as receptacle (thalamus or torus).
(2) Parts of a flower :A typical angiospermic flower consists of four whorls of floral
appendages attached on the receptacle : calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Of these, the two lower whorls (i.e., calyx and corolla) are sterile and considered as
nonessential, accessory or helping whorls. The two upper whorls (i.e., androecium
and gynoecium) are fertile and considered as essential or reproductive whorls.

(i) Calyx :It is the outermost whorl of the flower. It is composed of leaf like green
sepals. The sepals are essentially green in colour but in some cases they are
coloured like petals. Such a condition of calyx is called petaloid. Sepals enclose the
bud and protect the delicate part within. They prevent rapid transpiration from the
inner parts of the flower.

(ii) Corolla :This is the second whorl of the flower and consists of a number of petals.
Petals are generally brightly coloured and sometimes fragrant which make the flower
to become attractive. Petals usually attract the insect pollinators and helps in
pollination. The petals and sepals together form the floral envelope (perianth).

(iii) Androecium :It is the third whorl of flower and is the male reproductive organ
consisting of stamens. Each stamen is made of filament and anther. The filament
supports anther at its tip. Usually anthers are bilobed and contain four
microsporangia (or pollen sacs), but sometimes they have only one lobe and two
microsporangia. The portion of stamen which connects the anther and the filament is
known as connective.

(A) Filament: It forms the stalk that bears more or less cylindrical or ovoid anther.

(B) Connective: it connects anther to filament.

(C) Anther: It is present on the top of filament. Each anther consists of two lobes
that is why it is called as bi-lobed. Each anther lobe has two pollen sacs which
contain millions of tiny microscopic pollen grains, called as microspores. The pollen
grains are like yellow dusty powder in appearance.
 

(iv) Gynoecium :This is the last and the fourth whorl of flower and is the female
reproductive organ of the flower. It occupies the central position on the receptacle
and composed of ovary, style and stigma and the component parts are called
carpels.Ovary encloses the ovules. Stigma is the receptive spots which lodges the
pollen grains. Style is the connection between stigma and ovary.

Each pistil usually consists of three distinct parts - ovary, style and stigma.

(A) Ovary: It is a basal, swollen part of the pistil. The ovary has one or more
chambers called the loculi which are distributed in a special cushion like
parenchymatous tissue called the placenta, from which the ovule develops.

(B) Style: From the top of the ovary arises a long, elongated structure called as
style.

(C) Stigma: The terminal end of style is called as stigma. It is rough, hairy or sticky
to hold pollen grains during pollination process.

Types of flower based on reproductive organs

(a) Unisexual: In such flower, only one reproductive part is present, either male
(stamen) or female (pistil) e.g. cucurbits, mulberry, papaya, watermelon, etc.

A flower which bear only stamen is called staminate flower and one in which only
carpel is present is called a pistillate flower.
(b)Bisexual: When stamens and carpel are found in the same flower, it is called
hermaphrodite or bisexual, e.g. Hibiscus (chinarose), mustard, rose, pea, cotton, etc.

POLLINATION
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
The process of transfer of pollen grains, from an anther to the stigma of the same
flower or of different flower. It is of two types :

(1) Self pollination (2) Cross pollination

(1) Self pollination :This process involves the transfer of pollen grains from the
anthers to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower borne by the same
plant. It is of two types :

(i) Autogamy :It is a kind of pollination in which the pollen from the anthers of a
flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower.

(ii) Geitonogamy :It is an kind of pollination in which the pollen from the anthers of
one flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower borne on the same plant. It
usually occurs in plants which show monoecious condition (unisexual, male and
female flowers are borne on the same plant). Geitonogamy involves two flowers but
these belong to the same parent plant.

Merits

 Pollen grains are not wasted.

 The purity of the generation is maintained.

Demerits

 New and healthier varieties are not formed.

 It results in weaker progeny, producing weaker seeds and plants.

Contrivances for self pollination :The major contrivances or adaptations which

favoursself pollination are :

(a) Bisexuality :Flowers should be bisexual or hermophrodite.

(b) Homogamy :Anthers and stigma of the bisexual flowers of some plants mature
at the same time. They are brought close to each other by growth, bending or folding
to ensure self pollination. This condition is called homogamy. e.g., Mirabilis (Four O,
clock), Catharanthus (= Vinca), Potato, Sunflower, Wheat, Rice, etc.

