Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

The dual role of women in food security and agriculture in responding to

climate change: Empirical evidence from Rural Java
Ernoiz Antriyandarti a, Dewi Nawang Suprihatin b, Anggityas Werdining Pangesti a, Palupi
Lindiasari Samputra c, *
a
Study Program of Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia
b
Postgraduate Program of Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia
c
National Resilience Study Program, School of Strategic and Global Studies, Universitas Indonesia, Salemba Raya IV, Central Jakarta, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Climate change is a major problem faced by various sectors today, particularly agriculture. Farmers in Indonesia,
Agriculture threatened by climate change, must be able to make sound decisions if they are to survive. Female rural farmers
Climate change frequently manage complex households while pursuing multiple income streams, including in the areas of
Dual role of women
agriculture and food security. This study aims to examine the dual role of women as key agents of rural Java’s
Food security
agricultural development, as well as the strategies they use to tackle low productivity, crop failure, pests, and
Rural Java
other effects of climate change. This study uses a concurrent mixed methods approach, namely qualitative and
quantitative triangulation with a Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) and logistic regression analysis. The
results show that female farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta enter the agricultural sector to improve their
families’ economic conditions and ease their husbands’ burdens. The agricultural sector absorbs labor in various
sectors. The conditions in which women help the family’s economic conditions by working will impact family
food security. According to the food insecurity experience scale (FIES) questions, the results obtained from this
study indicate that 51.4 % of female farmer households in Magelang and Yogyakarta do not experience food
insecurity. The factors affecting food security in Magelang and Yogyakarta are education, income, number of
household members, and the dummy variable for experiencing climate change. The climate change conditions
experienced by the agricultural sector affect female farmers. However, female farmers in Magelang and
Yogyakarta have yet to achieve mitigation.

1. Introduction Climate change is uncontrollable, but humans can increase their

adaptability concerning resilience to climate change. According to Rose
Climate change is a major issue faced by numerous sectors today, (2017), two types of events can sustain resilience to climate change:
particularly those related to natural resources (Kundzewicz et al., 2018; inherent and adaptive. Inherent resilience refers to the capability of
Tol, 2018). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate individuals or groups to prepare for unforeseen conditions through
Change (IPCC), climate change is not only a natural process but also an thorough planning before the occurrence of a disaster or danger. How­
intervention due to human activities on earth (Akpodiogaga-a et al., ever, in certain conditions, that cannot be achieved by human calcula­
2010). A sector that is very vulnerable to climate change is the agri­ tions (examples of external factors include economic crisis, financial
cultural sector (Pereira, 2017). The level of vulnerability in the agri­ crisis, and the COVID-19 pandemic). In the context of climate change,
cultural sector usually varies depending on geography, nature, and from the household to the national level, adaptive capabilities are
socioeconomic status (Steininger et al., 2015). The underlying cause of needed, and mitigation efforts should be synergistic (IPCC, 2001, 2007).
this vulnerability is agriculture’s dependence on the water cycle and Adaptation is a change or action performed to reduce the risk of loss or
weather to maintain productivity (IPCC, 2019). The Food and Agricul­ to maximize the opportunities provided by climate change (Ndamani
ture Organization (FAO) further declares climate change as one of the and Watanabe, 2015). Climate change is predicted to greatly impact
most important challenges to food security. countries that depend on agriculture such as Indonesia. Drought,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.L. Samputra).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2024.100852
Received 21 September 2023; Received in revised form 24 January 2024; Accepted 25 January 2024
Available online 26 January 2024
2667-0100/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Antriyandarti et al. Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

