Internet of Everything: Applications

Rakhi Wajgi, Jitendra V. Tembhurne, Dipak Wajgi, and Tapan Jain

1 Introduction

Internet of Things (IoT) is defined in many ways by the different researchers due to
indistinctness of two terms, namely, “Internet” and “Things”. The “Internet” mainly
focuses on the network perspective and “Things” describes objects in the surround-
ings [1]. IoT is oriented into three main visions such as Things, Semantic, and
Internet [2]. Things includes those objects present in the environment, which can
sense, store, and transfer data. Internet provides medium of communication between
things and semantic vision deals with how information generated by things is inter-
preted and stored.
Since the past few years, IoT has created huge number of surprisingly new prod-
ucts, which are beyond our expectations. After the term IoT was coined by Kevin
Ashton in 1999, it was never thought that IoT is going to become a bedrock for
numerous applications belonging to diverse domains. It was never believed that IoT

R. Wajgi
Department of Computer Technology, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering,
Nagpur, India
J. V. Tembhurne
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology,
Nagpur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Wajgi
Department of Computer Engineering, St. Vincent Pallotti College of Engineering,
Nagpur, India
T. Jain (*)
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Information
Technology, Nagpur, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 131
V. K. Gunjan et al. (eds.), Modern Approaches in IoT and Machine Learning
for Cyber Security, Internet of Things, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09955-7_9
132 R. Wajgi et al.

is going to change the world by allowing devices to sense the surrounding and
thereby provide ease of life. Initially, there was a lot of skepticism and objections
raised by people regarding how computer is going to percept the environment, but
all were invalidated by progressive applications and prototypes designed by
researchers using IoT technology. It is a network of physical things, which com-
municate with each other in the environment [3]. Things includes a variety of smart
sensing devices connected over the internet. These devices continuously monitor
their surrounding parameters such as temperature, humidity, pressure, healthcare
information, etc.; moreover, communication takes place among the devices thereby
substantiating an intelligent IoT system. Because of the exceptional opportunities
provided by IoT, many business sectors want to exploit this technology.
IoT is mainly characterized by extensive sensing, reliable transmission, and
intelligent analysis. IoT sensory devices usually record temperature, humidity, bio-
medical information, etc. Single sensor is dedicated to seize one measuring param-
eter or more than one parameter. All sensors are permitted to store data on cloud
storage, and it can be accessed from anywhere and at any time by the user. IoT
provides facility of integrating a variety of devices to function together. It also helps
in easy removal and addition of component with minimum impact, which makes
IoT a flexible and robust technology [7]. These devices will be controlled remotely
through specific application. The data collected by these devices are generally
stored on the cloud storage through internet for further analysis. After analyzing the
data on the cloud, appropriate decisions are taken. Network protocols are used by
these smart sensing devices for the communication over the internet. It includes
ZigBee, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, etc. After few years, numerous devices going to become a
part of internet and the network will grow enormously to satisfy the requirements of
people. The growth of IoT mainly depends on two technologies, i.e., Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). RDIF is an
electromagnetic technology used to track a tag associated with an object, whereas
WSN is a group of spatially located diversified sensing devices, which monitor and
record their surroundings. Presently, IoT is completely different and still in its baby-
hood. But in the future, the paradigm is going to shift from “Things” to “Everything”
and it will be termed as Internet of Everything (IoE).
This chapter is organized as follows: Sect. 2 describes basic architecture of IoT,
and Sect. 3 elaborates various applications of IoT from diversified domains. Section
4 explores challenges, future technology of IoE, and future opportunities. The chap-
ter ends with summary mentioned in Sect. 5.

2 Architecture of IoT

Though there are different IoT systems available in the market, basic architecture of
all IoT systems is nearly similar. Architecture of IoT mainly consists of four differ-
ent layers, namely – sensor layer, network layer, processing layer, and application
layer, which is shown in Fig. 1. The purpose behind working of all these layers is to
Internet of Everything: Applications 133

Fig. 1 Architecture of IoT

provide scalability, maintainability, ease of use, and dedication to single applica-

tion. Smart sensing devices such as humidity, temperature, smoke sensors, biomedi-
cal sensors etc. are located at the bottommost layer known as sensor layer. Depending
on the applications, different sensors are used at sensor layer, which are mainly
classified into Motions sensors, Environmental sensors, and Position sensors. The
purpose of sensor layer is to collect data from the surroundings through different
sensing devices. These devices have the capability to sense the environment and
convert it to analog form. Actuators are also mounted on sensor layer to act upon the
environment if needed. Devices in this layer have the ability to switch off/on the
lights, ACs, fire alarms, motors etc. based on the decision taken after data analysis.
Data Acquisition System (DAS) and network gateway are present at network
layer. DAS converts analog data into digital form, and Gateway floats this digital
data on the network through high speed gateways and routers. It also protects and
filters data from malware. Networking protocols such as ZigBee, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
RFID, WiMAX, etc. are the part of network layer. Devices at sensor layer will com-
municate with each other through these protocols. Based on the nature of applica-
tions, protocols are used. RFID and Bluetooth are used for limited area application;
the contents of RFID tag are read by RFID reader. RFID will work like Barcode
technology, but unlike conventional barcode, it does not require presence of reader
in the proximity of tag. Similarly, for wide range applications, other protocols are
utilized such as Wi-Fi and WiMax. The use of protocols depends on the kind of
applications, speed requirements, network size, communication pattern, and power
requirements. Based on this, various protocols work synergistically at different lay-
ers of IoT network.
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Data sensed by sensing devices are processed at the processing layer to take suit-
able decisions. Various machine learning algorithms and visualization technologies
are used at this layer to perform data analysis and visualization. Complete data and
results of data analysis are stored on cloud server. This layer also shares processed
data with other devices via network layer. The topmost layer is the application layer,
which contains various applications of IoT such as smart homes, wearable devices,
smart grid, etc. It’s a user-oriented layer, which helps in implementing various
applications based on users’ requirements.

