Technology overview

Building
fabric
Energy saving techniques to improve the
energy performance of buildings

enter
 Building fabric 2

Contents
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Roofs & Lofts pg.11
Building fabric and energy consumption 5
Windows
Importance of external factors 7 pg.16

Opportunities for energy saving 9

Next steps 22

Walls pg.14
Go online for more information 23

Flo 9
ors pg.1
pg or s
.21 Do
 Building fabric 3

Preface

Reducing energy use makes perfect business sense; it saves money,

enhances corporate reputation and helps everyone in the fight against
climate change.

The Carbon Trust provides expert, effective advice to help

organisations take action to reduce carbon emissions. The simplest
way to do this is to use energy more efficiently.

This overview introduces the main energy saving opportunities that

exist in building fabric, demonstrating how simple actions can save
energy, cut costs, and increase staff wellbeing.
 Building fabric 4

Introduction
Improving a building’s fabric is a smart investment.

Taking a “fabric first” approach is fundamental to the • Compliance with regulation important to consider how the improvement measure
energy performance of a building. The building fabric °° The government stipulates a minimum might impact on the function of the rest of the building.
refers to the roof, walls, windows, floors and doors of efficiency requirement for both new build For example, adding insulation to a building should
a building. and existing buildings. always be preceded by a review of ventilation provision
to safeguard against surface or interstitial
Improving and maintaining the building fabric offers Typically, there are two approaches to improving the
condensation occurring.
many advantages and opportunities: building fabric: whole-building refurbishment, or a
single measure approach.
• Reduced energy and maintenance costs
Who is this publication for?
• Better temperature control and thermal comfort Whole-building refurbishment offers the opportunity
for occupants to make significant energy savings and maximise the Building owners and managers, energy managers,
• Improved productivity cost-effectiveness of upgrading the building fabric. financial teams or anyone who wishes to improve
°° Output and morale are enhanced through reducing For example, combining the installation of insulation internal comfort levels whilst reducing heating
draughts, solar glare, overheating, colder areas, with new windows will enable the design and and cooling costs. In particular, this guide is useful
as well as noise. deployment of an optimised low energy heating, to anyone who could benefit from the knowledge
• Lower capital expenditure ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) solution. that building fabric should always be addressed
°° A more efficient, well-insulated building requires first, so that HVAC systems can be optimised to
Single measures are targeted, often opportunistic,
smaller heating and cooling systems, or even none operate at maximum efficiency, thereby
interventions and therefore the most common type of
at all. minimising energy costs.
building improvement project. These often consists of
• Good investment
either roof insulation, wall insulation, new windows or
°° Better insulation or well-maintained/modified
draught-proofing. Whilst this approach can achieve
building fabric can increase a building’s value
improved energy performance and comfort, it is
and aesthetics.
 Building fabric 5

Building fabric and energy consumption

The design and specification of the building fabric is a major determining factor of energy use
in any building. Efficient, smart design reduces consumption and costs, and offers occupants
comfort and flexibility.

Both ventilation and air conditioning requirements are • Fabric condition; a well maintained building loses
affected by building fabric, however heating usually has much less heat, for example through being free
the largest overall energy cost implication and impact from damp.
on thermal comfort.
The ability of fabric to transfer heat is measured and Figure 1 Breakdown of heat loss for a typical industrial
Typically, two thirds of the heat generated in a building expressed as a U-value. Different fabrics have different building with a central valley gutter
is lost through the building fabric. The remaining third thermal (heat transfer) properties. For example,
is lost through deliberate ventilation and uncontrolled glazing is usually the part of the fabric least able to
infiltration through vents and gaps in the fabric, provide thermal resistance as it has the highest
allowing warm air to leave and cold air to enter. thermal conductivity.
Reheating the space to balance this loss can be an
expensive waste of energy.
The U-value of a building element (wall, window,
roof, etc.) is an expression of the rate of energy
Fact:
Fact! flow (in Watts) for a given surface area (in m2) for a
An industrial building could be losing one degree temperature difference between one
An industrial building could be losing 75%
75% of its heat through the building side of the element and the other (usually inside
of its heat through the building fabric.
fabric. and outside). U-values are expressed on the Kelvin
scale (K), but practically measured in degrees
The rate of heat loss depends on:
Celsius. The measurement for U-values is
• Internal and external temperature difference. expressed as W/m2K. A lower U-value indicates
• The rate at which the building fabric loses heat. better thermal insulating properties.
• The amount of fresh (outside) air entering the
building either by controlled ventilation or
uncontrolled infiltration.
 Building fabric 6

Thermal bridging

A thermal bridge is an area, either singular or recurring, in the

building fabric that allows heat to be lost through passage from
inside to outside; this is usually caused by missing insulation or
a component that exists through the structure e.g. structural
steelwork. Thermal bridging leads to cold spots on the internal Figure 2 This flow chart shows an approximate breakdown of heat loss.
surface of the building fabric, which in turn can lead to surface
condensation, damp and mould.