extreme weather, and flooding are among the threats expected to hinder to Devasahayam (2020), women’s income has a greater impact on
food security. Consequently, communities that rely on farming opera­ household food security and child nutrition than men’s income. Women
tions require various adaptation techniques to limit the negative effects suffer disproportionately because of societal and household inequalities,
of climate change while still ensuring the livelihoods of farming families with serious consequences for their right to food (Cohen, 2020). If this
(Tol, 2018; Uddin et al., 2014). Adaptation and risk-reduction measures gap persists, families’ nutritional security will be jeopardized. Women
should be undertaken at multiple levels to assist farmers in adapting to must be able to maintain the nutritional status of their families. In
climate change and variability (Chalchisa, 2016; Iese et al., 2016; Singh addition to food, access to clean water and sanitation impacts the
et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2016). nutritional status of the family. These three food security pillars form a
The impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector are divided complex interconnected bond to describe the state of family food
into direct (biophysical) and indirect (socioeconomic) impacts. Direct security.
impacts (biophysical) that must be considered in the agricultural sector Women’s involvement in agriculture and food security has a crucial
include changes in land composition, land and air resources, distur­ influence on dealing with climate change. Women have instincts and
bances of weeds and diseases, sea level rise, and salinity. The indirect caution in responding to climate change, and make basic decisions so
effects (socio-economic) that most affect farmers’ lives include a decline that food sufficiency and family welfare are not disturbed (Chanana-­
in production and productivity, a reduction in marginal agricultural nag, 2018). Various studies have shown that male and female farmers
GDP, fluctuations in international prices, changes in trade geography, often have different abilities to adapt to climate change, variability, and
the number of markets for food insecurity, and migration (Steininger weather-related shocks; in many cases, women are affected more than
et al., 2015). This implies that aspects of production and consumption men by climate-related shocks and stresses (Goh, 2012; Quisumbing
cannot be separated in terms of the effects of climate change. Farmers et al., 2017). Men can find non-agricultural work during climate change,
are among the most well-known actors compared with other stake­ after handing over agricultural production to women—this fact illus­
holders (traders and industry). This is because, in this case, farmers trates that this event does not increase the status or decision-making
behave not only as producers, but also as consumers, better known as net power of women in the household, but instead increases their work­
consumers. load (Rao, 2006). The gap between women and men affects not only
Indonesian farmers, who are threatened by climate change, must be women’s well-being but also the general performance of the agricultural
able to make rational decisions for their survival (Ndamani and Wata­ industry, food security, and climate change, because the empowerment
nabe, 2015). Farmers on the island of Java are generally small farmers of women is at the heart of every action undertaken to promote sus­
with narrow land and subsistence farming management, who use more tainability, provide food security, and address the concerns of climate
labor from the family. Family labor allows female family members to change (Habtezion, 2016).
participate in farming. Women constitute the most crucial part of agri­ Climate change has significant negative impacts on agriculture,
culture (Angelina Ika and Shandy J, 2017; Ogunlela and Mukhtar, 2009; posing a threat to farming households. The impacts of climate change on
UNDP, 2016), and women’s responsibilities are significant in all areas. the agricultural sector are divided into direct (biophysical) and indirect
They experience rapid shifts in many ways, and socioeconomics is (socioeconomic) impacts. Direct impacts (biophysical) include disasters
redefining the agricultural sector. Women from the countryside typically such as decreased of rainfall, floods, landslides, temperature changes,
manage multigenerational families and seek income from multiple pests, and others. Indirect impacts (socio-economic) include low pro­
sources. Typical daily chores include cultivating crops, handling ani­ ductivity, crop failure, and others. Indirect impacts (socio-economic) in
mals, food production and preparation, paid employment in agriculture agriculture pose a threat to the economic conditions of farming families.
or other rural businesses, water and fuel collection, business and This can lead to food insecurity if not handled appropriately. Previous
advertising, taking care of family members, and home maintenance research (Alco et al., 2011; Ogundeji, 2022; Steininger et al., 2015)
(FAO, 2011). Female farmers not only work on land belonging to their explains that farmers who adopt climate change strategies and have
households but also become laborers on land owned by others, espe­ access to extension services, non-farm income, and information have a
cially during the planting and harvesting seasons. Thus, women’s con­ higher probability of reducing their food vulnerability. Moreover,
tributions to the agricultural sector are very important. However, their climate change adaptation has the potential to significantly improve
income is much lower than that of men, because they do not have the household food security while reducing severe food insecurity. Thus,
same level of access to resources and productive opportunities (Chana­ agricultural households that implement strategies to mitigate the
na-nag, 2018; FAO, 2011; Srivastava and Srivastava, 2010; Subathra, negative impacts of climate conditions have better food security con­
2015; UNDP, 2016). Women make significant contributions to agricul­ ditions compared to households that do not adapt. Women, as an
tural and food production; however, quantifying their production is important part of agriculture, do not have the same level of access to
impossible. Women’s labor force participation varies greatly among resources and productive opportunities compared to men, resulting in
areas. However, women have a higher percentage of unpaid, seasonal, much lower incomes. This also limits women’s decision-making in
and part-time jobs, and data show that women are frequently paid less climate change adaptation. However, empirical research on how
than men for the same work (Chanana-nag, 2018). Many assets, inputs, women’s multiple roles in households in maintaining food security and
and services have gender gaps, including land, livestock, labor, educa­ agriculture, especially in the face of climate change, has not been widely
tion, extension, information, financial services, and technology. Women explored. This research is important because women are not only family
are also underrepresented in local organizations and village adminis­ members who ensure family food security, but also play a greater role in
trative structures, giving them fewer opportunities to influence agri­ gaining access to more food by increasing income through agricultural
cultural development decision-making processes. activities. In addition, strategies are needed to address climate change
Generally, women’s primary roles include caring for their children, and food insecurity issues related to the role of women. This study is the
preparing meals, and making nutritional decisions (Cohen, 2020). first to look at women’s key role in development while ensuring
Women’s role in maintaining family food security is identical to the household food security during climate change in rural areas in Java,
three pillars of activities: food production, economic accessibility to which produces and supplies the nation’s rice. The study aims to analyze
food, and nutritional security (Agnes et al., 1995). Women not only the dual role of women as key agents of agricultural development in
process ingredients into food but also participate in the agricultural rural Java, and further examine the strategies women use to cope with
production process to ensure economic access to food. The gender gap in low productivity, crop failure, and pests and diseases, which are partly
women’s roles in agriculture is harmful to them in several ways. One is caused by the impacts of climate change. To strengthen the research
income earned. Family income also influences access to food, as the results, an empirical test was conducted to examine the role of women in
earnings of female farmers supplement their family income. According maintaining food security.