3 Applications of Internet of Things

Based on the types of sensors available in the market and their utility, we have clas-
sified IoT deployment into ten different domains of application. These domains are
also indicated in clockwise direction in Fig. 2.
(i) Smart Home System
(ii) Wearable Devices
(iii) Smart Grid
(iv) Industrial IoT
(v) Medical IoT
(vi) Smart Vehicles
(vii) Smart Retailing
(viii) Supply Chain Management
(ix) Smart Farming
(x) Smart City

Fig. 2 Application domains of IoT

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3.1 Smart Home System

Smart home has the highest ranking among all the IoT applications. It’s a kind of
intelligent system developed for the automation of home with the help of IoT and
Cloud platform. Nearly, 256 companies are having their startup in this application.
In smart home system, devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, televisions,
lights, etc. are connected to the internet through network protocols and are moni-
tored and controlled remotely by the user.
There are multiple ways through which smart home system can be implemented
such as Wi-Fi enabled devices controlled through android application, Arduino Kit
having microcontroller embedded in it, which interacts with the devices tied with
sensors located at nearby proximity. Apart from this, there could be smart devices
like Alexa, which will follow voice command given by the user to control home
appliances. Moreover, RDIF tags are also used for building wireless smart home.
Different designs based on IoT and service component technologies can be utilized
for the development of smart home [4]. There are different variants of smart home
systems, which are developed with specific requirements. The basic architecture to
design smart home system is presented in Fig. 3. In this, many devices are con-
trolled remotely through the mobile application via internet.
Three different use-cases are implemented, namely, (1) monitoring condition of
home, (2) controlling home appliances, and (3) tracking entry of users in the home
by using Arduino Kit, RFID, and ZigBee protocols [5]. In first use-case, user can
continuously monitor readings of temperature and humidity sensors from remote
places. Second use-case allows to control appliances such as washing machine,
lamps, televisions, fans etc. Moreover, third use-case helps in tracking the presence
of user at home. Arduino Kit is utilized to program sensors and actuator, and ZigBee

Fig. 3 Basic architecture of smart home system

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is used for establishing communication between them. In the prototype, VCNL4000

is applied as proximity and light sensor and DHT22 is adopted as temperature and
humidity sensor.
Another variant of smart home system based on knowledge-driven approach is
simulated in [6]. It monitors Activities of Daily Living (ADL) such as MakingTea,
MakingHotDrink, TakeMedicine etc. for elderly persons who have cognitive defi-
ciency. The system assists and takes in-time decision through data collected by dif-
ferent sensors located at home. Rule-base knowledge representation system
accompanied with IoT and cloud computing is employed to build fully functional
classic smart home [7]. All the home appliances are fitted with sensors and cloud
computing supports a scalable storage and computing power to monitor, access, and
manipulate devices anywhere and at any time.
Low cost, energy-efficient and energy monitoring system for home appliances is
proposed in [8]. It is a complete solution consisting of front-end to back-end mod-
ules for the home automation. Three-layered secured smart home system is designed
to focus on the detection of vulnerabilities, avoiding monitory loss, and risk life, and
these layers are hardware layer, control layer, and processing layer. Machine learn-
ing (ML) algorithm is applied at processing layer for detecting abnormal activities
through video captured by smart cameras. ML model is built and trained on the data
consisting of videos of daily leaving activities and utilized to provide security to
home. In [9], a new developer-friendly library was developed in python for privacy
preservation of IoT-enabled smart home. This library replaces standard networking
functions to obscure the pattern of traffic generated by smart devices through inte-
gration of payload padding, fragmentation, and randomized cover traffic. Moreover,
to secure the IoT-enabled smart home from fire and to avoid residential death, and
property loss, WSN-based fire detection and prevention system is modeled in [10].
The system keeps energy consumption by sensor nodes at minimum level thereby
detecting early fire.

3.2 Wearable Devices

Wearable devices are generally called as “wearables”, and it is the second most
popular application of IoT. Wearables are small electronics devices, which are
easily mounted on the human body anywhere at any time to facilitate hand-free
operations. It is predicted that wearable technology will reach a market value of
$57,653 million by 2022, which is almost three times more than that in 2016
(i.e., $19,633 million) [11]. This is the reason that the major giants like Google,
Apple, Facebook, Amazon, and Microsoft are investing in this market. Wearable
devices are classified into three types: (1) Accessories, (2) E-Textiles, and (3)
E-Patches. Accessories include wrist bands, smart watches, head mounted smart
devices, and smart ornaments. E-Textile comprises smart garments and foot/
hand-worn. E-Patches consist of smart tattoo and skin patches with delicate
circuitry in it. We have highlighted various types of wearables in Fig. 4. The
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Fig. 4 Wearable devices