(c) Cleistogamy :Some plants never open to ensure complete self-pollination. This
condition is called cleistogamy, e.g., Commelinabengalensis, Oxalis, Viola, etc. The
cleistogamous flowers are bisexual small, inconspicious, colourless and do not
secrete nectar.

(2) Cross pollination :Cross pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from
the flower of one plant to the stigma of the flower of another plant. It is also called
xenogamy.

Merits

 Seeds are more and viable.

 Progenies are healthier.

  Adaptability is better.

 New varieties can be produced.

Demerits

 The process is not definite because plants depend on agencies.

 Large amount of pollen grains are wasted.

Contrivances for cross pollination :Nature favours cross pollination. All unisexual
flowers and a large number of bisexual flowers are naturally cross pollinated.

The main contrivances ensuring cross pollination are as follows :

 Diclincy or Unisexuality :In unisexual flowers stamens and carpels are

found in different flowers. Unisexuality can be of two types :
 Monoeciousplant :When male and female flowers are borne on the same
plant. e.g., Maize, Cucurbits, Castor.

 Dioeciousplant : When male and female flowers are borne on different

plants. e.g., Carica papaya, Cannabis.
 Dichogamy : In bisexual flowers, when two sexes mature at different intervals
and thus avoid self pollination is known as dichogamy. When stamens mature
earlier than the stigma, it is known as protandry and the flowers are called
protandrouse.g. Coriander, Jasmine, Sunflower, Lady’s finger, etc. When
stigma matures earlier than the stamens, it is known as protogynyand the
flowers are called protogynous. e.g., Rose, Tobacco, Crucifers, etc.
 Heterostyly : The plants of some species in which flowers are dimorphic.
Thus facilitate cross pollination. Some of them possess a long style but short
stamens and are known as pin-eyed while others have short style and long
stamens. These are known as thrum-eyed. e.g., Oxalis.
  Herkogamy :In some bisexual flowers where the stigma and anthers mature
at the same time, self pollination is avoided by some sort of barrier. The
flowers show following contrivances :
 The male and female sex organs lie at some distance from each other.

 In some flowers corolla has peculiar forms which act as barrier in self
pollination. e.g.Aristolochia.

 In some other flowers, the pollens are held together to form pollinia which can
only be carried away by insects. e.g. Orchids and Calotropis.
  Self sterility or Incompatibility : When pollen grain of an anther do not
germinate on the stigma of the same flower, then such flower is called self
sterile or incompatibility and this condition of flower is called self sterility,
intraspecific incompatibility or self incompatibility. In these flowers cross
pollination is the only means for fertilization and production of seeds.
(3) Agents for cross pollination :Cross pollination involves external agents for the
transfer of pollen grains of one flower to the stigma of another flower. There are two
main groups of agents : (i) Abioticagents like wind and water

(ii) Biotic agents which include animals of different types such as insects, birds, bats,
snails, etc.

(i) Abiotic agents

(a) Anemophily :When flowers are pollinated by wind agency, the phenomenon is
known as anemophily. Wind pollinated flowers produce very large amount of pollen
grains to compensate the wastage. Pollen grains of such plants are small, light, dry,
and smooth. The female flowers have large feathery or brush like stigmas to catch
the pollen grains. Anemophilous flowers are small and inconspicuous with long and
versatile stamens. e.g. Sugarcane, Maize, Wheat, Bamboo, Pinus, Papaya,
Grasses, Typha, Datepalm, Coconut, Mulberry, Chenopodium, etc. This type of
pollination mainly observed in Graminae.

(b) Hydrophily :When the pollination takes place through the agency of water, it is
known as hydrophily. All aquatic plants are not hydrophilous some are
anemophilouse.g.Potamogeton, Myriophyllum or Entomophilouse.g.Alisma, Lotus.
Hydrophily is of two types :

 Hypohydrophily :Plants which are pollinated inside the water e.g.Zostera,

Ceratophyllum, Najas, etc.

 Epihydrophily :Plants which are pollinated outside the water. e.g.Vallisneria

(Ribbon weed).