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2. Method Table 1. j will be worth 1 if the respondent answers “yes” to the question
item being asked, and 0 if “no”. Respondent parameters and item pa­
This study uses a concurrent mixed methods approach, namely, the rameters can be estimated using the maximum likelihood estimation
simultaneous triangulation of qualitative and quantitative research re­ (MLE) method by utilizing the values of the response from respondents’
sults. The qualitative research involved observations and supporting answers.
documents, followed by a quantitative approach using the Food Inse­ Logistic regression was used to analyze the role of women in miti­
curity Experience Scale (FIES) questionnaire (food vulnerability expe­ gating household food insecurity. Determining women’s role in food
rience), which consisted of eight questions about family food, climate insecurity using the dichotomous variable of food security, where the
change, and respondents’ socioeconomic status. This method was cho­ value of 1 represents food secure families, and 0 represents food inse­
sen because it accumulates experience-based food security scales that curity. The use of dichotomous variables causes us to utilize binary lo­
have been validated in Indonesia (Ballard et al., 2013a,b). The FIES was gistic regression to examine whether the variables of education,
used to determine the food insecurity conditions of farming households household income, number of household members, rice stock, and a
in Java, Indonesia. The questions are presented in Table 1. dummy variable for experiencing climate change affect family food se­
The data analyzed were from respondents interviewed in Magelang curity. The general form of a logistic regression is
Regency, Central Java Province, and Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta
P = 1 / (1 + exp( − (B0 + B1 ∗ X1 + B2 ∗ X2 + … + Bk ∗ Xk (2)
Special Region, which is still a part of Java. These two provinces were
chosen to represent Javanese communities, as Magelang Regency, where B0 is a constant and B1− Bk are coefficients of the explanatory
Central Java Province, consists of more rural areas, while Sleman Re­ variables, which, in our case, include demographic background data,
gency, Yogyakarta Special Region, consists of more urban areas. There such as education, income, household members, rice stocks, and climate
were 103 respondents, with 50 from Magelang Regency, Central Java change experiences, as well as the interactions between Food Secure
Province, and 53 from Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta Special Region. Families and these demographic data. Beta estimates are calculated
Respondents were selected using a purposive sampling method, where using maximum likelihood.
respondents were female farmers in the study area who had experienced
constraints due to climate change. The obtained data were analyzed 3. Result and discussion
using the Rasch Model and logistic regression analysis.
To calculate the incidence of food insecurity based on household The research sites are located in the Magelang Regency, Central
responses to the eight FIES questions mentioned above, the Rasch Java, and Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta. Magelang Regency is located in
Model, which is based on the item response theory (Snyder et al., 1992), the heart of Central Java, next to Yogyakarta Special Region Province.
was used. The Rasch Model connects responses (answers to questions) Magelang Regency is located on the state road connecting Semarang and
and items (questions) (Bond and Fox, 2007). This relationship is Yogyakarta. As a portion of Magelang District is located on the fertile
analyzed using the odds ratio value of the response, using the following slopes of Mount Merapi, agriculture is the primary source of income for
formula: most Magelang District residents. Meanwhile, the Sleman Regency area
( )
( ) exp θi − βj is relatively flat in the south, except for a hilly area in the southeast of
Prob Xi,j = 1 = ( ) (1) Prambanan District and partially in Gamping District. The land to the
1 + expexp θi − βj
north is relatively sloping, and the area around the Merapi Slope is
where j ∈ {0, 1} is the response of the ith respondent to the jth item. In relatively steep, with approximately 100 water springs. Most of the
this case, j is the response of each survey respondent to each question in Sleman Regency is agricultural land, with technical irrigation in the
west and south. Topography can be classified based on altitude and
slope. Sleman Regency is known to have excellent development poten­
Table 1 tial in both agricultural and forestry sectors.
Food insecurity experience scale (FIES) questionnaire.
In this study, the number of samples taken was 103, with 50 re­
No Questions Source spondents from Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, and 53 from
1 Are you/any other family members (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta Special Region. Respondents were women
concerned that you will not have enough et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, who worked in agriculture and lived in farming households. A typical
to eat because you do not have enough 2021) respondent is a female farm laborer with 20–30 years of agricultural
money or other resources? (Worry)
experience. Respondents ranged in age from 50 to 60 years with a formal
2 Are you/other household members unable (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina
to eat healthy and nutritious food due to a et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, educational background in junior high school. Their agricultural in­
lack of money or other resources? 2021) comes ranged between Rp 1,000,000 and 2,000,000, placing them in the
(Healthy) low-income category (Table 2).
3 Do you/other household members eat (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina
only a few types of food due to a lack of et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo,
money or other resources? (Fewfood) 2021)
4 Have you/other household members (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina
missed a meal on any given day due to a et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, Table 2
lack of money or other resources? 2021) Respondents’ characteristics.
(Skipped) No Description Percentage
5 Are you/other household members eating (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina %
less than they should due to a lack of et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo,
money or other resources? (Ateless) 2021) 1 Gender Women 100 %
6 Households running out of food due to (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina 2 Age 50–60 years old 83 %
lack of money or other resources? et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, 3 Income Rp 1.000.000–Rp 63 %
(Runout) 2021) 2.000.0000
7 Do you/other household members feel (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina 4 Education Junior high school 62 %
hungry but not eat due to a lack of money et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, 5 Marital status Married 84 %
or other resources to obtain food? 2021) 6 Farm worker status Farmer laborer 49 %
(Hungry) 7 Length of time in farming 20–30 years 41 %
8 Do you and the other members of your (Caraka et al., 2021; Herlina business
household not eat throughout the day due et al., 2020; Kadir and Prasetyo, 8 Ethnicity Javanese 100 %
to a lack of money? (Whlday) 2021)
Source: Processed data, 2022.