main purpose of wearables is to monitor health parameters. Some of the wear-

ables with the functionalities are listed as follows:
(i) Smart Eyewear: Devices that can be mounted on the eyes come under this
category of Eyewear. Google glass [12], Google lens [13], and Indoor
Landmarks Identification Supporting Wearables [14] are some of the famous
smart Eyewear. Google glasses are smart spectacles used for generating meet-
ing, conference, and events’ reminders by synching with calendar of phones
and computers. They also help in capturing surrounding photos.
(ii) Accessories: These include smart rings, neck band, and kinds of jewelry in
which sensors are embedded for monitoring health parameters [15]. Smart ring
is used to measure arterial pressure and oxygen saturation level [16]. This arti-
fact is used for ambulatory monitoring of elderly or unhealthy people.
(iii) Wrist bands: It includes fit-bit, smart watches, smart straps, honor bands, etc.
They allow continuous monitoring of pulse rate, temperature, and blood pres-
sure. The data captured by these devices are stored on cloud, and after analysis,
if some unusual patterns are found, then emergency messages or signals are
sent to doctors to take preventive actions.
(iv) E-Patch: It is a custom designed electronic circuitry fitted on the skin, which
controls smart devices around the user. By rubbing the surface, tweaking the
adjacent skin or skimming in specific direction of this circuit generates signals,
which are sent to smart watch or wrist band. This E-Patch can be used for
medical emergency and controlling devices like Alexa by people who
can’t speak.
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Advancement in the technologies of smart phones and awareness towards health-

care will trigger the business of wearables, albeit costly one. Some wearable devices
such as ingestible sensors and insulin pump need medical permission to inject them
in the body [17–23].
In order to track psychological condition of human under stress condition, it is
necessary to monitor bodily signals. To achieve this, wearable devices offer inte-
grated sensors like accelerometers, gyroscopes, ISenesor, and elastic measuring
units. These help in monitoring human behavior in terms of motion recognition,
pressure sensing, and psychological behavior [24]. It is also applied in rehabilitation
and behavioral therapy where doctors monitor patients remotely. To measure elec-
trocardiogram (ECG), 3-axis motion, electrodermal activities, and temperature, a
neoprene band is designed, which is discussed in [25]. In [26], a head mounted
system is proposed by author to assess anxiety, mood, depression, and stress. The
wearable social sensing watch is designed to continuously capture data from mul-
tiple sensors. This includes information on audio, environmental, and behavioral
data. The correlation between physical information and psychological status is
identified after analyzing the experimenter data [24]. Moreover, the detailed and
critical survey of wearable devices along with challenges and working is discussed
in [27]. Figure 5 shows various applications of wearables from monitoring of viable
health parameters to controlling appliances of home.

3.3 Smart Grid

Due to the growing demand of electricity, heavy loads on power plant, and emerging
challenges in power generation sectors [28], the concept of Smart Grid is originated.
It is a network of all the devices, which are in the path of generation of electricity to
the consumption of electricity by the consumers. As per the Government, smart

Fig. 5 Applications of Wearables

Internet of Everything: Applications 139

grids can overcome the problems faced by the conventional grids. Smart grid has
capacity to deal with problems such as energy crises, climate change, and emer-
gency recovery. Smart devices in IoT form network among power devices, charging
stations, and storage devices. Primary components of smart grid are sensors or
smart meters, charging stations, storage devices, and automated distribution centers.
Smart meters keep track of the overall energy consumption by the customer. It keeps
the summary of data of overall units consumed and electricity loads. Automated
distribution centers are the units where IoT is exploited at maximum level. It auto-
matically distributes electricity based on the loads on the grid lines and detects
failures of grid lines, and also promises safety and economy. Charging and storage
stations permit homes and residential areas to go off-grid in case of emergency or
accidents. They also keep track of growing demands of electricity from independent
residential areas.
In Germany, an integrated IoT setup is built for implementation of smart grids.
Lumin is one such IoT-enabled smart grid project, which handles renewable source
of energy thus helps in cost saving and efficient management of energy [29]. Basic
architecture of smart grid is presented in Fig. 6. In this, smart devices are installed
on grid to monitor flow of electricity, temperature, or natural calamities like flood or
twister. An approach regarding how IoT can be used to design smart grid transmis-
sion lines is proposed in [30], and it mainly consists of two components. In the first
part, smart devices are installed on transmission lines to inspect the status of con-
ductor, and in the second part, other smart devices are configured on transmission
towers to keep track of the surroundings and status of the tower. Such smart grids
overcome the challenges of high operational cost and time, complex data transmis-
sion rate, and routine maintenance. Along with smart grids, substations and

Fig. 6 Smart grid

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equipments available at power station are needed to be monitored intelligently. To

do so, IoT-based system is proposed in [31], which tracks all the equipment avail-
able at substations. Cabinet of substations is monitored by temperature and humid-
ity sensors to protect it from overheating, smoke sensors are used to detect any kind
of fire or smoke inside the substation, gas sensor for sensing harmful gases is pro-
duced inside the substation, and water sensors are applied for monitoring the immer-
sions of floor or cable in the water.