Biotic agents
(a) Entomophily : When pollination is brought about by the agency of insects, it is
known as entomophily or insect pollination. About 80% pollination occurs by insects
like moths, bettles, butterflies, wasp, etc. All the flowers pollinated by insects are
brightly coloured, have a sweet smell and produce nectar. Entomophilous flowers
produce a small amount of pollen which has a spinous and sticky exine due to
presence of pollenkitt. The stigmas of such flowers are long rough and sticky. The
insects visit the flower for nectar, edible pollen grain and shelter. Bees obtain both
nectar and pollen grains from the flowers and have basket for collecting pollen.
Salvia is excellent example of insect pollination is which pollination occurs by lever or
turn pipe mechanism. Other examples of insect plants are Yucca (by Tageticula
moth), Orchid Ophrys speculum (by Colpaaurea a hairy wasp), Ficus (by
Blastophega), etc.

(b) Ornithophily : When flowers are pollinated by birds, the phenomenon is known
as ornithophily. The most common bird pollinators are Sun bird, Humming bird,
Crow, Bulbul, Parrot, Mynah, etc. The birds visit a large variety of flowers such as
Bombax (red silk cotton), Erythrina (Coral tree), Callistemon (Bottle brush), Bignonia,
Agave, etc. Flowers are brightly coloured and produce plenty of nectar and large
quantities of pollen. Humming bird pollinates while hovering over the flowers and
sucking nectar. The bird can derive about half of its body weight of nectar in a single
day. The nectar is chiefly made of sugars and provides a sweet drink to the bird.

(c) Chiropterophily : It is a mode of pollination performed by bats. The flowers they
visit are large, dull-coloured and have a strong scent. Chiropterophilous flowers
produce abundant pollen grains. These flowers secrete more nector than
ornithophilous flowers and open at night emit a good fragrance. e.g.Kigeliapinnata
(Sausage tree), Adansonia (Baobab tree), Bauhinia megalandra, Anthocephalus
(Kadam tree), etc.

(d) Malacophily :Pollination by slugsandsnails is called malacophily. Land plants

like Chrysanthemum and water plant like lemna shows malacophily. Arisaema (aroid;
snake plant) is often visited by snails.

FERTILISATION IN PLANTS
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
Fertilization: The fusion of male gamete with the female gamete to form a diploid
zygote within the embryo sac is called fertilization.
Double Fertilization

Mechanism of fertilization
(i) Due to pollination the related pollen grains are deposited over the receptive
stigma of the carpel.

(ii) These pollen grains absorb water, swell and then germinate to produce pollen
tubes.

(iii) The pollen tube grows into the stigma, passes through the style and then moves
towards the ovarian cavity.

(iv) Two male gametes are formed inside the tube during its growth through the style.

(v) After reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the ovule with its tip piercing the
egg apparatus.

(vi) The tip of the pollen tube ruptures releasing two male gametes into the embryo
sac.

(vii) One male gamete fertilizes the egg to form the diploid zygote by the process of
syngamy.
(viii) The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid (3n),
primary endosperm. This is known as triple fusion. The mechanism involving two
acts of fertilization in an embryo sac is called double fertilization.

Double fertilization was first studied in plants by Nawaschin in 1898.

Formation of fruits and seeds

(i) The fertilized egg divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.

(ii) The ovule then develops a tough coat around it which gradually gets converted
into a seed.

(iii) All the fertilized eggs in the ovules present in an ovary grow to become seed.

(iv) The ovary of the flower develops and becomes a fruit, which may be soft like
mangoes; juicy like oranges; hard, dry and woody like peanuts and almonds.

(v) The petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

(vi) The fruit protects the seed. The seed is the reproductive unit of a plant. It
contains the baby plant.

(vii) The part of the baby plant that develops into shoot is called plumule and the part
which develops into root is called radicle.

Germination

(viii) The part of the seed which contains stored food for the baby plant is called
cotyledon.

(ix) The baby plant inside the seed develops into a seedling under suitable
conditions like water, air, temperature, etc. This is called germination.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS

POLINATION:

