Internet of Things (IoT)

What is IoT?
IoT stands for Internet of Things which means accessing and controlling daily usable equipment and
devices using internet.
The term “Things” refers to anything and everything in day to day life which is accessed or connected
through the Internet.

History of IoT
The term Internet of Things was first developed in year 1999 by Kevin Ashton, one of the founders of the
Auto-ID Center at MIT.

Characteristics of IoT
1. Connectivity
2. Interconnectivity
3. Things-related services
4. Heterogeneity
5. Interoperability
6. Dynamic Changes
7. Enormous Scale
8. Safety

Advantages of IoT
1. Ability to access information from anywhere at any time on any device
2. Improved communication between connected electronic devices
3. Transferring data packets over a connected network saving time and money
4. Automating tasks helping to improve the quality of a business's services and reducing the need for
human intervention
5. Efficient resource utilization, efficient usage of electricity and energy
6. Improved security as all the things can be interconnected

Disadvantages of IoT
1. As the number of connected devices increases and more information is shared between devices, the
potential that a hacker could steal confidential information also increases.
2. Enterprises may eventually have to deal with massive numbers -- maybe even millions -- of IoT devices,
and collecting and managing the data from all those devices will be challenging.
3. If there's a bug in the system, it's likely that every connected device will become corrupted.
4. It may lead to an unintentional unemployment. People who are at lower level like unskilled labour may
have high risks of losing their jobs. Security Guards, House Servants, Iron & Dry wash services, etc. may
not have proper employment opportunities as the IoT devices replaces their work and people can work
on their own.

IoT Applications
1. Home Automation
2. Smart Water Systems
3. Smart Transport
 4. Smart Cities
5. Social Life and Entertainment
6. Health and Fitness
7. Smart Environment and Agriculture
8. Livestock Monitoring
9. Smart Greenhouse
10. Supply Chain and Logistics
11. Energy Conservation

Components of an IoT System

IoT component includes hardware such as the sensors, communication hardware etc.
Middleware such as data analytical tools and storage and presentation for delivery of the information to
the end users.

1. Smart devices and sensors – Device connectivity

Devices and sensors are the components of the device connectivity layer. These smart sensors are
continuously collecting data from the environment and transmit the information to the next layer. Common
sensors are Temperature sensors and thermostats, Pressure sensors, Humidity / Moisture level, Light
intensity detectors, Moisture sensors, Proximity detection, RFID tags.
2. Gateway
IoT Gateway manages the bidirectional data traffic between different networks and protocols. Another
function of gateway is to translate different network protocols and make sure interoperability of the
connected devices and sensors. The IoT gateway acts as a bridge for the different devices’ data to reach the
cloud. It offers certain level of security for the network and transmitted data with higher order encryption
techniques. It acts as a middle layer between devices and cloud to protect the system from malicious attacks
and unauthorized access.

3. Cloud
Internet of things creates massive data from devices, applications and users which has to be managed in an
efficient way. IoT cloud offers tools to collect, process, manage and store huge amount of data in real time.
The cloud is where all the data from the different devices is gathered and where software can reach this data
 for processing. IoT cloud is a high-performance network of servers which is optimized to perform high speed
data processing of billions of devices, traffic management and deliver accurate analytics.

4. Analytics
Analytics is the process of converting analog data from billions of smart devices and sensors into useful
information which can be processed and used for detailed analysis. One of the major advantages of an
efficient IoT system is real time smart analytics which helps engineers to find out irregularities, issues in the
collected data and act fast to prevent an undesired situation.
5. User interface
User interfaces are the visible part of the IoT system which can be accessible by users. The designers will
have to make sure a well-designed user interface for minimum effort for users and encourage more
interactions. Modern technology offers much interactive design to ease complex tasks into simple touch
panels controls.

Working and Implementation of IoT

The idea behind the Internet of Things (IoT) is to build a network of interconnected devices that can talk to each
other and with people in order to increase productivity, automate procedures, and improve decision-making.

IoT works by connecting physical objects to the internet, enabling data collection and sharing. These gadgets have
sensors that collect data from their surroundings. The data is subsequently sent to cloud platforms for storage and
analysis through the internet. The data is processed with the aid of software and algorithms, and insightful
conclusions are made. These realisations may serve as catalysts for action, information delivery to consumers via
applications, or process improvement. IoT enables gadgets to communicate, gather data, and generally improve the
effectiveness and convenience of our lives.

Sensors: -
IoT devices use a variety of sensors to collect information from their surroundings. These devices are frequently
referred to as "smart" or "connected" gadgets. Temperature sensors, motion detectors, cameras, GPS units, and
many other types of sensors can be used as these. Devices might be as basic as common place items or as
sophisticated as industrial machinery.

Gateways: -
The connectivity of IoT devices is managed by gateways. They are able to connect to and keep connections with a
variety of devices, ensuring dependable and secure communication. The overall security of the IoT network is
improved by gateways' ability to perform activities including device authentication, access control, and data
encryption.

Cloud/Server: -
IoT data is delivered to cloud-based systems, which offer the necessary infrastructure for data storage, processing,
and analysis. Data ingestion, device administration, security, and analytics are just a few of the tools and services
that cloud platforms frequently provide for managing IoT deployments. These platforms allow for the efficient and
scalable processing of significant amounts of IoT data.

Application and Action: -

Through apps or user interfaces, the knowledge discovered through data analysis can be used to start processes or
notify end users. These programmes can be web-based, available as mobile apps, or included in other programmes.
Users of a smart home application, for instance, may be able to monitor energy usage, manage home appliances
from a distance, and receive alerts based on sensor data.

IoT Architecture and Levels

IoT Architecture shows the building blocks of an IoT system and how they are connected to collect, store and process
data.

It also contains device and user management components to provide stable and secure functioning of things and
control user access issues.

Five Layer Architecture

The most basic architecture is a three-layer architecture. It has three layers namely, the Perception, Network, and
Application Layers.