3.4 Industrial IoT

Industrial IoT (IIoT) is a new stream of IoT where the focus is on automation of
manufacturing industries using IoT. It’s a result of ubiquitous computing and con-
nectivity of smart devices. Initially, there are many challenges in IIoT, which are
described and addressed in [32], namely, deadline of product delivery, labor avail-
ability, maintenance, and storage of products. IIoT is a network of smart devices
configured in the industries to monitor whole cycle of product development, i.e.,
from procuring the raw materials to product delivery. Minimum human intervention
due to the use of IoT in industry speeds up the process of product manufacturing. It
lowers down the cost both in terms of time and money and also minimizes human-­
errors. One of the applications of IIoT discussed in [33] focuses on the testing of
endurance of Motorcycle. This is the four-layered architecture that comprises data
acquisition, cognitive layer, network layer, and control layer. IIoT has great oppor-
tunities in industrial automation of health equipment, medical equipment, and aero-
space industry.
Subsequently, IIoT is applied in online monitoring of environmental conditions
and determining the working status of equipment used for steel casting [34].
Unceasing steel casting is a critical process of steel making and shaping of steel in
production industry. It represents unpleasant environment (i.e., high temperature,
loud noise etc.) in the industry having the de facto great importance. Therefore,
there is a growing demand for online tracking and Maintenance, Repair and
Overhaul (MRO) service provider [35]. By applying IoT, MRO operations can be
achieved with maximum chances of energy and manpower saving for industries
having unpleasant environment. The basic aim of IIoT is not to replace humans but
to create new opportunities of revenue generation.
IIoT leverages plenty of use-cases apart from manufacturing. These include
streamline of operational efficiency, rationalization, maintenance, etc. [36]. It has
the following advantages:
(i) Enhance work safety
(ii) Enhance product innovation process
(iii) Reducing asset life cycle cost
(iv) Reducing downtime
(v) Improving productivity
Internet of Everything: Applications 141

Fig. 7 Challenges in IIoT

Apart from the advantages of IIoT, there are challenges also while adopting IIoT,
which are shown in Fig. 7.
In Fig. 7, we observed that cybersecurity is the main challenge in IIOT and hence
we need to adopt the appropriate techniques to make the system secure against any
cyber-attacks. Cybersecurity is the most challenging task faced by 46% of indus-
tries with other challenges such as lack of standardization and legacy-installed base
that are equally important to be resolved.

3.5 Medical IoT

Medical IoT is the use of IoT in healthcare centers or hospitals. It is an allied branch
of IoT basically known as Internet of Medical Things (IoMT). In healthcare, some
patients required continuous monitoring or medication and it is necessary to take
proactive decisions in critical conditions. Devices like fitness bands, glucometer,
cuffs measuring heart rate, and blood pressure give personal attention to the people
and can be manipulated as per requirements. It helps the physician in monitoring
adherence of patient to treatment plan. IoT helps nurses in tracking the contents of
IV bottle by generating alarm once bottle gets empty. It also helps in design of
wheelchair tracking system used by physically disabled people. IoT-enabled saniti-
zation devices, thermal scanner, are very useful during pandemic like COVID19.
Insulin pen, Open APS (Artificial Pancreas System), glucometer, and oximeter are
some of the smart devices that made diabetic life painless.
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Various devices were proposed by the researchers, which are useful in the medical
domain. One such device is built from energy efficient Wireless Body Sensor nodes
[8]. These nodes continuously track Electrocardiogram (ECG) signals from patients’
body outside the hospital environment and allow doctor to monitor patient remotely
and also facilitate him to provide suggestions if need arises. Due to transfer of sensi-
tive data through internet, there is possibility of compromising this data by the
attacker. To avoid this, a web-based IoMT Security Assessment Framework (SAF) is
developed by author [8]. To give utmost care to elderly person, wearables associated
with sensors are fitted in assistive devices so that movements, vital signs of oldsters,
are monitored, and alarm messages are sent to relatives in case of emergency.
In [37], IoT system is proposed for medical domain to monitor two types of
anesthetics, namely, paracetamol and propofol in human serum. Prior to critical
surgeries, anesthesia is given to the patients to make them unconscious so as to have
painless surgery and graceful recovery of patient. To achieve this, anesthesiologist
is armed with an application and smart wristwatch through which patients’ condi-
tion will be monitored during the injection of anesthesia and they need not have to
wait near the patient for hours. The generalized architecture of IoMT is shown
in Fig. 8.
Continuous drug monitoring is one of the future standards for improving the
health of individuals. Wearables and implantable biosensors may be utilized with
IoT, which voluntarily changes medication dosing in response to patient health con-
ditions, allowing risk control and improving individualized therapy [38]. Patients’
suffering with diabetes requires continuous monitoring of blood glucose level. For
them, IoT devices such as insulin pen, insulin pump, and wireless glucometer can
be used. To give rapid response to data avalanche, fog computing or edge computing
is applied with IoT as it requires less bandwidth and has greater privacy and security
[39, 79].

Fig. 8 Medical IoT

Internet of Everything: Applications 143

3.6 Smart Vehicles

As the number of vehicles on the road has been rising day-by-day over the last
10 years, road safety is a major concern and that needs to be pragmatically handled.
With IoT growth, the automobile industry is no longer behind other industries that
are opting for a smart solution. They are developing different solutions using IoT
that assists drivers. These solutions aid with either navigation or sophisticated sys-
tem to assist drivers on roads. The basic architecture of IoT-enabled smart vehicle is
shown in Fig. 9. The system will help in monitoring different features in the vehicle
such as security, smoke, navigation, etc.
In [40, 41], IoT-enabled vehicle safety and wellness models are presented to
deter theft of vehicles. Moreover, a way to prevent cautionary road accidents is also
suggested by the system. From the report of Ministry of Road Transport [42], the
state that suffers with maximum number of fatalities due to drink and drive acci-
dents is Uttar Pradesh, followed by Madhya Pradesh in India. The IoT-enabled mod-
ule [42] will not allow the vehicle to start if the driver consumes an alcohol. In
addition, a smart solution to calculate fuel levels in the vehicle is also suggested. In
[43], a cost-effective approach is designed to make genuine cars safer than costly
sedan vehicles that have built in smart monitoring framework. The system helps to
identify the level of alcohol, amount of smoke in the car along with the distance of
the object from the black spot, the rate of rain, and the level of light intensity. Hence,
the system prevents the chances of road accidents. In [44], to avoid road accidents
on highways due to poor visibility during night, a savvy system is designed, based
on open source IoT platform NodeMCU and Ultrasonic sensor. These components
work synergistically during night when visibility and ability to track exact position
of vehicles is difficult.
Subsequently, another IoT-based smart solution to assist elderly people in safe
driving is developed in [45]. There are some situations when elderly person cannot
drive vehicle due to poor visibility and thus lead to fatal accident. To overcome this,
a system is designed to form a network of sensors dedicated to monitor different