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3.1. Food insecurity of female farmers’ families in Magelang and based on the research objectives is necessary. All question items have
Yogyakarta infit values within the expected range of 0.7 and 1.3. This indicates that
all question items can be used for food insecurity measurements or that
Families with limited consumption will try to fulfill their needs in they perform well. The infit value that is in this range indicates the
various ways. The characteristics of the respondent’s family with an fulfillment of the unidimensional assumption; in other words, the
income ranging from Rp. 1,000,000 to Rp. 2,000,000 are classified as measurement of food insecurity in this study has met the expected
low-income. As a result, the family is food insecure. Food insecurity unidimensional assumption (Ballard et al., 2013a,b; Cafiero et al.,
among farming families must be addressed to alleviate farmer poverty. 2016).
To determine the Rasch model for food insecurity, all respondents The parameter value of severity for each item (severity), after cali­
answered all the FIES questionnaire questions without missing any in­ bration with a global reference scale following the FAO recommenda­
formation. This indicated that a complete answer greatly affected the tions (Cafiero et al., 2018), is in the range of − 1.8 to 2.9. Only the
measurement and analysis of the FIES (Table 3). “Fewfood” items have a severity parameter value outside the range of
Fig. 1 shows the proportion of households that answered “yes” to − 1.93. According to Hanlbleton et al. (1991), the ideal severity
each item in Table 1. The results in Fig. 1 show how the food con­ parameter scale is from − 2.0 to 2.0. A scale close to − 2.0 indicates that
sumption condition of women farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta. It the question item is easy, while a scale close to 2.0 indicates that the
can be seen that the proportion of agricultural households that answered item is difficult. This means that the last question was the focus of
“yes” to the “Fewfood” item in the two survey districts reached 21.02 %, attention when further refining the survey, and the enumerator must be
the highest compared to the other questions. This is due to limited access able to explain the meaning of the question well to the respondent so
to family food owing to limited income in farming households. There is that it can be understood properly.
an anomaly where the “worry” value should be higher than that of The outfit value shows that the “Healthy” item has an outfit value
“Fewfood.” Under normal circumstances, or at the beginning of a state of greater than 2 (Table 4). An outfit value > 2 indicates that the response
food insecurity, psychologically, the first thing that arises is the fear of to the two question items tends to be erratic or an outlier. However, this
not having enough food, which is reflected in the first question. Ideally, condition can be ignored because the percentage of “yes” answers for
the proportion decreases as the severity increases, as reflected in the both question items is less than 25 % (Nord, 2014). The percentage of
household response. In other words, the proportion of those who “yes” responses for both questions was only 15.90 %. This finding con­
answered “yes” decreased from the first (largest) to the eighth (smallest) firms that agricultural households with a tendency toward severe food
question. According to Ballard et al. (2013), each FIES item reflects a insecurity are rare. In other words, the last two questions, which lead to
different situation based on the level of food insecurity experienced by severe food insecurity, are rarely experienced by agricultural
the household. Therefore, the percentage of “yes” answers for each FIES households.
question item will decrease from the first to the eighth. There is an The Rasch reliability value for items and respondents is 0.90 and
anomaly indicated by the proportion of those who answered “yes” to the 0.45, respectively. The criteria for the reliability value of the Rasch
“Skipped” question (11.9 %), which was lower than the proportion of model, as stated by Perdana (2018), are as follows: <0.67 is poor,
“yes” answers to the “Ateless” question (14.02 %). This indicates that 0.67–0.80 is adequate, 0.81–0.90 is acceptable, 0.91–0.94 is excellent,
respondents are inconsistent in reporting the experiences of their and >0.94 is perfect. The reliability of the item estimate value of 0.94 is
households to enumerators during the interviews (Herlina et al., 2020). related to the number of items that fit the model. This also explains the
The meaning of consistency here is that if a question item is responded to total variation in the population of agricultural households at the two
with a “yes,” all question items that show a lower level of severity (less test locations. A value of 0.90 includes reliability within a good category
severe) will also be answered with a “yes” (Cafiero et al., 2016). For so that it affects the items that fit the model. The higher the reliability,
example, if a household answered “yes” to the 4th question, the the more the items fit with the model. The reliability of personal value of
household should also answer “yes” to the 1st to 3rd question items. 0.45 is classified as weak. This value indicates inconsistency, as stated by
Although there is an anomaly in the “Skipped” and “Fewfood” questions, Ardiyanti (2016) in the test participants’ answers. Inconsistencies in test
this did not affect the validity of the FIES measurements in this study. takers’ replies might also indicate that the test participants are careless
Anomalies such as these can be caused by the respondent’s need for a in answering the questions, resulting in a low reliability value for the
better understanding of the meaning of the questions asked by the person/subject (Table 5).
interviewer. Simultaneously, the interviewer may need to be more Table 6 presents the results of calculating the proportion of agri­
effective in extracting information and understanding the respondent for cultural households likely to experience severe food insecurity accord­
the purpose of asking the question. Therefore, this anomaly must be a ing to the total score of the answers to the eight FIES questions. Most
concern and evaluation material for implementing the next survey. In households in the trial area had a total score of 0, with the proportion
this regard, one of the recommendations of the FAO (2020) is to allocate reaching 51.456 %. This shows that most agricultural households in
more time during the officers’ training when discussing FIES questions, Magelang and Yogyakarta have never experienced anything that could
especially regarding question items that, at a glance, seem to ask the lead to food insecurity during the past year; in other words, most
same thing. Thus, both the enumerators and respondents can understand households did not experience what was asked in the eight FIES ques­
and distinguish the meaning of each question well. tions. This high proportion results in fewer opportunities for agricultural
The estimation results of the severity, infit, and outfit parameters for households to experience moderate to severe food insecurity. The pro­
each FIES question item are presented in Table 4. The “Worry” item infit portion of agricultural households with a raw score of one reached
value is more than 1.3, which means that this item does not meet the approximately 7.766 % of the total respondents in Magelang and
unidimensional assumption; therefore, reviewing whether the item is Yogyakarta. This means that 7.766 % of households answered one of the
eight FIES questions. The proportion of households that answered two of
the eight FIES questions was relatively large, reaching 12.261 %. An
Table 3
interesting finding of this study is that the number of agricultural
Number of samples responding to food insecurity experience scale (FIES)
questions by type of response and regency.
households that answered all eight FIES questions in the past year
reached 1.941 %. The generality of food insecurity indicates how many
Regency Full answer Incomplete answer
agricultural households in the study area experience food insecurity for
Magelang 50 0 every 100 households. This shows that the problem of food insecurity
Yogyakarta 53 0 leading to a severe level also affects farmers in agricultural households
Source: Processed data, 2022. who incidentally are food producers themselves. This incident often