Important: The impact of building fabric upgrades on

HVAC requirements must be properly understood prior
to implementation to ensure these systems can be
simultaneously modified to respond to the reduced
heat-losses or gains in the most efficient manner.
Impact on ventilation requirements must also be
considered and measures put in place to mitigate
any resultant condensation risk.
 Building fabric 7

Importance of external factors

The energy consumption of a building is affected by a variety of interrelated external environmental factors,
which govern how a building responds to the environment around it.

Climate and weather: Orientation and layout:

Factor: Climate factors such as temperature, Factor: The direction in which buildings face
humidity, prevailing wind conditions, light, and the amount of shading from other
and solar gain greatly impact the energy buildings or plants has a direct effect
use and energy efficiency of a building. on the amount of daylight and solar Tip:
heat that enters the internal spaces.
Potential: This presents opportunities to harness North facing rooms are often the coolest
natural conditions to heat, cool and Potential: There are clear opportunities to reduce areas in a building, and so ideal for storing
ventilate buildings. light usage by maximising daylight, and heat-emitting electrical equipment, such
reduce heating by maximising use of as servers, photocopier printers, etc.
Smart design is key, however, there are also
Harness
solar heat.
/mitigate: effective methods for harnessing the This can reduce costs associated with cooling
impact of climactic conditions on existing Due to heated air rising, there is also
Harness the equipment, and in fact provide space
buildings. These methods can start with potential to encourage effective natural
/mitigate: heating for the rest of the building.
low-cost measures such as installing ventilation through the “stack effect”. This
draught stripping, upgrading insulation or uses pressure differences to draw air
providing external shading. Increasingly, through a building. External shading, such
renewable energy technologies such as as brise soleil, can be used to ensure solar
solar PV and solar thermal systems are gains don’t cause overheating, and to
being integrated into buildings to exploit minimise glare.
beneficial external conditions. Their cost
effectiveness is improved when they
displace traditional building materials and
should therefore be considered prior to roof
and window replacement projects.
 Building fabric 8

Form: Building airtightness: Condensation:

Factor: A building’s shape and proportion exposed Factor: Air enters and leaves a building both by Factor: Condensation can occur on the surface
to the environment will also affect internal controlled ventilation, such as windows of, or within, the building fabric.
temperatures and heat loss. and dedicated air vents, and through Surface condensation occurs when warm
uncontrolled ‘air infiltration’, such as gaps moisture laden air makes contact with a
Potential: The smaller the external surface area of a
and cracks in the walls and around window cold surface that is below the dew-point
building, the less opportunity there is for
and door openings. Air infiltration does not of the air.
heat to escape, however this can also
ventilate a building in an energy efficient
reduce natural lighting and ventilation. Interstitial condensation works on the
way. Buildings that leak air also leak
same principles as surface condensation,
Harness Getting
this balance right is only really an money as additional energy is needed
except it occurs within the building fabric,
/mitigate: option at the design stage, whether for a to heat or cool the outside air entering
usually on the cold side of any insulation.
new building, new extension or the building.
Thermal bridging is a common cause of
significant alteration.
Potential: Improving airtightness enables more interstitial condensation.
efficient ventilation, more effective
Potenial: Surface condensation can be very
temperature control, and reduces
detrimental to human health and comfort
uncomfortable draughts.
as it often leads to damp and mould
Increased airtightness and thermal
Harness growth. Interstitial condensation can be
insulation can sometimes result in newer
/mitigate: very detrimental to the building fabric as it
buildings (particularly offices) overheating. can lead to decay and structural instability.
This can be solved by using controlled
As condensation occurs, the thermal
Harness
ventilation (ideally with heat recovery) and
conductivity of the building fabric
responsive HVAC controls to optimise the
increases, thus leading to more heat loss
level of heating, ensuring comfort and
and energy consumption. Mitigation
cost reductions.
strategies include: ensuring upgraded
insulation is continuous by minimising
thermal bridging; applying a vapour barrier
(to the warm side); and modifying the
ventilation strategy.
Figure 3 Variation in building forms showing
differences in perimeter and wall area
 Building fabric 9

Opportunities for energy saving

Insulation: Loose: performance, is vapour permeable and hygroscopic,

lightweight and has fire resistant performance (after
Insulation is among the most cost-effective and Mineral and glass wool: Mineral and glass wool come in
being chemically treated). Can be used in roofs
frequently employed methods for improving the blanket form or as loose ‘chips’ to be blown into place.
and walls.
energy efficiency of buildings. There are several types They have good thermal performance and are vapour
of insulation available for use within construction, some permeable, lightweight and non-combustible. Can be Installation difficulty: Moderate
of which are available in a variety of forms (loose, used in roofs at ceiling level, in internal partition walls Price: £
semi-rigid and rigid). A brief outline is given below. and under suspended timber floors. Embodied carbon: Very Low