Fig. 9 Smart vehicle IoT architecture

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aspects such as condition of road, weather, alcohol level, gas (in LPG vehicle), and
surroundings. Depending on the data gathered by sensors and its analysis, com-
mands are given to the driver or vehicle. In the worst case, if causality occurs, then
instant message is sent to the relatives of driver or nearby hospitals for ambulatory
action. Apart from security and accident prevention, there are other applications of
IoT in design of smart vehicles such as fuel monitoring, drowsiness monitoring of
driver, and reminder generation for vehicle servicing.

3.7 Smart Retailing

The days when individuals used to wait in line while buying goods at the supermar-
ket are gone. Pantano and Timmermans [46] summarized the characteristics of a
smart city such as wireless infrastructure, an effective online data transmission net-
work facility, an innovation facility, competitiveness, governance, modern and sus-
tainable transport facilities, and an atmosphere free of emissions. Integration of
innovative network infrastructures and innovative sensor networks to achieve the
growth and development of smart cities, along with cloud computing platforms is
needed. Therefore, smart retailing emerges as a part of the broader concept of smart
cities, by focusing on a new approach to retail management and adopting technolo-
gies as enablers of innovation and enhancements in consumers’ quality of life. Thus,
it starts from the same vision of the smart usage of modern technologies to improve
retail management and services and improve consumers’ journey [47].
To benefit the retailers and customers, IoT-based model is proposed in [48]. In
this model, each product is associated with a RFID tag, which gets scanned using
RFID scanner when user purchases it. User can see various pieces of information
related to product such as expiry date, price, and quantity. Once purchasing of prod-
uct is done, the status of the shelf in terms of availability of products will be updated
on the database stored on the cloud. This will overcome the problem of frequent
roaming around the supermarket by retailer. The overall availability status of all
products is conveyed remotely to retailer so that he/she can refill the shelf well in
advance with enough products to avoid economic loss. Hence, customers will never
go empty hand from retail shops.
In [49], adoption of IoT-enabled system by two main companies in India for
retail shopping, namely, Watasale and SPAR, is discussed. This shrewd way of
retailing gives rich experience to people. It is more customer-oriented and takes care
of intuitive demands of customers. A survey is conducted to 289 retailers to predict
the customer attitude while retailing [50]. This helps in leveraging various opinions
of customers to develop more smart system. In [51], an importance of smart retail-
ing, benefits, and challenges arising in it are highlighted. Moreover, two models
were proposed [52], namely, retail 4.0 IoT Consumer model and retail 4.0 IoT
Retailer model to plan the marketing strategies from the data collected through
RFIDs and sensors in order to have rich experience to customers while retailing.
Internet of Everything: Applications 145

3.8 Supply Chain Management (SCM)

The supply chain is a network of business processes, from the collection of raw
materials to the production of refined goods. Under trembling conditions, all supply
chain runs are vulnerable to hordes of disruptions at all stages. The supply chain
mechanism is disrupted by several environmental factors at the global level [53],
and customers have changing demands in terms of quality, price, and latest trends.
Similar goods also differ due to the availability of raw materials, technology used,
clock, etc. Therefore, in order to keep all the components of the supply chain to
work synergistically, Christopher et al. suggested four pillars: responsiveness, reli-
ability, resilience, and relationships [54]. Companies need to be very agile and have
solution to mitigate all risks. IoT devices in the supply chain are efficient in moni-
toring and authenticating products and shipments using global positioning system
(GPS) and other technologies. IoT can help supply chain in the following ways:
(i) Tracking of goods
(ii) Monitoring storage environment of goods
(iii) Estimating time of delivery of goods
(iv) Predicting delay in shipment
This can be achieved by attaching IoT device to specific containers. Based on the
location and surrounding of IoT device, different types of data will be sensed, and
information will be provided to suppliers, distributers, retailer, shopkeepers, and
whole-sale dealers [55]. As warehouse plays a crucial role in SCM by storing raw
data and managing inventory, a smart warehouse based on IoT system is proposed
in [56]. This system utilized in knowing the conditions of all the goods prevents
warehouse shortage and prohibits counterfeiting goods in inventory. An effective
management of supply chain via RFID tags is presented in [57]. Author also dis-
cussed how different giants like Wall-marts, Chevrolet, and Procter and Gamble are
exploiting RFID technology for automation purpose in supply chain management.