1. Perception (Recognition layer):-

The perception layer is the lowest layer of the IoT architecture, often known as the physical layer. It is made
up of sensors, actuators, and gadgets that interact with the physical world. These devices collect data from
their surroundings or control physical items. Sensors can include temperature sensors, humidity sensors,
motion sensors, GPS receivers, and other devices. Actuators can be motors, valves, switches, or any device
that can control physical things. The perception layer translates physical events or situations into digital
data.
2. Transport: -
 The transport layer is in charge of connecting devices and facilitating communication with the network
infrastructure. This layer includes numerous communication protocols and technologies such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, cellular networks (3G, 4G, or 5G), and others. The network layer controls data
transfer, routing, and addressing between devices and gateways, ensuring dependable and secure
communication.
3. Processing (Middleware): -
This layer is responsible for storing, analysing, and transforming data from the transport layer. This layer
comprises of cloud computing systems that can analyse and interpret data from the physical world. It
accepts raw sensor data and converts it into valuable information using cloud services and big data modules.

The processing layer also allows the system to act on data and respond in real time. It is in charge of making
judgements and taking action depending on the data it receives. This layer is also utilised to create
predictions and deliver insights based on data obtained during the perception stage. It is also known as the
middleware layer because it is the third of five layers in IoT architecture.
4. Application Layer: -
The data collected from the perception layer is processed, analysed, and translated into relevant insights in
the application layer. It includes of software programmes, services, and algorithms that use data to provide
certain functionality and services. Data analytics applications, control systems, monitoring apps, and user
interfaces are a few examples. This layer collaborates with the middleware layer to access and manipulate
IoT data.
5. Business Layer: -
The highest layer of the IoT architecture is the business layer, which focuses on the utilisation of IoT
technologies to fulfil specific business goals. It entails integrating Internet of Things solutions into existing
business processes, systems, and strategies. This layer includes things like business models, data
monetization, decision-making, and general system administration. It is concerned with the production of
value, the scalability, and the sustainability of IoT implementation.

IoT Ecosystem
The IoT ecosystem is a connection of various kind of devices that sense and analyse the data and
communicates with each other over the networks.
It consists of many components and layers that work together to allow the seamless integration of physical
items into the digital realm. The following are the usual components of an IoT ecosystem:
1. Devices and sensors: -
These are physical items or endpoints with embedded sensors, actuators, or processing power. They get
data from their surroundings and interact with the actual world.
2. Network: -
To connect and transmit data, IoT devices require a variety of communication methods and protocols. Wi-Fi,
cellular networks, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and other wireless or cable networking options are included.
3. Cloud: -
Cloud platforms provide the infrastructure and services needed to store, analyse, and analyse the huge
volumes of data produced by IoT devices. They provide scalability, computational power, and data
management.
4. Data Analytics: -
This component entails the processing, analysis, and interpretation of the obtained IoT data. Data analytics
tools, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, are used to extract useful insights, spot patterns,
and make informed decisions.
5. Security: -
It is essential to ensure the security and privacy of IoT data and devices. This comprises authentication
systems, encryption, access control, secure communication protocols, and privacy safeguards for users.
 6. Application: -
To interact and connect with smart devices and the environment, the IoT ecosystem employs a variety of
technologies, software, and applications.
7. User: -

The IoT ecosystem's products or services are consumed by individuals or groups of communities to serve the
smart living.

Network: -
A network in IoT refers to the interconnected system that allows devices, sensors, and services to communicate and
share data with one another. The network can be wired or wireless, and it includes physical connectivity, protocols,
connectivity technologies, gateways, cloud services, and security measures. The network serves as the foundation
for the seamless integration and interaction of devices in the IoT ecosystem.

Types of Network: -
1. BAN (Body Area Network):-
BAN (Body Area Network) is an IoT network that connects wearable devices and sensors on/near the body. It
offers wireless communication for health monitoring and data transmission. BANs provide personalised
feedback and improved user experiences, but they necessitate strict privacy and security safeguards.

2. PAN (Personal Area Network):-

PAN (Personal Area Network) is an IoT network connecting devices in a localized region. It enables
communication among devices like phones, laptops, and smart home gadgets. PANs use short-range wireless
tech like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi for convenient data sharing and personalized user experiences.

3. HAN(Home Area Network):-

The HAN (Home Area Network) connects smart home devices for control and communication. Using
technology such as Wi-Fi, it connects appliances, thermostats, lighting, and security cameras. HANs provide
remote monitoring, operation, and automation, improving convenience, energy efficiency, and providing a
linked living environment.

4. Neighbourhood Area Network:-

NAN (Neighbourhood Area Network) is an Internet of Things (IoT) network that extends connectivity beyond
individual residences to include an entire neighbourhood or community. It offers a larger network
architecture to support numerous IoT devices and services in the surrounding area. NANs communicate at
larger distances by utilising technologies like as LPWAN (Low-Power Wide Area Network) or mesh networks.
NANs enable applications such as smart street lighting, environmental monitoring, and collaborative
community services, improving a neighborhood's overall efficiency and quality of life.
5. LAN(Local Area Network):-
A LAN (Local Area Network) is an Internet of Things network that connects devices in a specific location, such
as a home, workplace, or building. It allows devices such as PCs, printers, and IoT devices to communicate
and share data. Ethernet or Wi-Fi are commonly used as communication technologies in LANs. LANs assist
the integration and operation of numerous smart devices in the context of IoT by enabling smooth
connectivity and efficient data exchange within a constrained region.
6. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):-
In the Internet of Things, a MAN (Metropolit xan Area Network) is a network architecture that spans a city or
metropolitan area. It connects the city's many devices, sensors, and systems to facilitate data sharing and
communication. To provide connectivity over longer distances, MANs use technologies such as fibre optics,
 wireless networks, or cellular networks. In the context of IoT, MANs enable city-wide applications like as
smart city services, transit management, and environmental monitoring.
7. WAN(Wide Area Network):-

A WAN is a network infrastructure that connects geographically distributed objects or systems. It facilitates
communication between IoT devices across long distances, frequently via the use of technologies like as
cellular networks or satellite links. WANs enable remote monitoring, control, and data sharing, enabling IoT
devices to operate and interact across large geographic areas or even globally.