Natural and low embodied carbon insulation Installation difficulty: Moderate Hemp blanket: Produced from natural plant fibres and
materials are always preferable. This is important as Price: £ is renewable. Provides good thermal performance, is
there is a risk that insulation with high embodied Embodied carbon: High vapour permeable and hygroscopic. It can absorb about
energy will not sufficiently reduce carbon emissions 20% of its weight in moisture without thermal
Sheep wool: Sheep wool insulation also comes in
during its life expectancy to offset the emissions deterioration, setting it apart from most man-made
blanket and ‘chip’ forms. It is a natural alternative with
generated in their production, which can be extensive. insulations. It is inert and therefore does not require
similar thermal performance to mineral wool, is vapour
In addition, natural materials are often vapour any specialist PPE. Not naturally fire resistant. Can be
permeable and hygroscopic, lightweight and is not
permeable and hygroscopic meaning they can assist used in roofs at ceiling level, in internal partition walls
flammable (it singes away from the heat and
with the movement of moisture, thus making them the and under suspended timber floors.
extinguishes itself). Can be used in roofs at ceiling
preferred choice for traditionally constructed buildings.
level, in internal partition walls and under suspended Installation difficulty: Easy
Health and Safety timber floors. Price: £££
Embodied carbon: Low
Prior to specifying, purchasing, handling or installing Installation difficulty: Easy
any insulation, its properties should be carefully Price: ££ Semi-rigid:
reviewed to ensure that it is fit for purpose and this Embodied carbon: Low
High-density mineral wool slabs: this compacted
involves a review of the material safety data sheet. This
Cellulose: Produced from either natural plant fibres or mineral wool is less flexible, but also takes up less
will also inform the Personal Protective Equipment
more commonly recycled paper products. Generally space in achieving lower U-values. As a result it is
(PPE) required during installation.
blown into place, it provides good thermal commonly used for walls. It has good thermal and fire
performance and is vapour permeable. Can be used
 Building fabric 10

under suspended timber floors, as well as in walls. Installation difficulty: Moderate Installation difficulty: Moderate
Price: £££ Price: ££
Installation difficulty: Moderate
Embodied carbon: High Embodied carbon: Moderate
Price: ££
Embodied carbon: Moderate Polyurethane: A spray on closed cell plastic insulation Aerogel: Produced from silica aerogel combined
that reacts with the air to create an insulating, air with fibres. Superior thermal performance from a
Hemp boards: This compacted hemp insulation is less
sealed, moisture barrier. Available as both closed cell lightweight and thin board. Good fire performance.
flexible. It has good thermal performance, is vapour
and open cell. Installation requires specialist Can be used on walls, floors and roofs.
permeable and hygroscopic. Not naturally fire
contractor and not naturally fire resistant. However,
resistant. Can be used in walls and roofs at ceiling and Installation difficulty: Moderate
very difficult to remove so will affect ability to recycle
rafter level. Can be used under suspended timber Price: £££
other materials at the end of the buildings life. Can be
floors, as well as in walls. Embodied carbon: High
used on floors, walls and roofs.
Installation difficulty: Easy Cork: Produced from the bark of the cork tree.
Installation difficulty: Difficult
Price: ££ Completely renewable and inert. Excellent thermal
Price: ££
Embodied carbon: Low performance, vapour permeable and hygroscopic,
Embodied carbon: Very High
lightweight and naturally fire resistant. Can be used
Rigid:
Phenolic foam: Closed cell phenol-formaldehyde resin in floors, walls and roofs.
Expanded/Extruded polystyrene: Closed cell insulation based insulation boards which are lightweight and have
Installation difficulty: Easy
boards derived from petrochemicals which provide very good thermal performance from minimal
Price: £
good thermal performance, are lightweight and are thickness. Have some natural flame resistance and
Embodied carbon: Very Low
impermeable to moisture. However, they are moisture resisting properties. Can be used in floors,
flammable. Requires toxic fire retardant to provide walls and roofs.
some fire resistance. Can be used in walls, floors and Important:
Installation difficulty: Moderate
at rafter level in roofs.
Price: £££ Regularly check building fabric for damp,
Installation difficulty: Moderate Embodied carbon: High particularly in the most risk-prone winter
Price: £ months, as it drastically reduces insulation
Wood wool/ fibre:Produced from timber waste. Good
Embodied carbon: High properties and can cause significant damage.
thermal performance, vapour permeable, hygroscopic
Polyisocyanurate: Closed cell plastic insulation boards and highly versatile. Requires fire retardant. Currently
which are lightweight, have good thermal performance, has to be imported, adding to the embodied carbon.
are impermeable to moisture and often come with an Can be used in floors, walls and roofs.
integrated foil vapour control layer. However, they are
flammable. Can also be sprayed on. Can be used in
floors, walls and roofs at rafter level.
 Building fabric 11