3.9 Smart Farming

The application where IoT is least exploited is farming albeit a lot of opportunities.
For exponentially growing populations, countries depend on farming for food
sources. Due to unpredictable climate condition and social challenges faced by the
farmers, it is needed to bring revolution in farming using smart technologies, i.e.,
IoT. Use of technology will benefit farmer in mitigating risk of uncertain climate,
environmental impact, and market requirements. It is predicted in the USA that IoT
is going to have an investment of $4.3 billion by 2023 in order to feed enormous
population [58]. IoT can be adopted in farming for the following purposes:
(i) Detecting humidity in soil with the help of humidity sensors
(ii) Detecting need of pesticide spraying through drones fitted with smart cameras
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(iii) Detecting intrusion by animals in the farm

(iv) Detecting fire in the farm
(v) Weed removal
(vi) Water supply to plants
(vii) Detecting minerals in soil
Detailed survey of how to use IoT in farming is presented in [59]. The smart
agro-architecture based on the IoT consists of five inter-connected sub-systems, i.e.,
sensing [60], data analysis [61], communication of data [62], visualization [59], and
sub-system execution. The sensing sub-system is linked to the data analysis sub-­
system where each sensor’s raw data is individually manipulated, processed, and
analyzed using various algorithms implemented for visualization, and execution
sub-system consists of microcontroller unit to perform computation.
In smart farming, all types of monitoring can be done through different types of
sensors. Humidity in soil is monitored through soil sensor, water monitoring sensor
will identify need of water to plants, and temperature sensor will keep track of sur-
rounding temperature of crops. There are two more sensors that can be utilized for
effective farming of animals, namely, gas sensor and pressure sensors [63]. Once all
the sensors get assemble in the farm, they are operated through remote places via an
android application installed on smart phone. Moreover, smart grid can also provide
renewable energy to carry out several operations of farm. A sample prototype is
developed for smart farming using Arduino as discussed in paper [64]. MIT media
lab under the open agriculture initiative is treating growing crop as cooking some
recipe under controlled environment. They are trying to control all farm related
operations remotely and take appropriate action based on the data sensed by differ-
ent sensors located in the farm [64]. In [60], how IoT can be deployed in all land-
scape to make farming more technology intensive than labor intensive is discussed.
The overall design of IoT-based farming is shown in Fig. 10. Humidity sensor will
detect humidity in soil, drones help in spraying fertilizers, and Agri-bots removes
weed and also ploughs soil with the help of IoT and machine learning techniques.
Soil sensors can detect mineral quantity in soil and facilitate to yield alternate crops
in the same soil [78, 80].
Subsequently, IoT and artificial intelligence (AI) are used in various operations
of farming, from ploughing of land till picking of the crops. Farm owners may use
wireless IoT applications to collect information of livestock location, well-being,
health through livestock monitoring, and geofencing. This data is utilized to avoid
the spread of illness and decrease of labor costs as well. A smart greenhouse can be
intelligently monitored and controlled remotely without human intervention by
applying IoT. Crop prediction plays a vital role in assisting farmers to decide on a
potential strategy for crop production, storage, marketing, and risk management
techniques. In order to predict the production rate of the artificial crop network,
information obtained by the farm sensors, which is based on the parameters such as
soil, temperature, pressure, rainfall, and humidity, is utilized. Either via the dash-
board or a personalized mobile application, farmers can get precise soil data [65] for
further processing.
Internet of Everything: Applications 147

Fig. 10 Smart farming layout using IoT

3.10 Smart Cities

Growing population leads to scarcity of natural resources, which is a never ending

process. There are various problems faced by urban citizens regarding insufficient
parking, waste management, water management, electricity management, etc.
Hence, all these problems lead to the poor standard of living. To overcome these
issues, “smart cities” concept is originated. Smart cities pragmatically handle these
issues by saving energy and using resources efficiently. Smart cities utilize IoT-­
enabled devices for lights, motors, parking, litter baskets, and traffic management
and thereby improve the standard of living, public utilities, and infrastructures.
Electricity is the most potential area of cost cutting. By the survey of IBM, it is
found that in New York, people spend 22.5 years of their life waiting for elevators.
Therefore, they doubled their investment in building smart elevators [66]. Smart
Cities are second potential area where smartness and automation are required to
save cost. To do so, New York, London, San Diago, and Copenhagen already allevi-
ate problem of traffic congestion using smart sensing devices. These devices re-­
route the traffic to congestion free paths [66]. This supports in clearing the paths for
two-wheelers as well as pedestrians. India is also no way behind implementing
smart cities. Indian Government in 2015 decided to convert 100 non-smart cities
into smart cities thereby providing lucrative facility to citizens leaving in those cit-
ies. In [67], a technology-mixed solution of smart cities using AI and IoT is pro-
posed for smart traffic management.
Subsequently, main aspects, potential areas, and challenges of smart cities are
described in [68]. How different locations are monitored and controlled remotely to
148 R. Wajgi et al.