S.No. Self Pollination Cross Pollination

Pollen grains are transferred from the Pollen grains are transferred from the anther
anther to the stigma of the same flower of one flower to the stigma of another
1.
(autogamy) or another flower borne on flower borne on a different plant of the same
the same plant (geitonogamy). species (allogamy).
The anther and stigma of a flower generally
Both the anther and stigma mature at the
2.
same time.
mature at different times
3. It can occur even when the flowers are It occurs only where the flowers are open.
 closed.
External agent is not required for self- An external agent abiotic or biotic, is
4.
pollination. essential for cross-pollination
Cross-pollination is not economical as the
5. It is economical for the plant. nectar, scent and bright-coloured corollas,
etc.
Self-pollination ultimately results in Cross pollination produces the offsprings
6. progenies which are pure lines i.e. which are hybrids I.e., heterozygous. They
homozygous. show variations in characteristics.
It cannot eliminate useless or harmful It can eliminate useless or harmful
7.
characters. characters.
Highly useful characters get preserved in Useful characters cannot be preserved in the
8.
the race progenies.
Cross−Pollination Introduce variations in
Self-pollination does not introduce any the
variations and hence the offsprings are
9.
unable to adapt to the changed offsprings These variations make these
environment. plants to adapt better to the changed
environment 'or the struggle for existence.
Immunity of the race towards disease falls
Immunity of the race towards disease is
in
10. usually maintained in the succeeding
progenies.
the succeeding progenies.
Yield of the plant gradually falls with
11. Yield of plant usually does not fall
time.
Cross-pollination is a mechanism of
Self-pollination never helps in the producing
12.
production of new varieties and species.
new varieties and species among plants.
 FERTILIZATION
How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
    Fertilization involves the fusion of haploid male and female gametes to
form diploid zygote.
    Three days is required for an ovum to travel down the oviducts to the uterus.
An oocyte lives, however only about 24 hours after its liberation from the
follicle.
    During copulation the continued stimulation of the glans penis triggers the
spasm of muscles of the genital organs creating the orgasm and resulting in
the discharge of semen from the urethra.
    When semen is deposited within the vagina, the spermatozoa are deposited
high up in the vagina close to the cervix. Spermatozoa remain viable in the
female genital tract for 24–72 h.
    The sperms tend to move in all directions, but many find their way up the
cervix of the uterus. They reach the top of the fallopian tube within 5 mm of
their release due to contractions in the walls of uterus and fallopian tube
where they meet the descending ovum.
    When sperm reches in the oviduct, near the ovum then it releases enzymes
to dissolve the egg membrane. Now, the sperm nucleus enters in the egg
nucleus to form zygote. This fusion of male and female gametes is known
as fertilization. The zygote is formed if copulation has taken place during
ovulatory period (middle of menstrual cycle). Fertilization is marked by the
absence of menstrual flow.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION:

➢   It is a technique to make a female pregnant by artificially introducing semen into

vagina.
➢   In this process semen from a good quality male is collected, preserved by freezing
and used when required.
➢   In case of humans it is also being used for improving the chances of fertility.
➢   A man may be infertile due to insufficient number of sperms, weak or premature
ejaculation, inability of penis to undergo and enter the vagina or non-motile sperms.
➢   In this case husband's semen is collected, concentrated and introduced artificially
into the wife's vagina. This is called as artificial insemination.
➢   If the husband's sperms are faulty, some donor’s sperm can be used. This is called
as artificial insemination donor.

Artificial insemination has following two advantages:

(i)   Semen of good quality male animal is used to inseminate a number of females.

(ii)   Preserved semen can be transported to distant places, excluding the need for
sending the male animal there.

Human Population

Human population growth is supported by life capacity of the environment. Life

supporting capacity of environment has been increased many fold by advancements
made in science and technology like mechinization of agriculture, use of disease free
hybrid and high yielding varieties of seeds and use of fertilizers and pesticides etc.
The major causes that have contributed towards increase in the human population
are : Decline in death rate, control of diseases, decrease in infant mortality, better
sanitation and community health schemes and lastly better means of transport.

Not only these, there are many other socio-economic reasons (e.g. signs of national
strength, religious and economic beliefs; signs of security in old age; more earning
hands in family etc. that have led to an increase in the human population.

Method of control of overpopulation

Education : People, particularly those in reproductive age group, should be

educated about the advantages of a small family and ill-effects of large families and
overpopulation. In this, mass media like radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
posters etc. and educational institutions can play important role. Government should
provide free and compulsory primary education to the children below the age of 14
years. In China, there is a legislation making “basic primary education free,
compulsory and universal.”

Age of marriage : should be raised. Demographers explain that postponment of

female marriage age from 18 years to 20 or 22 years would bring down the birth rate
by 20 to 30%. Even a years postponment in each age group will decrease total
fertility rate much less than the present 3.5% for the country. But according to an
ICMR report, about 49% women in India are married before the legal age of 18
years.

Population Control

The prevention of pregnancy in a woman is called contraception. Any device or

chemical which prevents pregnancy is called a contraceptive. All the birth control
methods are divided into:

➢   Barrier methods
➢   Chemical methods
➢   Intra uterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
➢   Surgical methods

Barrier methods:
 These are the physical devices to prevent the entry of sperm so that it does not
reach the egg. e.g. condoms which can be used to cover the penis. Coverings like
diaphragm worn in the vagina can serve the same purpose. Barrier methods also
protect against STD’s (sexually transmitted disease).