Ventilation Refurbishment opportunities:

Important:
Utilising the stack effect
Ventilation is important to all aspects of building fabric,
and must always be taken into consideration during the If addressed at the design stage of both new build and Heating, cooling and ventilation are all part of the
planning and execution of any insulation work. refurbishment projects, this can be maximised to same equation and must be balanced.
provide natural ventilation throughout a building. The
Changes to heating and insulation must include
Maintenance opportunities: stack effect takes advantage of natural differences in
consideration of how this will impact on ventilation.
pressure, causing cooler fresh air to be ‘sucked’ in at
Double and triple glazin g Likewise changes to ventilation must include
the lower level and warmer stale air to be expelled at
By replacing single-glazed and poor fitting windows planning how this can impact other factors,
the higher level. Care must be taken to ensure that this
with double and triple glazing, air infiltration can be particularly the formation of condensation. Failure
approach does not cause excessive heat loss, for
prevented and draught-free ventilation provided for to consider these holistically risks creating more
example through the use of baffles.
better control. problems than are solved during improvements.
Trickle ventilator
Sealing cracks and gaps
Trickle ventilators can be installed to provide
This reduces uncontrolled infiltration and air leakage,
background ventilation and to encourage cross-
allowing for both maximum efficiency and control of the
ventilation where possible. Importantly, they are gentle, Positive input ventilation
installed ventilation system.
and thus do not interfere with thermal comfort during This system draws fresh air from outside and pushes
Blocking the chimney colder months when the heating is being used. this inside the building. The pressure builds up inside
Particularly relevant to heritage buildings, old, unused, and forces air out through gaps, for example trickle
Eaves and suspended floor ventilation
open chimneys can be blocked up during decorating or ventilators. The system is usually located on the roof or
It is crucially important that ventilation is installed or
other maintenance activities. This reduces uncontrolled in the roof space and can draw the air directly from
maintained when insulating a cold pitched roof or
ventilation losses and draughts. Ensure that sufficient outside through ductwork or through the eaves
suspended timber floor. This ventilation prevents
controllable ventilation will be provided before blocking ventilators, which creates air movement in this area
condensation forming, which could have ramifications
the chimney and that some residual ventilation is and therefore reduces condensation risks here too. It
for the health of occupants from damp and mould, and
provided through the chimney to keep it dry. can also incorporate a heating element and/or heat
the structural stability of the building from rot.
recovery to pre-heat the air before entering the
There is a risk otherwise of dampness mobilising old
Extract ventilation occupied space. These systems are particularly
combustion products, which then leach through the
This is the removal of air directly from a space to effective at eradicating and then preventing
construction and cause staining of internal finishes
outside. Extract ventilation may be by natural means condensation, damp and mould.
and mould growth; these can in turn lead to serious
(e.g. stack ventilation) or by mechanical means
health risks. Even something as minor as inadvertently sealing
(e.g. an extract fan).
cracks and gaps can affect ventilation to the point of
triggering a requirement for additional ventilation.
 Building fabric 12

Roofs and lofts Refurbishment opportunities:

Typically, over 20% of heat in a building is lost through Insulate

the roof. Installing loft insulation in an uninsulated pitched roof
is likely to be the single most cost-effective way to
Behaviour change opportunities: improve the efficiency of the building fabric and save
money. Insulated loft spaces in a building can reduce
Inspect
heat loss through the roof by over 80%. Upgrading
It is always important to ensure roofs are in good
existing insulation can also offer significant results Large
condition; however, this is particularly pertinent for flat
(providing it is in good condition and not damp). If there heated
roofs. Keep an eye out for signs of damp, puddles of
is less than 150mm (6 inches) of loose insulation, it is volume
water, and any indication that the roof is changing shape
always worth adding more, aiming for at least 270mm.
– any of these can let in water causing significant,
expensive damage. Also check for damage by rodents, Re-circulate
nesting birds and other animals. In high roofed buildings such as industrial sites, rising
hot air can collect at the ceiling – sometimes up to 10°C Figure 4 Heat loss through uninsulated stories
Upon finding any faults, take action immediately; this
warmer than at working level. This contributes to a
will minimise costs and severity. During maintenance in
higher rate of heat loss through the roof.
a loft space, lay walking boards if insulation hides where
joists lie, and after, remember to check insulation has Consider installing ceiling circulation, ‘destratification
been put back to provide a complete covering. fans’, so warm air can be redirected down to where it is
Figure 5 Improved heat retention due to
needed. In most cases the value of heat savings far
inter-floor insulation
exceeds the cost of the electricity required to
operate the fans.
Unheated
Ceilings
Tip: In multi-storey buildings it is often beneficial to insulate
Suspended
between ceiling and floor spaces. This can ease the
Insulate all pipework and water storage tanks in ceiling
difficulty of heating lower floors, whilst reducing the
the roof space to reduce the risk of freezing and
problem of overheating on higher floors.
improve comfort. Reduction
Unheated
Retaining high ceilings can however serve an energy in heated
efficient use in the right situation. The extra volume volume
above occupied areas allows heat stratification, which
combined with the thermal mass of the building can
reduce the cooling load and associated costs.
 Building fabric 13