make overall city smart is explained by the author. Sensors located at different
places support in capturing data of corresponding location. Temperature, humidity,
and smoke sensor assist in locating over polluted areas and areas where rain fall has
occurred. This information is delivered to unhealthy people to take cautions. In [69],
integration of IoT and cloud is proposed for smart parking system to tackle parking
inconvenience and save the time spent in searching empty parking slot, which is an
integral part of smart city. This smart parking system is controlled via mobile appli-
cation, and its purpose is to find, allocate, reserve, and provide the best feasible
parking slot to an individual driving in the specific area. Moreover, it is stated that
more than 66% of the individuals are ready to pay for safe parking [70]. Hence, this
idea triggers the concept of smart parking. The system can be deployed in the areas
such as shopping mall, hotels, restaurants, streetcar parking areas, hospitals, multi-
plex, schools, colleges, and in residential areas. The required control centers can be
established on highway, emergency centers, traffic control centers, and various
police stations. Similarly, the smart parking system is implemented in [69] for the
university campus.
Nevertheless, a framework of service in smart city for waste management is the
latest requirement. It’s a process of managing waste from its inception to its dis-
posal. Pertinent way of waste management leads to imperishable development of
country. Based on the case study of waste management in St. Petersburg, Russia,
where average fuel consumption by trucks collecting waste is 1.8 million liters per
year and cost spent in one year is $1 million, there is a need to do waste manage-
ment in other parts of world also. This prompts to propose IoT-based waste manage-
ment system [71] for an efficient collection of waste. A waste management model
applied in the city of Wuhan is presented in [72]. This model highlighted the com-
plete life cycle of handling waste management. For monitoring statistics of litter
baskets and truck, an RFID-based model is proposed in [73].
The basic architecture of smart cities is demonstrated in Fig. 11. Smart sensing
devices are installed at apartments, parking slots, streetlights, elevators, traffic sig-
nals, water tanks, and litter baskets. These devices communicate with environment
and continuously sense the data and send it on cloud via internet. The stored data on
cloud is utilized by different people and governing departments to take sagacious
decisions.
Mostly, due to the absence of streetlights or loss of power, many road accidents
such as theft, chain snatching, kidnapping, etc. occur. Indirectly, it creates those
areas into heavens for the criminals. To deal with these problems, Smart lighting
system can be adopted as a framework of smart city [74] [75]. Also, we can achieve
energy saving up to 45% using such frameworks. Hence, it benefits in controlling
streetlights remotely. Such system can be customized with additional feature of
instinctively signals generation for electricity department, to take prompt action for
resolving the issue, and crimes can thus be avoided. In [76], a system is developed
for complete urban planning and smart city building using IoT and Big data. The
system is implemented using Hadoop for handling unprecedented voluminous data
generated by IoT devices. For designing complete urban planning based on IoT, the
data related to vehicular network, weather, pollution, smart home, smart parking,
Internet of Everything: Applications 149

Fig. 11 Architecture of smart city using IoT

and surveillance system need to be analyzed. System performs well for the benefit
of citizens, entrepreneurs, traffic authorities, and government, which results in tak-
ing wise decisions about nations at correct time.

4 Paradigm Shift from IoT to Internet of Everything (IoE)

CISCO, the major player in networking described in its report [77] that very soon
the paradigm is going to shift from IoT to IoE. IoT is only connecting things (i.e.,
smart devices) in a mechanized way and the whole system gets operated from any-
where, at any time by anyone. It helps in making human task easier. But now, not
only smart sensing devices but also other things, which are going to take part in
communication, are people, process, and data. These are known as the four basic
pillars of IoE, which is presented in Fig. 12. IoE is a broader perspective of IoT. IoE
is a world of billions of objects with sensors glued with them, which communicate
with each other through proprietary network protocols.
The four pillars of IoE enrich the set of experience for the users. CISCO predicts
that $4.6 trillion will be at stake in the next decade [77], known as IoE value. IoE
will create ground-breaking opportunities to the businesses. The theory of the IoE
describes the world in which billions of sensors are inserted into billions of comput-
ers, machines, and ordinary objects, giving them extended possibilities for network-
ing and making them smarter. Manufacturers are going to add sensors with devices.
This supports them to detect malfunctioning of the device so that they can swap it
out before complete damage occurs to them. IoE will connect unconnected things;
as a result, there exist three different types of communication: people-to-people
(P2P), machine-to-machine (M2M), and machine-to-people (M2P). CICSO pre-
dicted that there will be a 99.4% of things that will become part of internet and the
150 R. Wajgi et al.

Fig. 12 Four pillars of IoE

Fig. 13 IoE stake value at different sectors

$4.6 trillion value, which is at stake, will be spent in public sectors by giving bene-
fits to agencies, citizens, and employees. IoE has tremendous potential to address
issues of public sectors.
With the help of IoE, government can upgrade standard living for citizens of the
country by leveraging M2M communication to deal with Big data and crowdsourc-
ing. CISCO identified five sources on which $4.6 trillion will be spent, which is
shown in Fig. 13. The highest amount that is at stake is from employee productivity
sector. CISCO’s IoE value at stake is calculated from different use-cases, which are
classified into two types: Agency-specific and Cross-agency specific. Agency-­
specific includes use-cases such as Education, Culture and Entertainment,
Internet of Everything: Applications 151

Fig. 14 Countries benefited from IoE stake value

Transportation, Safety and Justice, Energy and Environment, Healthcare, and

Defense. Cross-agency use-cases include Next-generation Workforce and
Operations. The countries that get benefitted from IoE stake value are shown in
Fig. 14. The United States will be the most benefited country after deploying IoE,
whereas Australia will be the least to benefit.
Out of the three different communications that are needed in IoE, P2P and P2M
are going to have the highest stake value that is 69% and M2M is 31%. The essence
of using IoE is that it will make human life agile, more prolific, regulatory, and
luxurious.
Just to imagine a life using IoE, consider a day when you got up early in the
morning, water heater at your home will start communication with sensor embed-
ded in your body and get the hot water ready for your bath. Next, your coffee
machine and sandwich maker will make a breakfast for you without letting you
bother for availability of breads in your refrigerator. After breakfast, your smart
watch will call the driver and order him to get your car ready for your office. While
on the way to office, your schedule of the day will be given to your driver from your
calendar so that you need not have to spend your time calling the driver and describ-
ing to him about your schedule of the day. While on the way back home, your car
will remind you of purchasing a gift for your daughter on her birthday by stopping
near the gift shop. In between, if some traffic jam occurred on your way due to some
accident, you will not have to face the traffic congestion due to smart devices
attached on the road or on the helmet of the person caught in an accident. This sen-
sor on helmet or on the road would have already communicated with healthcare
services and already avoided crowd and congestion at the accidental spot. This will
152 R. Wajgi et al.

make you reach home on time without mental tiredness. When you reach home,
again the devices at your home start working as per your expectation without you
operating them. This is the kind of comfort and standard of living, which will be
provided to you through IoE. But, before heading towards IoE, we need to antici-
pate many exciting challenges, which are described in the next section.