8. VPN(Virtual Private Network):-

VPN (Virtual Private Network) in IoT refers to a secure network connection that allows IoT devices to
transmit data securely over the internet. It creates a private and encrypted tunnel between the IoT device
and the network server, ensuring confidentiality and integrity of the transmitted data. VPNs are used in IoT
to protect sensitive information, prevent unauthorized access, and provide a secure communication channel
for IoT devices across different networks.
9. CAN(Campus Area Network):-
In the Internet of Things, CAN (Controller Area Network) is a network protocol that is extensively used in
automotive and industrial applications. It allows electronic equipment and sensors within a system to
communicate with one another. In IoT systems, CAN enables real-time data interchange, fault detection, and
control. Its dependability, durability, and low implementation cost make it suited for applications such as car
diagnostics, industrial automation, and distributed control systems.

10. GAN(Global Area Network):-

In the Internet of Things, GAN (Generative Adversarial Network) refers to the use of machine learning
models to generate synthetic data that matches real-world IoT data. GANs can be used to augment training
data, improve IoT data sets, and simulate IoT scenarios. Using GANs in IoT can improve data accuracy and
diversity, resulting in improved IoT system performance, prediction capabilities, and anomaly detection.

IoT Technologies: -
IoT (Internet of Things) technologies refer to a network of interconnected objects and systems that collect and share
data. Protocols are the collection of rules and standards that allow these devices to communicate with one another,
such as MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol). They provide
easy data transport and integration in the IoT ecosystem.

Technologies Used in IoT:-

1. Bluetooth:-
Bluetooth is a Wireless Personal Area Network(WPAN) protocol designed by the Bluetooth Special Interest
Group(SIG). It is an open standard for short-range transmission of digital voice and data.

2. Bluetooth Low Energy(BLE):-

It is a wireless standard and is intended to exchange data over short distances and build Personal Area
Network(PANs).

3. Wifi(Wireless Fidelity):-
Wifi is a wireless technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data wirelessly(using radio waves)
over a computer network, including high 8 internet connections. It helps in sending and receiving data
packets to enable communication between IoT devices.

4. Cellular Networks
 A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells where each includes a fixed location
transceiver known as base station. Cellular technology is the basis of mobile phone networks. These
networks exist in various generations such as 3G and 4G of cellular network standards that are often
employed in smart phones but are also suitable for IoT due to their high mobility and speed.

5. Zigbee
Zigbee is a low powered, low cost standard on a wireless mesh network designed for battery powered
devices and cheaper alternative to Bluetooth. It is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 communication protocol
standard and is used for personal area networks (PANs).

6. Z-Wave
Z-Wave is a wireless network standard that consumes very low power and it is widely used for connecting
smart devices in the IoT like home automation, lighting controls, security systems, Energy savings etc. Z-
Wave devices can be attached to home appliances, which enable them to be controlled over the internet.

7. RFID(Radio Frequency Identification):-

RFID is an automatic technology that uses radio waves to identify items, record metadata, and control
particular targets. By connecting an RFID reader to an Internet terminal, the readers may detect, track, and
monitor the objects attached with tags globally, automatically, and in real time, if necessary. This is known as
the Internet of Things (IoT).
 Communication Models

IoT allows to connect multiple devices (things) to communicate with each other.

1. Request-Response communication model

Request-Response is a communication model in which the client sends requests to the server and the server
responds to the requests. When the server receives a request, it decides how to respond, fetches the data,
retrieves resource representations, prepares the response, and then sends the response to the client

2. Publish-Subscribe communication model

Publisher: It transfers data to broker. Publishers don’t know about consumers.

Broker: It is responsible to accept data from publishers and send it to the appropriate subscriber.
Subscriber: It consumes the topics which are managed by the broker.

Publish-Subscribe is a communication model that involves publishers, brokers and consumers. Publishers are
the source of data. Publishers send the data to the topics which are managed by the broker. Publishers are
not aware of the consumers. Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
When the broker receives data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the subscribed
consumers.

3. Push-Pull communication model

 Push-Pull is a communication model in which the data producers push the data to queues and the
consumers pull the data from the queues. Producers do not need to be aware of the consumers. Queues act
as a buffer which helps in situations when there is a mismatch between the rate at which the producers push
data and the rate at which the consumers pull.

4. Exclusive Pair communication model

• Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent connection
between the client and server.
• Once the connection is setup it remains open until the client sends a request to close the
connection.
• Client and server can send messages to each other after connection setup.

REST-based Communication APIs

Representational State Transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by which you can design web services and
web APIs that focus on a system’s resources and how resource states are addressed and transferred.

REST APIs follow the request- response communication model.

The REST architectural constraints apply to the components, connectors, and data elements, within a distributed
system.

Web-socket based Communication APIs

Web Socket APIs allow bi- directional, full duplex communication between clients and servers.
Web Socket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model.
 IoT Design Methodology