Designs: Flat roof

When upgrading it is essential to check:
Flat roofs can be more difficult and expensive to
Pitched roof
insulate than pitched roofs. It is not usually economical • The condition of the existing weatherproof covering.
Insulating pitched roofs at ceiling level (‘cold roof’)
to add insulation unless carrying out repair or
offers relatively short paybacks and can be carried • The thermal resistance of any insulation previously
refurbishment work at the same time. As a result,
out at any time. Insulation must be installed carefully, installed below the weatherproof covering.
installing insulation to make the flat roof a warm roof is
making sure there are no gaps which can lead to
most appropriate when the weatherproof covering has • The ability of the roof to support the increased load.
thermal bridging, and the roof must be sufficiently
failed, or when the insulation needs upgrading. Adding
ventilated to prevent condensation. A vapour control
insulation to the underside of the flat roof and thus
layer may also be necessary.
creating a cold roof is not recommended due to the
risks from interstitial condensation.

Figure 6 A cold pitched roof, with insulation Figure 7 A warm pitched roof, with insulation Figure 8 An inverted warm flat roof
at ceiling level at rafter level

Alternatively, following a condensation risk assessment,

a pitched roof can be insulated at rafter level – a ‘warm
roof’. This can be done using rigid insulation boards or
semi-rigid insulation slabs, ensuring a 50mm gap
between insulation and roofing felt / sarking.
 Building fabric 14

Walls External wall insulation

This method brings several benefits:
Around 9% of heat lost in a building is through the One of the most common, and effective, methods of
• Reduced risk of interstitial condensation due to
fabric of the walls. insulating solid and hard to treat cavity external walls
protection from extreme temperature fluctuations.
is by applying insulation boards to the outer surface of
Refurbishment opportunities:
the building and protecting it with a specialist render or • Reduced opportunities for thermal bridging.
Heat reflective foil cladding system. This process can be done in a new
• Improved airtightness.
Heat reflective foil can be fitted behind radiators to build construction as well as during the refurbishment
reduce the amount of heat escaping. This is particularly of existing buildings. However, as with all fabric • Retention of thermal mass on the inside of the building.
recommended for radiators located on walls with an upgrades, it must only be applied to dry walls. It can
• Can improve the aesthetic appearance of the building.
external aspect. Fit foil so that the shiny side faces the often be mistakenly installed as a method of addressing
room. damp, which just leads to the moisture being trapped
and exacerbating the problem.
Cavity wall insulation
Installing cavity wall insulation is relatively simple, Insulated renders can also be used. A hemp lime
preferably with expanded polystyrene beads. The render is an effective natural, low carbon option
procedure causes minimal disruption to building and can be applied to both the outside and inside
occupants, making it suitable to carry out at any time. of a building.

Buildings with hard to treat cavity walls and where they

are exposed to wind driven rain and where cavities are
not completely clear should avoid cavity wall insulation.
There is a risk that moisture can be carried through the Figure 10 External wall insulation
wall and appear on the internal surface. There is also
the risk of gaps being left, leading to cold spots and
thus causing condensation, damp and mould.

Figure 9 Cavity wall insulation

 Building fabric 15

Internal wall insulation Exposing the fabric

External wall insulation is always preferable to Exposing the fabric to the air provides slower heating
internal, which, although an option, requires specialist responses, and can therefore be incorporated into smart,
advice to overcome potentially significant risks. efficiency-led design, reducing both heating and cooling
Ultimately, it may simply create more problems demand.
than it solves.
Heavyweight building fabric like concrete and stone acts
One of the main problems is the introduction of like a storage heater if exposed to the internal air
unavoidable thermal bridging due to not being able to temperature, as well as direct solar gain. Allowing heat
Remember
achieve a complete covering, primarily at internal wall, to be absorbed by the building fabric in this way allows
floor and ceiling junctions. Thermal bridging can have the building to heat up more slowly and to hold its
serious detrimental effects on both occupants and temperature for longer. If a building is listed, such as a
the structure. heritage site, the listing
This can be advantageous when the space is occupied for
protects all services including
Adding insulation to the internal face of solid external long periods, but where spaces are used infrequently, a
boilers and pipework. It is
walls isolates internal heat from all the components fast heating response time is more desirable.
therefore a criminal act to
embedded in the wall, as well as the wall itself, for
change anything without
example, floor joist ends, lintels over openings. This is
permission. If in doubt, seek
particularly pertinent to older traditionally constructed
Figure 11 Internal wall insulation professional advice.
buildings where these components are often made
from timber.