Chemical methods:

(a)   Oral pills: They are hormonal preparations. They act by changing the hormonal
balance of the body, so that eggs are not released & fertilization cannot occur. They
are taken orally, therefore commonly called oral contraceptives (OC). These pills can
cause side effects.
(b)   Vaginal pills: They contain spermicides and therefore they kill the sperms.

Intra-uterine contraceptive device (IUCD):

They are contraceptives such as a loop or the copper-T placed in the uterus. They
prevent implantation in the uterus. They can cause side effects due to irritation of the
uterus.

Surgical methods:

(a)   Vasectomy: In males, a small portion of vas deferens (sperm duct) is cut and the
cut ends are then ligated (tied). This prevents the sperms from coming out.
(b)   Tubectomy: In females, a small portion of fallopian tubes is cut & the cut ends are
then ligated (tied). This prevents the egg to enter the fallopian tube.

Surgical methods are the permanent methods of contraception.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
The reproduction organs in human beings become functional after attaining sexual
maturity. In males, sexual maturity is attained at a age of 13 – 14 years. In females, it
is attained at an age of 12 – 13 years. This age is known as the age of puberty.
During sexual maturity, hormonal changes take place in males and females, and
under the influence of these hormones secondary sexual characteristics are
developed.

Secondary sexual characteristics in males include deepening of voice, widening of

shoulders, appearance of beard and moustaches, growth of axillary and pubic hair,
enlargement of external genital organs and formation of sperms.

Secondary sexual characteristics in females include growth of axillary and pubic hair,
widening of pelvis and hip, enlargement of breasts and initiation of the menstrual
cycle.
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system consists of the two following organs – a pair of testes,
a pair of epididymis, a pair of vasa deferentia, urethra, penis and accessary glands.

Male Reproductive System

Male reproductive system comprises of following parts:

(i) Testis (ii) Scrotum (iii) Vasa efferentia

(iv) Epididymis (v) Vas deferens (vi) Ejaculatory duct

(vii) Urethra (viii) Accessory sex glands (ix) Penis

Testis:

Testes are one pair of small sized oval shaped 4 to 5 cm long, pinkish coloured
primary sex organ of male.These are present in a thin pouch made up of skin and
connective tissue called scrotal sac or scrotum hanging from lower abdominal wall
between the leg.Scrotal sac acts as thermoregulator and it keep the testicular
temperature 2°C lower than body temperature. This temperature is suitable for
development of sperms. Each testis is externally covered by a white fibrous capsule,
the tunica albuginea which is produced inside the testis as fibrous septa. The septa
divide the testis into a number of testicular lobes.Each lobule has one to three
convoluted seminiferous tubules.The combined length of all seminiferous tubules is
about 200–400 metres. Between the seminiferous tubules connective tissue are
found.In this connective tissue interstitial cells also called Leydig cells are present as
clumps.These cells secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone. This hormone
regulates the maintenance of primary and secondary sexual charateristics in males.

EPIDIDYMIS
  Epididymis is very coiled long tube of 6m. It is commonly known as store
house of sperms.
 Storage and activation of sperms take place here. Its secretion also
contributes to seminal fluid. Sperm can be seen for 10 Hr. to 10 days in it.
 If there is no ejaculation for longer time the sperms get absorbed by its wall.

Vasa deffrentia

 Each epididymis continues from its lower end as a vas deferens.

 It enters into abdominal cavity through inguinal canal, forms loop round the
uretor and joins the duct of a seminal vesicles to form an ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory duct opens into the urethra.
 Near its end the vasa deferens is enlarged to form a spindle like ampulla for
the temporary storage of sperm.
 It is cut or tied off as the birth-control measure called vasectomy.

Urethra

It arises from the urinary bladder and joins the ejaculatory duct to form urinogenital
canal as it carries urine, sperm and secretion of seminal vesicles postrate and
cowper’s gland.

Urethra is 20 cm long, passes through the penis and it is differentiated into prostatic
part (2.5 cm) membranous part (2.5 cm) and penile part (15.0 cm). Finally it opens at
tip of penis.

In male it is the common pathway for release of urine and seminal fluid.