Step 1: Purpose & Requirements Specification

The first step in IoT system design methodology is to define the purpose and requirements of the system.
In this step, the system purpose, behaviour and requirements (such as data collection requirements, data
analysis requirements, system management requirements, data privacy and security requirements, user
interface requirements, ...) are captured.
Step 2: Process Specification The second step in the IoT design methodology is to define the process
specification. In this step, the use cases of the IoT system are formally described based on and derived
from the purpose and requirement specifications.
Step 3: Domain Model Specification The third step in the IoT design methodology is to define the Domain
Model. The domain model describes the main concepts, entities and objects in the domain of IoT system to
be designed. Domain model defines the attributes of the objects and relationships between objects.
Domain model provides an abstract representation of the concepts, objects and entities in the IoT domain,
independent of any specific technology or platform. With the domain model, the IoT system designers can
get an understanding of the IoT domain for which the system is to be designed.
Step 4: Information Model Specification The fourth step in the IoT design methodology is to define the
Information Model. Information Model defines the structure of all the information in the IoT system, for
example, attributes of Virtual Entities, relations, etc. Information model does not describe the specifics of
how the information is represented or stored. To define the information model, we first list the Virtual
Entities defined in the Domain Model. Information model adds more details to the Virtual Entities by
defining their attributes and relations.
Step 5: Service Specifications The fifth step in the IoT design methodology is to define the service
specifications. Service specifications define the services in the IoT system, service types, service
inputs/output, service endpoints, service schedules, service preconditions and service effects.
Step 6: IoT Level Specification The sixth step in the IoT design methodology is to define the IoT level for the
system.
Step 7: Functional View Specification The seventh step in the IoT design methodology is to define the
Functional View. The Functional View (FV) defines the functions of the IoT systems grouped into various
Functional Groups (FGs). Each Functional Group either provides functionalities for interacting with
instances of concepts defined in the Domain Model or provides information related to these concepts.
Step 8: Operational View Specification The eighth step in the IoT design methodology is to define the
Operational View Specifications. In this step, various options pertaining to the IoT system deployment and
operation are defined, such as, service hosting options, storage options, device options, application hosting
options, etc.
Step 9: Device & Component Integration The ninth step in the IoT design methodology is the integration of
the devices and components.
Step 10: Application Development The final step in the IoT design methodology is to develop the IoT
application.

OSI Model
(Open System Interconnection)
It is standard reference model which explains how the two computers will communicate with each other
over the network regardless of the network type, media type, etc. The OSI model breaks down the entire
process into 7 smaller steps known as layers. It is made up of seven levels, each of which performs a
different network function. Each layer is given a certain task and is self-contained, allowing each layer’s
tasks to be completed individually.

The layers are:

1. Physical
2. Data Link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application
In network, the communication flows firstly from Application layer to Physical layer and then from Physical
layer to Application layer.

Sender Receiver
Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical

Application Layer (7th)

1. This layer is directly interacting with the end-user for example while sending e-mails, file transfers, etc.
2. Checks whether the receiver exists or not
3. Checks whether the communication resources exist or not
4. Verifies the user authentication and authorization
Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP4, Telnet, etc.

Presentation Layer (Syntax, Semantics Layer / Network Translator) (6th)

1. At sender’s side, this layer converts the data from the sender’s application layer format to the
intermediate network format. And at the receiver’s side, this layer converts the data from the intermediate
network format to the receiver’s application layer format.
2. It also performs the encryption (sender’s side) and decryption (receiver’s side) of data for the security of
data.
3. It performs the compression (sender’s side) and decompression (receiver’s side) of data for the faster
transmission.

Protocols: MIME, XDR, etc.

Session Layer (5th)

1. This layer establishes, maintains and terminates the connection between sender and receiver.
2. Protocols: SAP, NetBIOS, etc.
Transport Layer (4th)
1. This layer is responsible for the entire data transfer as it receives the complete data from the Session
layer.
2. This layer breaks the data to segments and forward it to the network layer at the sender’s side. And at
the receiver’s side, this layer combines all the segments.
3. It re-arranges the out of order segments.
4. It sends the acknowledgement after the successful receiving of the segment at the receiver’s side. 5. It
re-transmits the lost or corrupted segments.
6. It manages the flow of the segment transmission.

Protocols: TCP, UDP, etc.

Network Layer (3rd)

1. This layer takes care of the routing of the entire data received by the transport layer.
2. It tells the shortest and the fastest route out of the available routes.
3. In case of any network problem, it re-routes the data segments.
4. At the sender’s side, it breaks the data segments in to smaller packets if they are bigger than the size
which Data Link layer can accept. And it reassembles them at the receiver’s side.
5. It performs the logical addressing.

Protocols: IP, OSPF, RIP, etc.

Data Link Layer (2nd)

1. This layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks it into data frames and reassembles them at
the receiver’s side.
2. It performs the physical addressing.
3. It is divided into two sub-layers named as: LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access Control).
LLC is responsible for handling all the logical connections, logical links between the sender and the
receiver, frame synchronization while MAC is responsible for managing which media is to be used, who can
use, for how long it can be used, etc.

Protocols: ARP, SDLC, etc.

Physical Layer (1st)
1. This layer takes the data from data link layer and break it into bits and reassembles them at the
receiver’s side.
2. This layer directly interacts with the hardware devices.
3. It modulates, demodulates the data.
4. It is responsible for the bit synchronization, flow control.
5. It handles the serial-parallel transmission.
6. It manages the direction of exchange (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex).
7. It specifies the way in which the nodes are to be connected.

Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ISDN, DSL, SONet, etc.

TCP/IP Model
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
TCP/IP is based on a client-server communication model by which a user(client) receives a service such as a
loaded web page from a server in the same network.
Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication over a network.
Like OSI model, this model also defines how two computers are connected in the network and how the
data is being transmitted. It consists of 4 layers. It is basically defined to design a model which gives high
reliability and end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable network.

The layers are:

1. Network Interface Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer

Sender Receiver
Application Application
Transport Transport
Internet Internet
Network Interface Network Interface

Application Layer (4th)

1. This layer is the combination of OSI Application Layer, OSI Presentation Layer and OSI Session Layer.
2. This layer manages the user interface.
3. It ensures the data integrity, user authentication before data transmission.
4. This layer uses HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, DNS, SMTP, etc. protocols for handling all the communication.

Protocols:
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS: Secured version of HTTP
FTP: File transfer protocol
DNS: Domain Name system
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Telnet: Telecommunication protocol
POP3: Post office protocol version 3
IMAP4: Internet Mail access protocol version 4
NNTP: Network News Transfer protocol

Transport Layer (Host to Host Layer) (3rd)

1. This layer does the same task as of OSI Transport Layer. It is responsible for the end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data.
2. It uses the protocols like TCP, UDP for handling the communication.