Whilst internal wall insulation is a less expensive

option, disruption to building occupants can restrict it
to periods of refurbishment. When applying,
consideration should be given to putting in amenities
such as electric sockets and pipework; penetration of
the insulation layer must be minimised in order to
maintain the insulation’s integrity.
 Building fabric 16

Windows Windows are made up of two components, the glazing Redirect the sun
and the frame. The main factors affecting a window’s Direct sunlight coming into buildings through glazing
Used effectively, windows can reduce requirements
performance are: can create glare problems. Often building occupants
for lighting, heating and mechanical cooling. However,
react to this by lowering blinds and switching on lights.
they can also account for over a quarter of a building’s
• Number of panes of glass that make up a glazing unit Instead, users should be encouraged to angle blinds to
heat loss.
(i.e. single, double or triple). reflect light onto the ceiling and into the workspace.
Glazing can let in solar heat, which can be beneficial in
• Specification of the glass used.
reducing heat requirements in colder weather. Draw curtains/blinds to improve comfort
However, it can also make buildings uncomfortably • Type of gas used to fill the cavity between Draw curtains and lower blinds at the end of each day
warm in summertime or cold in wintertime for those glass panes. to help keep warmth in during winter months. Equally,
next to the windows. during summer, using curtains and blinds in rooms
• Frame design (e.g. thermal break width).
exposed to afternoon and evening sun helps lower
• Glazing unit design (e.g. insulating spacers). temperatures.
Figure 12 Solar gain and the role of glazing

Behaviour change opportunities: Maintenance opportunities:

Keep windows closed Regular checks

To reduce the loss of heated or cooled air, keep
Regularly check windows and replace broken or
windows closed when heating or air-conditioning
cracked panes and frames. Fit draught stripping
systems are in operation. Use the system controller(s)
where appropriate and replace any sections showing
to achieve a comfortable temperature.
wear or damage; this can be undertaken as an easy
DIY measure.
Make good use of natural daylight
Most people prefer to work in natural light. Occupants
should therefore be encouraged to keep lights switched
off when there is sufficient daylight; installing daylight
sensors can help. Regularly cleaning windows and
skylights also help to maximise daylight.
 Building fabric 17

Reduce draughts Coatings that allow daylight through but block or

Openable windows can be draught-stripped to reduce reduce heat can be particularly effective at reducing
heat loss. Importantly, this needs to be balanced with a overheating from direct sunlight; thus lowering cooling
Figure 13 Cross section of triple glazing
supply of background ventilation (e.g. trickle requirements. However, this needs to be considered
with in-built louvres
ventilators) to reduce condensation risk. carefully if the heat from the sun is intended to be used
to supplement (or even substitute) space heating.

An alternative short-term measure is to apply solar- Manufacturers have a wide range of products
Top tip: ‘the 1 pence test’ control film to existing glazing. This may however that may solve several problems at once. The
impact daylight levels and alter the colour of the glazing in this diagram will keep the heat in
If a 1 pence coin can slide between a window and
remaining light. effectively, while the louvres could control
its frame, draught-proofing will be cost effective
glare and improve lighting conditions.
and improve comfort.
Replace glazing with insulation
In highly glazed spaces, a retrofit option is to replace
some glazing with insulated blank panels. This provides
Refurbishment opportunities: better insulation at the cost of daylight, and also
reduces heat and glare problems.
Improving glazing can be expensive and may only be
cost-effective as part of a refurbishment project.
Provide external shading
Solar shading reduces unwanted heat and light from
Double/triple glazing
the sun during the summer, and can allow low-angled
Double glazing is now a minimum requirement when
winter sun to provide some passive heating. It is most
replacing windows (except where the listing or
effective if combined with thermal mass, as well as
conservation area exempts the building), however
measures to address overheating such as energy
installing triple glazing on north facing or exposed
efficient lighting and appliances.
sides of a building can offer further comfort and
savings. Although the heat from the sun is most intense on
south facing facades, the sun’s rays can be more
High performance and low emissivity glass problematic on the east or west facing facades, which
High performance glass has a coating or a film applied are susceptible to overheating and glare when the sun
to it to improve insulation properties. This redirects is at a low angle.
heat either back into the room or prevents it from
entering the space from outside.
 Building fabric 18

Types of external shading include:

Trees and vegetation
Overhangs, awnings and light shelves
Overhangs, including ‘brise soleil’, are a simple, Planting trees and
effective means of blocking out the high summer sun, climbing vegetation
without compromising low winter sun, and are usually can be used to
installed on south facing facades. They can be integrated provide shade and
into both new-builds and existing buildings, and also control of solar gain
provide protection for the external envelope. where space permits.
Tall deciduous trees
Awnings are a more simple
are best, offering
form of overhangs that are
summer shade but
cheap to install and can be
allowing the winter
retracted if required.
sun through.

