Exploring Ancient

Civilisations

AG S Co
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 The Rise of Mesopotamia
1.1 Mesopotamian Society

1.2 Innovations and Technologies

1.3 Religion and Beliefs

Chapter 2 The Splendor of Ancient Egypt

2.1 Pyramids and Monuments

2.2 Daily Life in Egypt

2.3 Pharaohs and Dynasties

Chapter 3 The Greatness of Ancient Greece

3.1 Greek Philosophy and Arts

3.2 Politics and Citizenship

3.3 Warfare and Conquests

Chapter 4 The Legacy of the Roman Empire

4.1 Roman Government and Law

4.2 Architecture and Engineering

4.3 Trade and Commerce

Chapter 5 The Mysteries of the Mayan

Civilization
5.1 Mayan Calendar and Astronomy

5.2 Religious Rituals and Ceremonies

5.3 Decline and Disappearance

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Chapter 1 The Rise of Mesopotamia

1.1 Mesopotamian Society

Mesopotamian society was structured hierarchically, with the king at
the top, followed by nobles, priests, and wealthy merchants. The
majority of the population were farmers, who worked the land owned
by the elite. Slaves also played a significant role in Mesopotamian
society, performing various tasks such as agricultural labor,
construction, and domestic work.

Social status was largely determined by birth, with little opportunity

for social mobility. The king was considered divine and held absolute
power over the people. The nobles and priests played important roles
in maintaining the king's authority and overseeing religious rituals.
Wealthy merchants had some influence in society but were ultimately
subordinate to the ruling elite.

Education was primarily reserved for the elite class, with most children
learning trades or farming skills from their parents. The development
of writing in Mesopotamia allowed for the recording of laws, contracts,
and other important documents, which were typically written by
scribes.

Religion played a central role in Mesopotamian society, with temples

serving as both religious and administrative centers. The belief in
multiple gods and goddesses governed every aspect of life, from
agriculture to warfare. Priests held significant power and were
responsible for performing rituals and interpreting omens.

Art and architecture were highly developed in Mesopotamia, with

monumental structures such as ziggurats, temples, and palaces
showcasing the wealth and power of the ruling elite. The
Mesopotamians were skilled craftsmen, creating intricate works of art
in pottery, metalwork, and textiles.

Overall, Mesopotamian society was complex and hierarchical, with a

strong emphasis on religion, social order, and centralized authority.
The contributions of the Mesopotamians in fields such as writing,

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technology, and urban planning laid the foundation for future
civilizations in the region and beyond.

1.2 Innovations and Technologies

One of the key innovations of Mesopotamian civilization was the
development of writing. The invention of cuneiform script by the
Sumerians around 3200 BCE revolutionized communication and record-
keeping, allowing for the recording of laws, trade agreements, and
religious texts. This advancement laid the foundation for the
development of literature and the transmission of knowledge across
generations.

In addition to writing, the Mesopotamians made significant

advancements in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. They
developed a sophisticated system of mathematics based on the
sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system, which allowed for complex
calculations and measurements. This system was later adopted by
other civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans.

Mesopotamian astronomers also made groundbreaking discoveries,

such as the division of the day into 24 hours, the creation of the
zodiac, and the identification of the five visible planets. These
developments laid the groundwork for the modern study of astronomy
and influenced later civilizations, including the Greeks and
Babylonians.

Another key innovation of Mesopotamian civilization was the

development of irrigation techniques. The construction of canals, dikes,
and dams allowed for the efficient distribution of water to crops,
leading to increased agricultural production and population growth.
This technological advancement enabled the Mesopotamians to create
a surplus of food, which supported the growth of cities and the
development of a complex social and political hierarchy.

The Mesopotamians also made significant advancements in the fields

of architecture and engineering. They constructed massive ziggurats,
such as the famous ziggurat of Ur, as religious and administrative
centers. These monumental structures showcased the technological
prowess of the Mesopotamians and served as symbols of their power
and authority.
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Overall, the innovations and technologies developed by the
Mesopotamians played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of
ancient civilization. Their advancements in writing, mathematics,
astronomy, irrigation, and architecture laid the foundation for future
developments in these fields and influenced the course of human
history.

1.3 Religion and Beliefs

Religion and beliefs played a significant role in the rise of Mesopotamia
as one of the earliest known civilizations. The ancient Mesopotamians
were deeply religious people who believed in multiple gods and
goddesses, each associated with different aspects of life and nature.
They believed that these deities controlled various elements of the
world, such as the sun, the moon, the rivers, and even the weather.