Penis: It is a long and thick muscular organ made up of mostly erectile tissue. It
opens outside the body. It passes the sperms from the man’s body into the vagina of
the women’s body during mating.
Accessory sex glands

1. Seminal vesicles: These are elongated coiled sacs. They secrete seminal fluid
that contains sugar fructose. It provides energy to the spermatozoa.

SEMEN

 Sperms and secretion of accesory glands collectively known as seminal fluid

or semen.
 It is milky, semi-solid in nature having particular smell.
 pH – 7.35 – 7.5, specific gravity – 1.028
 The secretion has many functions as –

 Provide fluid medium to sperms

 Nourish and activate sperms.
 Facilitate the sexual act by lubricating the reproduction tract of the female.

(ii) Prostate gland: This gland surrounds the first portion of urethra. It secretes a fluid
containing citrate and enzymes that nourish and activates the spermatozoa that
swim.

SPERMATOZOA

 Human sperm lives for many weeks in gonoduct but, once ejaculated it
survives only for 24 to 48 hrs.
 The sperms are released in millions. In one ejaculation about 200,000,000 (2
× 108) sperms are discharged. Sperm move with the speed of 2 mm/minute in
female tract.
  Structurally, a human sperm has three main parts – head, neck and tail. The
tip of a sperm is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome, which helps the
sperm to penetrate inside the egg during fertilization.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It
produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.Conception, the
fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next
step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the uterus, beginning the initial
stages ofpregnancy. If fertilization and/or implantation does not take place, the
system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding of the uterine lining). In
addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that
maintains the reproductive cycle.

It is more complex as compared to that of males. It consists of a pair of ovaries, a

pair of fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina.

Ovaries: They are the primary sex organs located in the lower part of the abdominal
cavity near kidney. Each ovary is connected by a ligament to the uterus. It produces
gametes (eggs) and hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Ovary is composed
of ovarian follicles. Each follicle contains a large ovum (egg) surrounded by many
layers of follicle cells.

When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. At
puberty some of these eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every month by
one of the ovaries. The release of egg from the ovary is called ovulation. It is caused
by increase in turgidity aided by contraction of unstriped muscle fibres around the
follicles. The force of ejection carries the egg to the fallopian tube. In women each
measures about 3 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm and surrounded by the fold of peritoneum.

Ovaries produce ova and secrete female sex hormones, oestrogen and
progesterone. The process of formation of egg in the ovary is known as oogenesis.

Fallopian tubes:These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the
uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the
uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the
lining of the uterine wall.

Uterus (womb):It is a large (8 cm × 5 cm × 2 cm) hollow muscular, highly vascular

and pear shaped structure present is the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. It is
formed of three parts :

 Fundus :It is upper dome shaped part above the opening of follopion tubes.
 Body or corpus :It is middle and main part of uterus. Its wall is formed of
outer peritoneal layer called perimetrium; middle muscular mucosa or
myometrium of smooth muscle fibres and inner highly vascular and glandular
mucosa or endometrium.
 Carvix :It is lower narrow part which opens in body of uterus by internal
osand in vegina below by external os.
 Functions. It is the site of foetal growth during pregnancy. It also takes part in
placenta formation and expelling of the baby during parturition.
 Vagina: The vagina is a large, median elastic muscular tube. It is adapted to
receive the male penis during copulation. The vagina is also called “birth
canal”. It allows the passage of baby at the time of child birth.

Reproductive system (Female)

Gland:

 Bartholin's gland: It secretes a clear, viscous fluid under sexual excitement.

 The fluid serves as a lubricant during copulation or mating.

Menstrual Cycle:

 It is a cyclic phase of the flow of blood with mucus and tissues etc. from the
uterus of a woman at monthly intervals.
 It occurs on average of 28 days interval.
 It starts at the age of 12-14 years and stops at 45 - 50 years of life.
 This cycle stops during pregnancy.
 The menstrual cycle consists of following phases:

(i) Bleeding or menstrual phase:

 It is the first stage of menstrual cycle.

  Its duration is of 5 days but normally bleeding is found for 2 - 3 days.
  In this stage hormones oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone
and luteinizing hormone are found in minimum quantity
  Total 100 ml, of blood flows in a complete bleeding phase.

(ii) Proliferative phase:

  In this phase F.S.H stimulates development and maturation of graffian

follicles.
  In this phase oestrogen level rises which leads to formation of new
endometrium.
  It lasts for about 10 - 14 days. Thinnest endometrium is found in this phase.
   It is also called as follicular phase.