External blinds Figure 14 An illustration of issues of solar

External blinds can be used independently or with a fixed gain on building orientation
overhang/awning to offer more control of shading. Due to
their lightweight frames, blinds are easier than heavier
overhangs/awning to install on existing buildings, and
can be manually controlled from inside the building.

Internal blinds tend to be less effective for reducing

heat gain as, although they can reduce glare, the
blind becomes hot within the room.
 Building fabric 19

Doors Maintenance opportunities: Refurbishment opportunities:

For many buildings easy access is essential, but open

Fit brush strips Fit draught lobbies to main entrances
doors can allow uncontrolled quantities of air into a
Fit the strips to the internal side of doors and windows. Installing a draught lobby at frequently used entrances
building, reducing comfort and wasting energy.
For gaps between double doors, select one door and can reduce heating costs and draughts. Ideally, a lobby
add the brush strips. should be large enough to ensure one set of doors is
Behaviour change opportunities:
closed before the other is opened.
Replace seals and door closers
Keep doors closed
Regular inspection and maintenance of draught
All external doors should be kept closed when heating
proofing and door closers will ensure they continue
or cooling systems are in operation. Consider fitting
to work properly and provide savings.
automatic closers to external doors and to internal
doors separating areas with different requirements. REALITY
Seal unused doors MYTH
A quick and cheap action is to seal the perimeter of
A door with a
unused doors to avoid heat escaping and cold draughts Small gaps
entering a space. 3mm gap will
around doors
let in as much
Fact: do not let in
cold air as a
Draught stripping is easy, much cold
Figure 15 Brush strips
inexpensive and improves occupant hole in the wall
air.
comfort. It can also reduce heating
the size of a
costs by up to 10% and can pay back
any investment within a year or two. brick.
 Building fabric 20

Install a revolving door Vehicular access doors Fast-acting door

This is an alternative to a lobby, and reduces heat loss Doors that provide access for vehicles are usually little
when people are entering or leaving the building. These more than large openings in a building’s wall. This can
doors should be draught-stripped. An ordinary door is result in large volumes of heat loss and uncomfortable
necessary for emergency and disabled access, but working conditions.
should be kept closed when not in use.
Heat losses can be mitigated through the use of a
Figure 16 Brush strips on a revolving door vehicle entrance lobby, PVC/plastic strip curtains or
high speed motorised doors with automatic sensor
controls.

Figure 17 Methods for keeping heat in when vehicle

access is required
Airtight door seals

Insulating door seals allows goods trucks to reverse

Entrance lobby
into an airtight seal and load/unload without
compromising the heated or cooled air inside.
Partition
Goods area
Example of airtight door seals

Plastic strip curtains

Interlocking control for heating systems
Open doors can result in substantial heat losses. If
heating turns off when doors are opened, heat loss is
minimised and workers are incentivised to keep them
closed. These are relatively cheap to install and
particularly effective in loading bays, garages
and workshops.
 Building fabric 21

Floors To ensure optimal insulation, the following should

be noted:
Floors are often overlooked as an area for energy
saving, but nearly 10% of heat lost from a building • Seal gaps at the skirting to avoid air infiltration.
will occur via the ground floor.
• Maintain ventilation below the subfloor for
timber floors.
Maintenance opportunities:
• Place electrical cables sheathed in PVC in conduit,
Seal gaps and cracks or protect from direct contact with expanded
polystyrene insulation.
Sealing any cracks in flooring and around its edges is
an easy and effective means of improving comfort and • Avoid placing heating pipes on the cold side of
reducing costs. This is especially important in higher insulation, always ensure pipes are insulated.
floors, where sealing cracks can reduce overheating
• Install a vapour control layer to avoid condensation
from rising hot air.
within the insulation if using mineral fibre or other
The use of carpet, underlay or carpet tiles can also non-hygroscopic insulation material.
achieve this.
Concrete ground floors
Refurbishment opportunities Opportunities for insulating existing solid ground floors
are limited, adding insulation can only occur during
Suspended timber floors floor replacement. There are three main options:
Adding insulation between joists, where there is access
• Adding insulation prior to laying the final
to the underside of suspended timber floors, is a
concrete surface.
cost-effective measure at any time. In cases where
there is no access the process is much more difficult, • Installing insulation above the concrete slab.
and only worthwhile as part of a planned
• Adding insulation between the wooden battens
refurbishment. Floorboards can be lifted and the
supporting the floorboards.
insulation can be suspended by a mesh before
floorboards are re-laid.
All options are likely to be disruptive and expensive,
likely only cost-effective during refurbishment.
However, they will significantly improve
thermal comfort.
 Building fabric 22