One of the most prominent features of Mesopotamian religion was the

presence of temples and sacred rituals. Temples were considered to be
the dwelling places of the gods, and were often grand structures built
with intricate designs and adorned with precious materials. Priests and
priestesses played a crucial role in conducting religious ceremonies,
making offerings to the deities, and interpreting omens and signs.

The Mesopotamians also practiced divination, in which they sought to

gain insights into the future through various methods such as
observing the movement of planets, analyzing the patterns of animal
entrails, and interpreting dreams. This belief in divination reflected
their desire to understand and control the forces of the universe.

Moreover, the Mesopotamians believed in the existence of an afterlife,

where the souls of the deceased would be judged by the gods based
on their deeds in life. They believed in the existence of the underworld,
a dark and gloomy place where the souls of the wicked would suffer
for eternity, while the souls of the righteous would be rewarded with
eternal bliss.

Overall, religion and beliefs were integral to the social, cultural, and
political life of the ancient Mesopotamians, shaping their worldview,
influencing their daily practices, and providing them with a sense of

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meaning and purpose in a world filled with mysteries and
uncertainties.

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Chapter 2 The Splendor of Ancient Egypt

2.1 Pyramids and Monuments

Pyramids are one of the most iconic and enduring symbols of ancient
Egypt. These monumental structures served as tombs for the pharaohs
and their belongings, believed to help them transition to the afterlife.
The most famous of these pyramids is the Great Pyramid of Giza, built
for Pharaoh Khufu around 2560 BC. It is the largest of the Egyptian
pyramids and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The construction of the pyramids was a monumental undertaking,

requiring immense labor and engineering expertise. The stones used in
their construction were cut and transported from quarries located
miles away, a feat that still astounds historians and researchers today.
The precision with which the stones were placed and the mathematical
calculations involved in their construction are a testament to the
advanced skills of the ancient Egyptian architects and builders.

Aside from the pyramids, ancient Egypt is also known for its
monumental temples and statues. The Temple of Karnak, for example,
is a vast complex of temples, chapels, and pylons dedicated to the
gods of Thebes. The colossal statues of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, with
their intricate carvings and imposing size, are another example of the
grandeur of ancient Egyptian monuments.

These monuments not only served religious and ceremonial purposes

but also acted as expressions of the power and wealth of the pharaohs.
They were designed to awe and inspire, showcasing the might and
majesty of the Egyptian civilization. Even today, thousands of years
after their construction, these monuments continue to captivate and
intrigue academics and researchers, offering insights into the beliefs,
technological prowess, and artistic achievements of ancient Egypt.

2.2 Daily Life in Egypt

Daily life in ancient Egypt was largely determined by the social class a
person belonged to. The highest class in society was the pharaoh and
the royal family, who lived in elaborate palaces and enjoyed luxuries
such as the finest clothing and jewelry. They were served by a large
retinue of servants and officials who managed the affairs of the
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kingdom.

The middle class in ancient Egypt consisted of skilled craftsmen,

merchants, and scribes who lived in modest homes made of mud
bricks. They worked in various trades such as carpentry, pottery, and
weaving, and traded goods in the bustling markets of cities like Thebes
and Memphis. These individuals often had more freedom and
autonomy compared to the lower classes, but still had to pay taxes to
the government.

The lower class in ancient Egypt included farmers, laborers, and slaves
who toiled in the fields and workshops to support themselves and their
families. They lived in simple dwellings and had little access to
education or opportunities for advancement. Farmers relied on the
annual flooding of the Nile River to irrigate their crops, while laborers
worked long hours in harsh conditions to build the monumental
temples and pyramids that still stand today.

Food played a central role in daily life in ancient Egypt, with staples
such as bread, beer, and vegetables forming the basis of the diet.
Meat, fish, and fruits were reserved for special occasions and feasts.
The ancient Egyptians believed in the importance of proper burial rites
and the afterlife, and spent considerable time and resources preparing
tombs and mummifying their dead. Religion permeated all aspects of
daily life, with rituals and festivals held in honor of the gods and
goddesses who governed the natural world.

Overall, daily life in ancient Egypt was a complex and vibrant tapestry
of social, economic, and religious activities that reflected the rich
cultural heritage of this ancient civilization. From the opulence of the
royal court to the hardship of the peasant farmer, each individual
played a vital role in the functioning of society and the perpetuation of
Egyptian culture and traditions.

2.3 Pharaohs and Dynasties

Pharaohs were regarded as divine rulers in Ancient Egypt, considered
to be the intermediaries between the gods and the people. They
wielded absolute power and were responsible for maintaining order
and prosperity in the kingdom. The pharaohs ruled over a hierarchical
society, with authority extending down through the nobility, officials,
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and priests. The succession of pharaohs was typically hereditary, with
the eldest son of the current pharaoh being chosen as the heir to the
throne.