4.1 Challenges and Issues in IoT/IoE

Before going to shift a landscape from IoT to a wider concept of IoE, the following
challenges need to be addressed intelligently.
(i) How to achieve high interoperability among devices without human interven-
tions at all
(ii) Provision of security mechanism for data, which is going to be available on the
internet so that its misuse can be avoided
(iii) Global norms, policies, and laws for individual sector in order to maintain
effective balance among economy, education, privacy, and security
(iv) Development of mechanism for repair or maintenance of smart devices and
their alterative solution in case of failure during emergency conditions
(v) Facility for storage of voluminous data and its analysis
(vi) Upgradation of hardware and software
(vii) Creating awareness of technology among citizens
To overcome challenges of IoT devices, there are many solutions available in
literature. Apart from them, we have identified possible solution for preventing data
generated by IoT devices from being hacked. Many vendors in the market are hav-
ing their own IoT infrastructure, devices, APIs, and data formats. This leads to the
issue of interoperability due to vendor-lock and forced unveiling of IoT devices to
work on cross platform. Hence, to deal with these issues, we need a standard infra-
structure, APIs, and data formats to be developed. Another solution could be inclu-
sion of one additional layer before application layer known as Web of Things (WoT)
layer for seamless working of IoT devices. Mostly, in IoT applications, vendors and
companies of the products are retaining their credentials and customers are not
aware about its negative impact. Users don’t realize the possibility of data being
hacked. To avoid this, password and username should be updated at regular interval
and strong password needs to be set for IoT network. Moreover, utilize only those
features that are important and disable the remaining. Eventually, to boost the per-
formance of IoT devices, regular maintenance and backups, and cleanup operations
need to be performed on storage. To handle legal issues, cyber laws and rules, we
need to design the preventive actions against data theft and misuse. To do so, we
required a central facility or standard to update the software applied on IoT devices
remotely. Also, keep track of updates available on firmware or product manufac-
turer’s website. In addition, Over the Air (OTA) facility can be used to update firm-
ware and software of IoT devices. Users need to be very cautious while handling
Internet of Everything: Applications 153

IoT devices’ network. Installation of non-repudiation security software on comput-

ers, tablets, and smart phones can provide additional security to IoT devices from
hackers.

5 Future Opportunities of IoE

As discussed earlier, the future will be of Internet of Everything where all objects
around us will be assigned IP address and they will also participate in communica-
tion with surrounding objects. Data generated by these devices will be more infor-
mative, and connection between them will be of utmost importance. IoE is going to
have strong potential through which gap between expectations by citizens and gov-
ernment practices will be fulfilled. Applications that were operating separately
using IoT will now come under one umbrella. For example, Smart traffic, in which
smart parking system will automatically get connected with Medical IoT and will
help in saving many lives, casualties will be avoided, congestion due to traffic will
be taken care of, and searching parking time will be saved.
To begin our journey towards IoE, government must work towards building
strong economy, focus on policy making and regulations, and struggle for quality
service delivery. There is a need of open platform where open discussion will be
done on privacy, security, sustainability, and resilience of IoE. IoE will create
groundbreaking opportunities for business. It will help enhance the capabilities of
devices, which will grow beyond imagination. Today’s fit bit not only monitors our
health data but, in the future, will also call a doctor in case of sudden fluctuation of
vital parameters without us being notified. Wearable smart tattoo by expectant
mother will help in monitoring the health of fetus. In industry, IoE can do video
analysis and help in optimizing productivity of stores. This is just a budding
stage of IoE.

6 Summary and Future Direction

This chapter discussed about architecture of IoT and its applications. IoT-enabled
wearable devices provide health-related information at our fingertips. Smart vehi-
cles with IoT technology assist drivers and provide them safety on roads. IoT is used
in smart farming to improve the yield of crops and enable intelligent farming, which
is far away from conventional techniques. IoT has proven itself in supply chain
management by removing uncertainties that pop outs in business. It created impact
in retailing by providing customer-oriented services. Application of IoT in building
smart home and city is a milestone. These two applications created many business
opportunities. Smart home is the most explored domain of IoT, which is accepted by
people around the world. It provides security to home, which is an asset for
154 R. Wajgi et al.

everyone. Apart from applications, architectures of various applications are also

discussed in the chapter.
In the future, paradigm will shift to IoE. Government, researchers, academicians
are trying to develop technology-based solutions where everything around us will
communicate to each other and will improve the standard of living. Though IoE is
in its embryonic stage, it has limitless potential that will automate our day-to-day
life activities in the future. This chapter presents an indication about future technol-
ogy of IoE so that researchers in the business sectors will develop prototypes and
can convert them to final products as a part of business. Research is needed in the
direction to provide single platform for all IoT devices to work on. More secure and
scalable solution is needed for data security using a blend of IoT, deep learning, and
AI. The scope of research in IoE comprises security, interoperability of IoT devices
in cross platform, and development of energy-saving mechanism for sensing
devices. Improving the life time of sensing devices is also one of the areas of
research for sensing. In the future, IoE along with AI will steer varieties of use-cases
at hyperscale.

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