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Fig. 1. Percentage of households answering “yes” to each food insecurity experience scale (FIES) question item.
Source: Processed data, 2022.

households are determined based on two criteria: the physical and

Table 4
economic size of an agricultural business, which includes the area of
Estimation results of severity, infit, and outfit parameters for each food inse­
land managed, number of livestock kept, and total income from agri­
curity experience scale (FIES) question item.
cultural production. Several studies have also confirmed that small-scale
FIES Item Infit Severity Outfit farmers are a poor group characterized by agricultural activities that
Worry 1.48 − 1.07 1.61 meet daily needs (subsistence) and low farming productivity (Hessel­
Healthy 1.17 − 0.83 2.04 berg, 2017; Olusayo et al., 2019; Rapsomanikis, 2015).
Fewfood 0.75 − 1.93 0.74
The obstacle in measuring food insecurity in this research is the close
Skipped 0.96 0.00 1.00
Ateless 0.98 − 0.48 0.90 ties within Javanese society in terms of helping each other. Farming
Runout 0.75 0.81 0.74 households in Javanese society use a variety of coping strategies when
Hungry 0.76 1.13 0.53 they cannot access sufficient food. The most frequently used coping
Wholeday 0.72 2.37 0.64 strategies are purchasing food on credit, relying on cheaper and less
Source: Processed data, 2022. preferred foods, and consuming seed stocks saved for the next season.
Another strategy that is often used is to borrow food/money from rel­
atives/family/friends. The strong culture of mutual assistance in Java­
Table 5 nese society provides greater access to food (Dhita Mariane Perdhani
Rasch reliability and Rasch separation on items and Putri Manik, 2021). The ease of obtaining food assistance from the
and respondents. local environment means that the calculation of food insecurity is not
Rasch reliability Item really understood by respondents because psychological and cultural
Item 0.90 factors are not taken into account. Another alternative in the long term is
Person 0.45 to sell household possessions, sell productive goods/assets, and use
Source: Processed data, 2022.
savings, and avoid health or education costs to buy food (Dirani et al.,
2021).

Table 6 3.2. Factors influencing food insecurity of female farmers’ families in

Total scores and categories of food insecurity. Magelang and Yogyakarta
Total FIES answer score Percentage (%) Category
According to the food insecurity experience scale (FIES) questions,
0 51.456 Not food insecure
1 7.766 Slightly food insecure
the results obtained from this study indicate that 51.4 % of female
2 12.261 Slightly food insecure farmer households in Magelang and Yogyakarta do not experience food
3 5.825 Slightly food insecure insecurity. After knowing the state of food insecurity of farmer families,
4 7.766 Moderate food insecurity we tried to find out what factors affect the food insecurity of female
5 4.854 Moderate food insecurity
farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta using Logistic Regression
6 4.854 Moderate food insecurity
7 2.912 Severe food insecurity (Table 7).
8 1.941 Severe food insecurity Various factors influence family food insecurity in Magelang and
Total 100.000 Yogyakarta. Women as family decision-makers decide how to provide
Source: Processed data, 2022. income, health, and food to their families. Healthy diets should be
promoted by assisting people in improving their knowledge, awareness,
occurs in agricultural households that include small-scale food pro­ education, quality of available information, motivations, skills, and
ducers or small-scale farmers with relatively low production and are sustainable behaviors, while also empowering key players (Visser and
only sufficient for their daily needs (subsistence). Small-scale farming Wangu, 2021). Female farmers’ education is one factor that influences
food security in Magelang and Yogyakarta. This shows that the higher

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Table 7 human resources emerged which is very necessary as a workforce in the

Logistic regression results. world of agriculture.
Variable Coefficient Std. Err The reasons that have been described above underline women’s role
in agriculture, extending from planting to postharvest. Fig. 3 shows that
Education 0.171** 0.079
Household income 0.000* 0.000 female farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta are most numerous during
Number of family member − 0.590** 0.284 planting and harvesting. Planting and harvesting require more labor
Rice stock 0.013ns 0.011 than other activities. The husband or landowner usually carries out
Dummy for experiencing climate change 1.170* 0.630 other activities that do not require much labor. However, in reality, few