Ovulation phase:

 At this phase ovulation occurs.

  Ovulation occurs in the presence of FSH and LH.
  Thickest endometrium found in this stage.
  It also lasts for about 14 days.

(iv) Secretory phase: In this stage both oestrogen and progesterone levels
are high.

  If fertilization takes place, this stage extends till to the parturition (giving birth
to a child).
  If fertilization does not take place, this stage completes on 28 th day of
menstrual cycle.
  The commencement of menstruation at puberty is called as menarche.
  It's stoppage around the age of 50 years is called as menopause.
  The period between menarche and menopause is the reproductive phase in
human female.

(b) Oogenesis:

Oogenesis is a process of formation of ovum. The ovum is a rounded, non-motile

cell. Its size varies in different animals depending upon the amount of yolk in it.

Ovum consists of two types of coverings:

(i) Inner thin, transparent, non-cellular covering called as zonapellucida. It is

composed of protein and sugars. It is secreted by follicle cells.

(ii) Outer thick covering is called as corona radiata.

 
 

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

How Do Organism Reproduce of Class 10
 Fertilization involves the fusion of haploid male and female gametes to form
diploid zygote.
  Three days is required for an ovum to travel down the oviducts to the uterus.
An oocyte lives, however only about 24 hours after its liberation from the
follicle.
 During copulation the continued stimulation of the glans penis triggers the
spasm of muscles of the genital organs creating the orgasm and resulting in
the discharge of semen from the urethra.
 When semen is deposited within the vagina, the spermatozoa are deposited
high up in the vagina close to the cervix. Spermatozoa remain viable in the
female genital tract for 24–72 h.
 The sperms tend to move in all directions, but many find their way up the
cervix of the uterus. They reach the top of the fallopian tube within 5 mm of
their release due to contractions in the walls of uterus and fallopian tube
where they meet the descending ovum.
 When sperm reches in the oviduct, near the ovum then it releases enzymes to
dissolve the egg membrane. Now, the sperm nucleus enters in the egg
nucleus to form zygote. This fusion of male and female gametes is known as
fertilization. The zygote is formed if copulation has taken place during
ovulatory period (middle of menstrual cycle). Fertilization is marked by the
absence of menstrual flow.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION:
  It is a technique to make a female pregnant by artificially introducing semen
into vagina.
  In this process semen from a good quality male is collected, preserved by
freezing and used when required.
  In case of humans it is also being used for improving the chances of fertility.
  A man may be infertile due to insufficient number of sperms, weak or
premature ejaculation, inability of penis to undergo and enter the vagina or
non-motile sperms.
  In this case husband's semen is collected, concentrated and introduced
artificially into the wife's vagina. This is called as artificial insemination.
  If the husband's sperms are faulty, some donor’s sperm can be used. This is
called as artificial insemination donor.

Artificial insemination has following two advantages:

 Semen of good quality male animal is used to inseminate a number of

females.
 Preserved semen can be transported to distant places, excluding the need for
sending the male animal there.

Human Population

Human population growth is supported by life capacity of the environment. Life

supporting capacity of environment has been increased many fold by advancements
made in science and technology like mechinization of agriculture, use of disease free
hybrid and high yielding varieties of seeds and use of fertilizers and pesticides etc.
The major causes that have contributed towards increase in the human population
are : Decline in death rate, control of diseases, decrease in infant mortality, better
sanitation and community health schemes and lastly better means of transport.

Not only these, there are many other socio-economic reasons (e.g. signs of national
strength, religious and economic beliefs; signs of security in old age; more earning
hands in family etc. that have led to an increase in the human population.

Method of control of overpopulation

Education : People, particularly those in reproductive age group, should be educated

about the advantages of a small family and ill-effects of large families and
overpopulation. In this, mass media like radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
posters etc. and educational institutions can play important role. Government should
provide free and compulsory primary education to the children below the age of 14
years. In China, there is a legislation making “basic primary education free,
compulsory and universal.”.

Age of marriage : should be raised. Demographers explain that postponment of

female marriage age from 18 years to 20 or 22 years would bring down the birth rate
by 20 to 30%. Even a years postponment in each age group will decrease total
fertility rate much less than the present 3.5% for the country. But according to an
ICMR report, about 49% women in India are married before the legal age of 18
years.