Protocols:
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
UDP: User datagram Protocol
DCCP: Datagram Congestion Control protocol
SCTP: Stream Control Transmission Protocol

Internet Layer (2nd)

1. This layer does the same task as of OSI Network Layer.
2. This layer uses the protocols like IP, ICMP, etc. for the logical transmission of the data over the network
by telling the best route out of the available routes.

Protocols:
IP: Internet Protocol
ICMP: Internet Control message protocol
IGMP: Internet group message protocol
RIP: Routing information protocol
OSPF: Open shortest path first
Network Interface Layer (Network Access Layer or Link Layer) (1st)
1. This layer is the combination of OSI Data Link Layer and OSI Physical Layer.
2. This layer acts as an interface between hosts and transmission links and used for transmitting
datagrams.
3. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
4. This layer is responsible for the physical addressing and allow for the physical transmission of the data.

Protocols:
Ethernet
SONet : Synchronous optical network
Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity
ISDN: Integrated services digital network
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line
CDMA: Code division multiple access

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It was developed by ISO (International It was developed by DoD (Department of

Standard Organization). Defence).

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

 It is a standard reference model. It is an implementation of OSI model.

It is a protocol independent model. It is a protocol dependent model.

It has strict boundaries. It doesn’t have very strict boundaries.

In this, firstly the layers were devised and In this, firstly protocols are defined and

then protocols are fitted to the then layers are developed.

corresponding layers.

It clearly describes the protocols, services It doesn’t have clear distinguishing among

and interfaces. the protocols, services and the interfaces.

The Control System

A control system is a collection of methods and processes used to manage and regulate Internet of Things
devices, networks, and applications. A control system's major goal in IoT is to guarantee that connected
devices operate efficiently, securely, and in accordance with the desired objectives or criteria. It entails
tracking, analysing, and changing the behaviour of IoT devices and systems in order to achieve certain
goals.
IoT device requires two components, a brain and connectivity. The “brain” provides local control (or
decision-making). The device’s function will determine the size and capabilities of the brain component.
Connectivity is needed to communicate with external control. The environment and location of the device
will determine how it connects. Wired communication is a technology that uses a tangible medium such as
optical fibres and metal wires to transmit information. Nowadays, it is popularly used in telephone lines,
internet cables, TV lines, etc. Wireless communication is a communication technology that uses
electromagnetic wave signals that travel through space to exchange information. There is no physical
medium to connect the two ends of the communication. It is popularly used in cellular wireless
connections, Wi-Fi connections, Bluetooth connections, satellite communications, etc.

Types of Control System:-

1. Open Loop
 These control systems rely on human input. The control action is not affected by the output. In the home, a
washing machine is an example of an open-loop system because it requires someone to make choices
among the settings in order for it to operate. A time-based traffic light system is an industrial example of an
open-loop control system in which traffic engineers must decide when the stop, go, and caution lights should
be activated.
2. Closed Loop

These systems can be actively maintained or left to run on their own. They use system feedback signals to
provide autonomous control and maintain specified settings or a desired state without the need for human
interaction. Some control loops have the ability to switch between closed and open states. A switchable
loop is manually controlled when open; when closed, it can be totally automated.
A closed-loop system is something like a thermostat. It controls a heating system by receiving inputs from
sensors that measure air temperature. Temperature regulation is an especially critical aspect of keeping a
proper data centre environment.

Wired communication:
1. Copper Cable: In these cables, data is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves.
a. Twisted Pair Cable: In this cable, there are two wires twisted together. CAT 5, CAT 6 are the two well-
known TPC. These are connected to the computer through RJ-45 port which is of 8-pin.
i. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP): In this cable, there is an extra jacket covering to the cable.
ii. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP): In this cable, there is no extra covering layer.
b. Co-axial Cable: In this cable, there is a layer of copper mesh which is used to protect the signals from
EMI (electromagnetic interference).
2. Optical Fiber Cable (OFC): In these cables, the data is transmitted in the form of light waves. This cable
consists of glass as the data will get reflected and travel easily. It is expensive out of all the cables but
provides safety of the data also. It is also difficult to install too. If there is any problem in the cable, then it
needs to be re-installed. That’s the reason that these cables are generally installed under the ground.
a. Single Mode: In these cables, there is only one light wave that is being transmitted.
b. Multi-Mode: In these cables, there are more than one light wave that is being transmitted. It shares the
bandwidth. If the two light waves get reflected at the same point, then there is a problem named as
“chromatic dispersion”.

Wireless communication:
1. Infrared: These waves are used to transmit signals in a short distance. These are basically used for
remote control systems.
a. Point to Point: In this, there should be a common line of sight for sender and the receiver.
b. Broadcast: In this, the data signals are transmitted in all directions so that the receiver can be
any direction and receive the signals easily.
2. Radio waves: These waves are used to transmit data in a long distance and it is omni-directional. These
are used in the Wi-Fi connections, cellular connections, Bluetooth connections, etc. These signals can
penetrate the solid objects easily.
3. Micro waves: These waves are used to transmit the data in a long distance but it is uni-directional.
These signals can’t penetrate the solid objects. There is a parabolic antenna which is used as the
transponder (transmitter and the receiver).
a. Terrestrial microwave: In this, the inter-mediator between the sender and the receiver is a
transponder installed in between them. For example, the connection between two buildings with river in
between.
b. Satellite microwave: In this, the inter-mediator between the sender and the receiver is the
satellite. Its installation cost is high and it has high attenuation.

Types of data transmission modes:

1. Simplex
Data in simplex communication can only move in one direction, from sender to receiver. This signifies
that the communication is unidirectional, with no feedback or acknowledgment from the receiver to
the sender.
A one-way radio broadcast or a television transmission are examples of simplex communication since
the information is only conveyed in one direction and the receiver cannot respond directly to the
sender.