Constants − 2.970** 1.269
R2 0.276
people participate in other activities from upstream to downstream.
Number of samples 103 Female farmers with a high level of participation in agriculture, are
active in decision-making regarding various agricultural activities
*Significant at 10 % level; **Significant at 5 % level; ***Significant at 1 % level.
(Paudyal et al., 2019).
Source: Processed data, 2022.
Fig. 4(a) and (b) show that only 4 % of all interviewed respondents
participated in farming decision-making. The respondents who made
the level of education of female farmers as decision-makers in the
decisions were mostly involved in cultivation, followed by post-harvest
family, the more food security they will have. This study’s results align
and marketing. Women participate in many cultivation activities, but
with the results of Damayanti et al. (2016), which stated that education
they also help in the post-harvest section as workers who process,
positively influences opportunities for farming households to be food
transport, and distribute grain to collectors. Most marketing activities
secure. Female farmers’ income influences the food security of farming
are carried out by collectors who directly approach farmers to buy,
families in Magelang and Yogyakarta. Women in farming households
without the intermediary of women as marketers. This demonstrates
tend to spend their income for household purposes. According to
that female farmers have yet to participate in farming decision-making
Devasahayam (2020), the income of women has a greater impact on
despite their high participation in farming. Women are more likely to
household food security and child nutrition. The allocation of food
follow the decisions of their husbands and landowners when making
expenditure is determined by this revenue. The greater the number of
farming decisions.
family members, the greater the household food allocation, thus
reducing the food security of farming households.
The dummy for experiencing climate change affects food security. 3.4. Women’s respond to climate change
Women also demonstrate innate instincts and prudence in adapting to
climate change. They actively engage in critical decision-making to The conditions of small-scale farming households that have not been
safeguard food security and maintain the well-being of their families. able to fulfill their subsistence needs will affect future decisions.
(Chanana-nag, 2018). Women’s access to resources, particularly land Demanding needs from time to time force farm households to have a
and education, as well as information, services, and opportunities, will source of income other than that of the family head. Women, as wives,
result in long-term improvements in household food and nutrition se­ are responsible for the sustainability of the family and must participate
curity, leading to healthier and more food-secure communities. in increasing family income, especially in the agricultural sector.
Women’s responsibilities in agricultural work run a gamut from “pro­
ducing crops, tending animals, processing and preparing food, working
3.3. The role of women farmer in agriculture for wages in agricultural or other rural enterprises, collecting fuel and
water, engaging in trade and marketing, caring for family members and
Women make decisions regarding food security and accessible con­ maintaining their homes” (FAO, 2021). Fig. 2 illustrates the reasons
sumption options because they are responsible for family survival. women participate in agriculture in the study area. The main reason
Although the results of food insecurity show that female farmer families women participate in agricultural activities is to increase their family
are not food insecure, the income earned is low. Insufficient income income and change their economic conditions. In addition, reducing
forces women to contribute to the household income, which cannot be their husbands’ workload is also a strong reason for women to engage in
met by the family head. Women usually help earn additional income in agriculture.
farming households by working in the agricultural sector. Women’s participation in agricultural production has been largely
Fig. 2 shows that most female farmers in Yogyakarta and Magelang limited to small-scale informal farming. Among these women are the
encourage themselves to engage in the agricultural sector to help the poor and landless, who are also highly dependent on others for work,
family’s economic conditions. Another reason for the plunge into the especially wealthier farmers whose farms these poor women would sell
agricultural sector is to help husbands work. After that, the need for their labor. These women would never complain about their work