Population Control

The prevention of pregnancy in a woman is called contraception. Any device or

chemical which prevents pregnancy is called a contraceptive. All the birth control
methods are divided into:

  Barrier methods
  Chemical methods
  Intra uterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
  Surgical methods

Barrier methods:

These are the physical devices to prevent the entry of sperm so that it does not
reach the egg. e.g. condoms which can be used to cover the penis. Coverings like
diaphragm worn in the vagina can serve the same purpose. Barrier methods also
protect against STD’s (sexually transmitted disease).

Chemical methods:

(a) Oral pills: They are hormonal preparations. They act by changing the hormonal
balance of the body, so that eggs are not released & fertilization cannot occur. They
are taken orally, therefore commonly called oral contraceptives (OC). These pills can
cause side effects.
(b) Vaginal pills: They contain spermicides and therefore they kill the sperms.

Intra-uterine contraceptive device (IUCD):

They are contraceptives such as a loop or the copper-T placed in the uterus. They
prevent implantation in the uterus. They can cause side effects due to irritation of the
uterus.

Surgical methods:

(a) Vasectomy: In males, a small portion of vas deferens (sperm duct) is cut and the
cut ends are then ligated (tied). This prevents the sperms from coming out.

(b)Tubectomy: In females, a small portion of fallopian tubes is cut & the cut ends are
then ligated (tied). This prevents the egg to enter the fallopian tube.

Surgical methods are the permanent methods of contraception.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) are those infectious and communicable

diseases which are transmitted from an infected person to a healthy but susceptible
person during unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sexual contact. These are generally
acquired diseases and usually affect the reproductive system of the person but may
spread to other body parts as well.

Increasing resistance in the pathogens to antibiotics. So STDS are easier to avoid

than to treat and cure. Absitence, monogamy and the use of condoms are the best
ways to avoid STD infections. STDS are also called international diseases.

Gonorrhoea (bacterial disease)

 Syphilis (bacterial disease)

 Warts (viral infection)
 AIDS (viral infection)

AIDS: It is caused by HIV- Human immuno deficiency virus. This disease weakens
the body’s immune system so that body becomes weak & cannot protect itself
against infection.

Causes :Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS or aids) is caused by the

Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV.

Epidemiology :

 It is a sexually transmitted diseases as it can pass from one person to another

during sexual intercourse.
  HIV gradually reduces the efficiency of the human immune system, it destroys
the body’s ability to fight diseases. This makes the body vulnerable to other
life-threatening diseases that finally cause the patients’s death.
 Once a person is infected, the virus remains in the body life-long. Since HIV
infection can take many years to manifest itself, the carrier (who is
symptomless) can infect other persons for years.
 HIV attacks the helper T-lymphocytes (or T4 cells–a type of leucocyte). The
body is unable to fight infections.
 The patient easily catches infections such as pneumonia and often develops
various forms of cancer.
 Incubation period is uncertain, varying from a few months to 10-12 years.

Symptoms

 Short flu-like illness. Chronic diarrhoea and severe weight loss.

 Swollen lymph nodes. Decreased count of blood platelets causing blood loss.
 Development of a disfiguring form of skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma).
Sweating at night.
 Severe damage to brain, leading to loss of memory and ability to think and
speak.
 Due to breakdown of immune system, the victim becomes susceptible to other
infections.

Transmission

The disease is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person through :

 Sexual contact and infected blood contact, (blood transfusion) are common
means of transmission.
 Use of contaminated needles, syringes, blades or razors.
 Through cuts and wounds during close contact between infected and non-
infected people.
 From infected mother to foetus through placenta and through breast feeding.
 Homosexual relationship and sharing of needles for drug abuse are high risk
groups

Gonorrhoea

Cause :It is a bacterial (gram negative) and veneral (sexually transmitted) disease
caused by a diplococcus bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhoea.

Epidemiology :It is a sexually transmitted disease spread by sexual contact with

infected persons. The risk of infection depends upon number of exposures.

Incubation period :About 2 to 10 days.

Symptoms :Gonorrhoea is characterised by inflammation of mucous membrane of

urinogenital tract so the patient feels burning sensation during urination. The
symptoms are more obvious in males than in females. It may also cause arthritis,
female sterility and gonococcalophthalmia (eye infection in the children – also called
ophthalmianeonatorumwhen contact during its passage through the birth canal).

Prophylaxis :Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality. Identifying the asymptomatic

individuals which form high risk group. Health education and use of condoms.

Therapy :Recommended antibiotics are ceftriaxone (most effective), ampicillin and

penicillin.