2. Half-duplex
Data can travel in both ways during half-duplex transmission, but not simultaneously. The
communication channel can be used for both transmitting and receiving, but not both at the same
time. To communicate, devices must take turns transmitting and receiving data. When one device
transmits, the other device must wait until the transmission is complete before sending its own data.
Walkie-talkies are an example of a half-duplex communication technology in which users must push a
button to talk and release it to listen.

3. Full-duplex
 Data can travel in both directions at the same time in full-duplex transmission. This means that both
devices can send and receive data at the same time, allowing for real-time, two-way communication.
Full-duplex communication is prevalent in current networking and telecommunications technologies
such as Ethernet networks, phone systems, and video conferencing.
Full-duplex communication is demonstrated when you make a phone call and can hear the other
person while speaking.

RFID(Radio Frequency Identification)

RFID stands for radio frequency identification, which is a wireless system made up of readers and tags.

Working of RFID

Reader: - The reader is a device with one or more antennas that send out radio waves and pick up signals
from the RFID tag.
Types of RFID readers
Fixed readers and mobile readers. RFID readers can either be portable or permanently attached to a
network.

Tags: -
They use radio waves to tell readers close by about their identity and other details.

Types of tags: -
1. Active RFID: -
Active RFID tags are battery-operated and run continuously. They have a longer reading range and are
appropriate for larger assets due to their larger size. Active tags are commonly used in harsh outdoor
settings by industries such as mining, oil and gas, construction, and construction.

2. Passive RFID: -
A passive RFID tag is powered by radio waves sent out by an RFID scanner, not by an internal power
source. Compared to active RFID tags, these tags are less expensive and smaller. They are more likely to
be used on smaller assets in the manufacturing, retail, and healthcare sectors.

Types of RFID Systems

1. Low frequency RFID systems
30 KHz to 500 KHz is the frequency range, with 125 KHz being the most widely used. The
transmission range of low-frequency RFID is usually limited to a few inches to less than six feet. It is
frequently utilised in automotive applications, animal tracking, and proximity access control. LF
RFID works well in environments with a high metal or liquid content, but its read range is shorter
than other frequencies.

2. High frequency RFID systems

The frequency ranges from 3 MHz to 30 MHz, with 13.56 MHz being the typical HF frequency. The
standard range is a few inches to several feet. It is widely used in applications such as contactless
payment systems, ticketing, and library book tracking.

3. Ultra-High frequency systems

The frequency is typically 433 MHz, but it can range from 300 MHz to 960 MHz. It is typically
readable at a distance of 25 feet or more. For applications like supply chain management, retail
inventory, and asset tracking, this is the most widely used RFID frequency.

Sensors
Sensors are gadgets that measure and identify environmental or physical aspects of the real world and
then translate that data into a digital format. After that, these digital data can be transferred—typically
wirelessly—to other Internet of Things platforms or devices for monitoring, analysis, and decision-making.

• Example of sensors that detect physical properties

o Temperature and humidity sensors
o Acceleration sensors
o Gyro sensors, etc.
• Examples of sensors that detect the five human senses
o Sound pressure sensors
o Odor sensors
o Imaging sensors, etc.
Common Examples of IoT sensor applications: -

• Home security service:

Using this, one can monitor their home from anywhere. Only requirement is a dedicated security device
set up in their home and a security app downloaded to their smartphone to allow them to view their home
and remotely control the home electronics and appliances. This can help to monitor the elderly parents,
children at home while you are away. For giving home security service, a wide variety of sensors are used
with wireless camera networks such as detecting doors and windows open/close status, warning you if you
left a window or a door open, monitoring and measuring room temperature, humidity and light intensity,
and detecting motion when a person or an animal is in the room.

• Online support service for business office:

It includes a real-time monitoring of the operation status of office electronics such as photocopiers, laser
printers and multifunction peripherals over the internet. By connecting equipment information such as
toner levels and parts replacement cycle to dealers or customer service offices, the sensor can detect
equipment failure or toner running out before users notice on their own

• Wearable devices:
These monitor human posture, measure calorie burns and vital signs such as heart rate, oxygen saturation
by wearing it on the body. Data can be collected from sensors embedded in clothing or wearable devices
attached to the body. And then data is transmitted to the cloud via internet where it is accumulated and
analysed, enabling users to check their health conditions anytime.

Types of sensors: -
• Smoke Sensors:
These sensors are used in applications like construction site monitoring and the industrial units where a
chance of fire and gas leakage is on a higher side. When smoke sensors are integrated with an industrial
IoT solution, even the slightest leakage of gas or minor occurrence of fire can be reported to the concerned
team and major disaster can be averted.

• Proximity Sensors:
These sensors measure the distance from itself and the nearest object. They are most commonly found on
the car bumpers to alert the drivers in the case of an imminent collision.

• Infrared Sensors:
Infrared sensors are essentially used to detect human presence. Infrared sensor have been deployed for
Military applications extensively.

• Piezo Sensors:
The piezo sensors measure pressure and when integrated with an IoT solution can send data related to
pressure changes in real time. Using these sensors, we can develop an industrial IoT system that is capable
of monitoring pressure in pressure-critical equipment’s such as boilers, water systems, aerospace, oil
drilling systems, etc.

• Temperature Sensor
Temperature sensors are among the most widely used sensors in industrial IoT applications. They find their
use- cases in numerous industries that include FMCG, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and others where
temperature-monitoring is crucial.

• Optical Sensors Optical:

Sensors are those sensors that are capable of sensing more than just light. These can monitor any kind of
electromagnetic radiation, i.e. light, electricity, and a magnetic field etc.

• Image Sensors: These sensors can help in monitoring of hospitals, factories, and more. These sensors can
measure blood pressure with every beat, read the variation in pressure over the entire day and help in the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

Classification of sensors:
• Passive and Active

• Analog and Digital

• Scalar and Vector

Passive Sensor: Passive sensors, on the other hand, do not actively transmit energy or signals. Instead,
they detect and respond to energies or signals in the environment. These sensors rely on external stimuli
and do not require a constant power supply to operate.
Examples: -

Infrared Sensors: - Detect infrared radiation emitted via way of means of gadgets to degree
temperature or locate the presence of gadgets.
Phototransistors: Respond to changes in light intensity.