Fig. 2. Women’s reasons for engaging in agriculture in Magelang and Yogyakarta.

Source: Processed data, 2022.

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E. Antriyandarti et al. Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

Fig. 3. Role of women in farming in Magelang dan Yogyakarta.

Source: Processed data, 2022.

Fig. 4. (a) Number of female farmers who participate in agricultural activities. (b) Number of female farmers who participate in making farming decisions.
Source: Processed data, 2022.

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E. Antriyandarti et al. Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

Fig. 5. Climate change experienced by female farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta.

Source: Processed data, 2022.

conditions for fear of antagonizing those on whom they were dependent socioeconomic characteristics, of those who are not aware of the dangers
for wage work. Climate change affects women’s work. If the climate of climate change in their agricultural business. In fact, awareness of
change they experience causes losses, they are responsible for mitigating climate change adaptation is very important, where this is mitigation to
them, regardless of whether the person who employs them orders them. overcome low productivity, crop failure, as well as pests and diseases
Fig. 5 shows that temperature changes (29 %), changing seasonal pe­ that lead to food insecurity. Therefore, the government, extension
riods (28 %), reduced rainfall (22 %), and natural disasters (21 %) such workers, farmers (including women farmers), and other agricultural
as floods and landslides are common challenges for female farmers. If stakeholders need to prepare themselves and take adaptation and miti­
not addressed, these climate change phenomena will disrupt agricultural gation steps to overcome climate change and the global food crisis. In
production and affect agricultural yields. onfarm activities, extension workers, farmers (including women
Frequent disasters caused by climate change affect agricultural en­ farmers) need to plant commodities according to the season. This is
terprises, and farm households are severely impacted. Table 8 shows the because Indonesia has two seasons, and the transition will also affect
effects of climate change on produce grown by female farmers. The plants, such as stem collapse, flooding, landslides, and plant diseases.
presence of pests and diseases (29 %) that attack agricultural plants is Therefore, management in choosing the planting time is very influential
the direct result of seasonal changes, as depicted in Table 8. Climate in farming. Irrigation management is also a concern for farmers when
change-borne pests and diseases cause losses, ranging from wilting there is drought during the dry season and floods during the rainy sea­
plants, seeds that do not grow optimally, to crops of poor quality. These son. Spraying and adding shade to increase farm production are also
findings show reduced yield productivity from previously high to low mitigation options for farmers in dealing with climate change. Climate
levels. If no countermeasures are taken, as many as 41 % of agricultural change directly affects commodity productivity, and the decline in
products will lose productivity. If climate change continues and female production experienced by farmers is related to female farmers’
farmers do not take action, crop failure (10 %) will occur in the long run. household consumption. These must be handled properly to maintain
Some family farms have already changed their production tactics family food stability. Only 1 % of the respondents took mitigation
because of environmental deterioration (despite its cause) and changing measures in the form of rice stock management to avoid climate change.
weather induced by the effects of climate change. Coping tactics refer to Climate change has directly affected farming households. Poor
modifications to production strategies. Several saline- and drought- agricultural outcomes increase the agricultural burden on female
tolerant cultivars have recently been planted, although their use is farmers as they cope with the effects of climate change. In addition to
limited across the country to prevent climate change. Socioeconomic the workload, female farmers are burdened by the uncertainty of agri­
variables determined farmers’ responses to the consequences of climate cultural yields. Uncertainty affects not only financial security but also
change and their adoption of adaptation measures, with farmers’ family food access. Food access for families is hindered if food produc­
knowledge being the most influential. tion is limited due to insufficient income. Limited food options also
Fig. 6 shows the treatment carried out by respondents of the small­ affect the nutritional status of family foods, leading to family food
holder household level in Sleman and Magelang in dealing with climate insecurity. Climate change problems are complex issues that must be
change. As many as 85 % of the respondents did not deal with climate addressed not only at the family level but also by the government and
change. This can be influenced by many factors, such as knowledge and stakeholders. Stricter government regulations that address climate
change are expected to be effective in preventing the occurrence of
climate change due to global warming. Thousands of climate policies
Table 8 have failed to stop climate change, yet some governments have made
Influence of climate change on agricultural yield. tangible progress and have been successfully implemented around the
Description Percentage (%) world (Trotsenburg, 2023). Successful climate change policy making
often finding middle ground, so policies are easier to implement and win
Crop failure 10 %
Productivity decrease 41 % support. In Indonesia, climate change policies are focused on reducing
Pests and diseases 20 % air pollution or building new sustainable energy resources but not
No answer 29 % focused in agriculture area. So stricter government regulations that
Source: Processed data, 2022. address climate change on agriculture is needed to mitigate the impact