Next steps
Here are six steps to implementing effective building fabric upgrades to reduce costs and improve the
energy performance of your building:

Step 1: Understand your energy use Step 3: Prioritise your actions Step 5: Make the changes and measure
Look at your building and identify the major areas of Draw up an action plan detailing a schedule of the savings
energy consumption. Check the condition and operation improvements that need to be made and when, along
Implement your energy saving actions and measures
of equipment and monitor the power consumption over with who will be responsible for them. Remember, you
against original consumption figures. This will assist
say, one week to obtain a base figure against which should improve building fabric standards before
future management decisions regarding your energy
energy efficiency improvements can be measured. replacing HVAC systems to ensure they are optimally
priorities.
sized for maximum efficiency and cost savings.

Step 2: Identify your opportunities Step 4: Seek specialist help Step 6: Continue managing your building for
Walk round and complete an action checklist (see page It is possible to implement some building fabric energy energy efficiency
9 onwords) to identify where building fabric saving measures in-house, but others may require
Enforce policies, systems and procedures to ensure
improvements can be made. Examine windows, doors, specialist help. These more complex measures often
that your organisation operates efficiently and that
roof spaces, skirting and eaves to see whether they are have long payback periods, and should be considered
savings are maintained in the future.
draughty or damp. Further tips are available in during planned refurbishment.
‘Assessing the energy use in your building (CTL172)’.
 Building fabric 23

Go online for more information

The Carbon Trust provides a range of tools, services and information
to help you implement energy and carbon saving measures, no matter what your level of experience.

Website – Visit us at www.carbontrust.com for our full range Our client case studies – Our case studies show that it’s often easier and less
of advice and services. expensive than you might think to bring about real change.

 www.carbontrust.com  www.carbontrust.com/our-clients

Tools, guides and reports – We have a library of publications detailing energy The Carbon Trust Green Business Fund – is an energy efficiency support
saving techniques for a range of sectors and technologies. service for small and medium-sized companies in England, Wales and Scotland. It
provides direct funded support through energy assessments, training workshops,
 www.carbontrust.com/resources
and equipment procurement support.

Events and workshops – We offer a variety of events, workshops and webinars  www.carbontrust.com/greenbusinessfund
ranging from a high level introductions to our services through, to technical energy
efficiency training.
SME Network – Join a community of over 2000 small and medium-sized
 www.carbontrust.com/events businesses to discuss your strategy and challenges to reducing carbon emissions
and improving resource efficiency. Sign up for free to share knowledge, exchange
Small Business Support – We have collated all of our small business support useful resources and find out about the support and funding available in your area,
in one place on our website. including the details of your local energy efficiency workshops.

 www.carbontrust.com/small-to-medium-enterprises/  www.carbontrust.com/resources/tools/sme-carbon-network

*
Subject to terms and conditions.
The Carbon Trust is an independent company with a mission to accelerate the move to a CTV069 v3
sustainable, low-carbon economy. The Carbon Trust:

• advises businesses, governments and the public sector on opportunities in a sustainable,

low-carbon world;

• measures and certifies the environmental footprint of organisations, products and

services;

• helps develop and deploy low-carbon technologies and solutions, from energy efficiency
to renewable power.

www.carbontrust.com
+44 (0) 20 7170 7000

The development of this publication has been funded through

the Carbon Trust Green Business Fund, an energy efficiency
support service for small and medium-sized companies in
England, Wales and Scotland.

Whilst reasonable steps have been taken to ensure that the information contained within this publication
is correct, the authors, the Carbon Trust, its agents, contractors and sub-contractors give no warranty
and make no representation as to its accuracy and accept no liability for any errors or omissions.
Any trademarks, service marks or logos used in this publication, and copyright in it, are the property
of the Carbon Trust. Nothing in this publication shall be construed as granting any licence or right to use
or reproduce any of the trademarks, service marks, logos, copyright or any proprietary information
in any way without the Carbon Trust’s prior written permission. The Carbon Trust enforces infringements
of its intellectual property rights to the full extent permitted by law.

The Carbon Trust is a company limited by guarantee and registered in England and Wales under Company
number 4190230 with its Registered Office at: 4th Floor, Dorset House, 27-45 Stamford Street, London SE1
9NT.

Published in the UK: February 2018. CTV069 v3

© The Carbon Trust 2018. All rights reserved.