Active Sensor:
Active sensors require an outside energy supply to function and actively emit electricity or alerts into the
environment. These sensors then degree the reaction or modifications with the emitted alerts to acquire
statistics approximately the surroundings.
Examples: -
Radar: - Active radar systems emit radio waves and analyse the reflected signals to detect the presence
and location of objects such as aircraft or ships.
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Active optical sensors that use laser mild to degree distances and
create certain 3-D maps of the environment.

Analog Sensor: -
Analog sensors are used to degree bodily portions together with temperature, pressure, mild intensity, and
more. The analog alerts they generate can be transformed to virtual shape for processing and verbal
exchange inside an IoT system.
For Example:
Light sensor, sound sensor, etc.

Digital Sensor: -
Digital sensors are designed to produce data directly in digital form, making them compatible with digital
communication protocols commonly used in IoT networks. They are often preferred for their simplicity,
ease of integration, and resistance to signal degradation.
Examples: -
LED lights, alarms, door sensor, etc.

Scalar Sensor:
It detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. It is not affected by the direction of the input
parameter.
For Example: strain sensor, colour sensor, etc.

Vector Sensor:
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input parameter.
For Example: Accelerometer, Gyroscope, Motion detector scope, etc.

Actuators
Actuators, on the other hand, are devices that respond to instructions or directions from IoT systems. They
are in charge of executing physical actions or making changes in response to data and instructions received
from sensors or central control systems. Actuators are the "output" component of the Internet of Things,
allowing digital systems to influence the real environment. Motors, servos, relays, solenoids, and valves are
examples of actuators. They may be used to control a variety of systems, such as turning on a light,
regulating a room's temperature, opening or closing a valve, and much more.
* Sensors are the data feeders while actuators are the driving force.
 Types of actuators
Hydraulic Actuators: -
In a hydraulic control system, the sole function of the actuator is to convert the hydraulic energy supplied
by the pump and processed by the control elements into useful work.

Pneumatic Actuators: -
A pneumatic actuator is a device that converts energy – typically in the form of compressed air – into
mechanical motion.

Pneumatic actuators are notable in their use in opening and closing valves. They are particularly useful in
applications where there’s an ignition or fire risk because pneumatic actuators won’t cause sparks.

Electrical Actuators: -
An electric actuator converts electricity into kinetic energy through either linear (in a straight line) or
rotary (circular) motion. An electric drive can operate at any voltage, but the most common are the
following voltages: 230 VDC 208 VDC 115 VAC 24 VAC 24 VDC 12 VDC

Thermal Actuators: -
A thermal drive is a type of non-electric motor. It is equipped with thermosensitive material capable of
generating linear movement in response to temperature changes. Changes in temperature can trigger
actions such as releasing bolts, operating switches, and opening or closing valves. When used with other
devices, the thermal actuator does not require an external power source to generate motion. Thermal
actuators can be used in many applications and industries, including aerospace, automotive, agriculture,
solar, construction and manufacturing.
Sensor
• It converts physical characteristics of an entry into electrical signals.

• It takes an input from environment.

• It gives output to the input conditioning unit of the system.

• It generates electrical signals.

• It is positioned at an input port of the system.

• It is used to measure the physical quantity of a data point.

• It helps give the details to system about the environment.

• Example of sensor include photo-voltaic cell (it converts light energy into electrical energy).

Actuator
• It helps convert electrical signals into physical characteristics.

• It takes input from the output conditioning unit of system.

• It gives the output to the environment.

• It helps generate heat/motion.

• It is positioned at the output port of the system.

• It helps measure continuous and discrete process parameters.

• It accepts a command and performs a function.

• Example of an actuator is a stepper motor (electrical energy drives the motor).

Microcontroller
One IoT device may be smaller than a coin or larger than a refrigerator. Regardless of the function,
environment or location, the IoT device requires two main components, a brain and connectivity. The brain
provides the local control (or decision making). The devices’ function will determine the size and
capabilities of the brain component. Connectivity is needed to communicate with external control.

What is Microcontroller?
A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit that is used in embedded systems to control particular
functions. A microcontroller is a single chip that consists of a processor, memory, and input/output (I/O)
peripherals.
Microcontrollers, sometimes known as embedded controllers or microcontroller units (MCUs), are found in
a variety of devices, including cars, robots, office equipment, medical equipment, mobile radio
transceivers, vending machines, and home appliances. They are essentially tiny, straightforward personal
computers (PCs) without complicated front-end operating systems (OS) that are intended to control
specific functions of larger components.
How microcontroller works?
To manage a single function in a device, a microcontroller is integrated into a system. It achieves this by
using its central processor to interpret data that it gets from its I/O peripherals. When the microcontroller
receives temporary data, it stores it in its data memory. The processor then accesses this memory, reads
the information, and applies the instructions from its programme memory to interpret and utilise the
incoming data. It then communicates and takes the necessary action using its I/O peripherals.
Microcontrollers are used in a wide array of systems and devices. Devices often utilize multiple
microcontrollers that work together within the device to handle their respective tasks.

Elements of a microcontroller

1. The Processor(CPU): -
It can be consider as the device's brain. It interprets and reacts to different commands that control the
microcontroller's operation. This requires the execution of fundamental logic, I/O, and arithmetic
operations. In order to communicate commands to other parts of the larger embedded system, it also
carries out data transfer operations.

2. Memory: -
The information that the processor receives and uses to execute instructions that it has been
programmed to carry out is stored in a microcontroller's memory. Two primary types of memory
exist in microcontrollers:
• Program Memory: -
Long-term data about the commands that the CPU executes is stored in programme
memory. Non-volatile memory, or programme memory, retains data over time without
requiring a power source.
• Data Memory: -
Data memory is needed to store temporary information while instructions are being carried
out. Volatile data memory only retains its contents while the device is powered on, making
the information it contains transient.
3. I/O peripherals: -
The input and output devices are the interface for the processor to the outside world.
 Data is received by the input ports and sent as binary data to the CPU. After obtaining the data, the
processor instructs the output devices—which carry out operations outside of the
microcontroller—by sending them the relevant commands.