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E. Antriyandarti et al. Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

Fig. 6. Percentage of climate change mitigation carried out by female farmers in Magelang and Yogyakarta.
Source: Processed data, 2022.

of climate change. other agricultural stakeholders must prepare themselves and take
adaptation and mitigation steps. The government needs to facilitate and
4. Conclusion provide wider opportunities for female farmers to become more
empowered in their involvement in the agricultural sector. The role of
This study’s results show that female farmers in Magelang and women in agricultural development is considered very important in
Yogyakarta enter the agricultural sector because they want to improve supporting food security because women can carry out activities to
their families’ economic conditions and ease their husbands’ burden. improve the farm economy and maintain food security, such as seeking
The agricultural sector absorbs labor in various sectors. Planting and food diversification by consuming local food and providing food for
harvesting require many female farmers. Although female farmers are consumption. Furthermore, this study has the potential to carry out
needed for various agricultural activities, more than 96 % of female further research on a broader scale, both in terms of area and the number
farmers do not participate in the decision-making process and only leave of female farmers as respondents. A more comprehensive study is also
it to their husbands or landowners. The gender and power gap experi­ needed with in-depth interviews with the government and other
enced by women socially is the reason why women are unable to engage stakeholders.
in activities that are not assigned to them. Education, land ownership,
and access to information on agriculture can help women overcome this Use of AI tools declaration
gap.
The conditions in which women help the family’s economic condi­ The authors declare that they did not use Artificial Intelligence (AI)
tions by working will impact family food security. Women are respon­ tools in the creation of this article.
sible for household decisions regarding nutrition, health, and family
food security. According to the FIES questions, this study’s results CRediT authorship contribution statement
indicate that 51.4 % of female farmer households in Magelang and
Yogyakarta do not experience food insecurity. The factors affecting food Ernoiz Antriyandarti: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
security in Magelang and Yogyakarta are education, income, number of draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Methodology,
household members, and the dummy for experiencing climate change. Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Dewi Nawang
The climate change conditions experienced by the agricultural sector Suprihatin: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visu­
affect female farmers. To cope with the effects of climate change, poor alization, Validation, Resources, Project administration, Investigation,
agricultural outcomes increase the agricultural burden on female Data curation. Anggityas Werdining Pangesti: Writing – review &
farmers. In addition to the workload, female farmers face uncertainty editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software,
regarding agricultural yields. Food access for families is hampered if Resources, Formal analysis, Data curation. Palupi Lindiasari Sampu­
food production is limited, and limited food options affect the nutri­ tra: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization,
tional status of family food, leading to food insecurity. Climate change Validation, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Investi­
issues are complicated and need to be discussed not only by families but gation, Funding acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualization.
also by governments and stakeholders. More rigid laws addressing
climate change have the potential to prevent climate change effectively. Declaration of competing interest
From those findings, we may draw policy implications that the
government continues to maximize the resource capacity of women The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
farmers, who also play an essential role in agriculture. The threat of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
climate change and the global food crisis is increasingly visible, so the the work reported in this paper.
government, extension workers, farmers (including female farmers), and

9
E. Antriyandarti et al. Environmental Challenges 14 (2024) 100852

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