Other supporting elements of a microcontroller include:

• Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) : -An ADC is a circuit that converts analog signals to digital
signals. It allows the processor at the center of the microcontroller to interface with external analog
devices, such as sensors.

• Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) : - A DAC performs the inverse function of an ADC and allows
the processor at the center of the microcontroller to communicate its outgoing signals to external
analog components.

• System bus : -The system bus is the connective wire that links all components of the microcontroller
together.

• Serial port : - The serial port is one example of an I/O port that allows the microcontroller to connect
to external components. It has a similar function to a USB or a parallel port but differs in the way it
exchanges bits.

What is microprocessor?
A microprocessor is an Integrated Circuit(IC) that contains the Central Processing Unit(CPU). The main task
of microprocessor is to accept the data as input from input devices then process this data according to the
instructions and provide the result of these instructions as output through output devices.

Major parts of Microprocessor

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU): -
The ALU of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of instructions takes place
during the processing operation. That is all the calculations are performed and all comparisons
including logical are made in the ALU.

2. Control Unit: -
Control unit is responsible for controlling the entire functioning of the ALU. It receives instructions
from the main memory and executes them after decoding. The timing and control signals are
generated by this unit and sent to other units for execution of the program. It also transfers the
data between memory and input/output devices.

Microcontroller(MCU) VS Microprocessor(MPU)
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are not the same. Because microprocessors only have a CPU, they
need additional peripherals in order to function. However, MCUs are equipped with peripherals like RAM,
ROM, and the like, which enable them to operate independently on (simple) tasks.
In the end, microcontrollers and microprocessors have very different uses, despite having similar names
and looks. Although microprocessors are more potent, in order for them to work, larger systems must use
them as individual parts. In contrast, microcontrollers have limited capabilities and power but can still
handle basic tasks on their own. For example, your Apple TV needs a microprocessor to manage all the
different and hard jobs it does. In contrast, a connected coffeemaker uses a microcontroller because it only
needs to carry out basic functions.

Soft skills-Personality Development

Personality
Personality refers to an individual’s characteristics, style, behavior, mindset, attitude, his own unique way
of perceiving things and seeing the world. Genetic factors, family backgrounds, varied cultures,
environment, current situations play an imperative role in shaping one’s personality. The way you behave
with others reflects your personality.

Personality Development
Personality development is defined as a process of developing and enhancing one’s personality. It not only
makes you look good and presentable but also helps you face the world with a smile. It helps you develop a
positive attitude in life. It helps an individual to incorporate the positive qualities like punctuality, flexible
attitude, willingness to learn, friendly nature, eagerness to help others, etc.

How to enhance the personality:

1. Smile a lot
2. Think positive
3. Dress Sensibly
4. Be soft-spoken
5. Leave your ego behind
6. Help others
7. Confidence
8. A Patient listener

Determinants of Personality
• Biological/Physical Determinants: Hereditary and physical features
• Social Determinants: Sociological aspects related to the community and his/her role in the community
• Psychological Determinants:
Behavior, emotions, sentiments, thought patterns and complexes of an individual
• Intellectual Determinants: Values, Humour, Morality, etc. Other determinants of personality include
cultural, situational, environmental factors, etc.

Positive Thinking
Positive thinking is a mental and emotional attitude that focuses on optimistic and positive thoughts and
expects positive results. People with positive thinking mentality look at the bright side of life and anticipate
happiness, health and success. Such people, are confident that they can overcome any obstacle and
difficulties they might face.

• Gain Control of Yourself

• Don't Be A Complainer

• Learn to Relax

• Boost Your Own Morale

• Congratulate Yourself

• Learn to Channel Nerves and Tension Positively

• Learn to be Assertive

• Developing Habits of Positive Thinking

Three very good ways to build positive thinking skills are:

• Meditation

• Writing

• Play

Communication Skills
Communication skills are the abilities you use when giving and receiving different kinds of information.
Communication skills involve listening, speaking, observing and empathizing. It is also helpful to
understand the differences in how to communicate through face-to-face interactions, phone conversations
and digital communications like email and social media.
There are four main types of communication

• Verbal: Communicating by way of a spoken language

• Nonverbal: Communicating by way of body language, facial expressions and vocalic.

• Written: Communicating by way of written language, symbols and numbers

• Visual: Communication by way of photography, art, drawings, sketches, charts and graphs.

Etiquette and Mannerism

Etiquette is the conventional rules of personal behavior in polite society. It is about being well mannered,
courteous and showing respect for each other. Professional etiquette builds leadership, quality, business
and careers. accesses and increases physiological processes.
Professional Etiquette
• Don’t Use a Speakerphone

• Gossiping Isn’t Good Team Building.

• Don’t use all letters in uppercase: The only time caps are acceptable in the workplace is when you are
sending “CONGRATULATIONS!” to celebrate an achievement.

• Reply Carefully

• Politics Aren’t Welcome

• Silence Your Phone

• Don’t Copy the Whole Team: Before sending an email ask yourself: who needs to see this? If it’s not
something that the entire organization needs to know, there’s no reason why everyone should be copied.

Resume Writing
A resume provides a summary of one’s education, work history, credentials, and other accomplishments and skills. A
resume should be as concise as possible. Typically, a resume is one page long, although sometimes it can be as long
as two or three pages.

Resume Tips
• Don’t put everything on there

• Keep it simple and in (reverse) chronological order

• Make your contact information prominent

• Keep it recent, keep it relevant

• Show and don’t tell your soft skills

• Experience first, education second

• Skip the dates in education but do mention the years

• Save it as a pdf

• Name the file smartly

• Constantly refresh it