Egyptian history is divided into periods known as dynasties, each ruled

by a succession of pharaohs from the same family line. The Old
Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom are the most well-known
dynastic periods in Egypt's history. These dynasties saw immense
advancements in art, architecture, and religion, with each pharaoh
leaving behind a lasting legacy through the construction of pyramids,
temples, and tombs.

The pharaohs of Ancient Egypt were not only political leaders but also
religious figures, serving as the high priests of the kingdom. They
oversaw the performance of religious ceremonies and rituals, ensuring
the gods were appeased and the kingdom remained prosperous. The
pharaoh was believed to be the living embodiment of the god Horus,
the falcon-headed deity associated with kingship and protection.

The reign of a pharaoh was marked by grandiose constructions such as

the Great Pyramid of Giza, built as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, and the
Temple of Karnak, dedicated to the god Amun by Pharaoh Ramses II.
These architectural marvels exemplify the wealth and power of the
pharaohs, showcasing their ability to mobilize vast resources and labor
for monumental projects.

Dynastic Egypt saw the rise and fall of powerful pharaohs, each leaving
their mark on the kingdom through their accomplishments and
legacies. From the exploits of Thutmose III in expanding Egypt's
borders to the enduring legacy of Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh of
Egypt, the history of the pharaohs and dynasties is a testament to the
splendor and grandeur of Ancient Egypt.

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Chapter 3 The Greatness of Ancient Greece

3.1 Greek Philosophy and Arts

Greek Philosophy and Arts were one of the most influential aspects of
Ancient Greek civilization.

Greek philosophy began with the teachings of Thales, considered to be

the first philosopher. It then blossomed with the likes of Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle, who made significant contributions to the field.
Socrates, known for his Socratic method, focused on ethics and the
importance of self-examination. Plato, a student of Socrates, delved
into metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics in his dialogues. Aristotle, a
student of Plato, further developed these ideas and made substantial
contributions to logic, biology, and ethics.

In addition to philosophy, Ancient Greek arts were also highly revered.

Greek art encompassed sculpture, painting, and pottery, all of which
displayed incredible skill and attention to detail. Sculptures such as the
Venus de Milo and the Discobolus were masterpieces that captured the
beauty and grace of the human form. Greek pottery, known for its
intricate designs and storytelling, often depicted scenes from Greek
mythology and daily life.

Furthermore, Greek theater was another important form of art that

flourished during this time. Tragedies and comedies were performed in
grand amphitheaters, with playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides showcasing their talent. These plays explored complex
themes such as fate, morality, and the nature of humanity, leaving a
lasting impact on Western theatre.

Overall, Greek Philosophy and Arts were pivotal in shaping not only
Ancient Greek society but also influencing future generations of
thinkers and artists. Their contributions continue to be studied and
admired by academics and researchers around the world.

3.2 Politics and Citizenship

Politics in ancient Greece played a significant role in shaping the
civilization's identity. The concept of citizenship was crucial, as
individuals were expected to actively participate in the democratic
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process. Citizens had the right to vote on important decisions, serve on
juries, and hold public office. This level of participation was unique to
ancient Greece and demonstrated a commitment to democratic ideals.

The political structure in ancient Greece varied from city-state to city-

state, with each having its own form of government. Athens, for
example, was known for its direct democracy, where citizens gathered
in the assembly to debate and vote on laws and policies. Sparta, on
the other hand, had a dual monarchy system with two kings ruling
simultaneously. These differing political systems reflected the diversity
and complexity of ancient Greek society.

Citizenship in ancient Greece was not universal, as women, slaves, and

foreigners were excluded from participating in the political process.
However, the notion of citizenship was a defining characteristic of
Greek identity and culture. Citizens were expected to uphold certain
values, such as courage, justice, and civic duty, which were essential
for the stability and prosperity of the city-state.

The political system in ancient Greece was not without its flaws and
limitations. Oftentimes, power struggles and conflicts arose between
competing factions, leading to instability and unrest. Despite these
challenges, the legacy of ancient Greek politics continues to influence
modern democratic societies, as concepts such as equality, justice,
and citizen participation remain central to our understanding of
governance and citizenship.

3.3 Warfare and Conquests

Warfare and conquest played a significant role in the history of Ancient
Greece, shaping the development and expansion of various city-states.
The Greeks engaged in frequent conflicts with neighboring societies,
including the Persians, Spartans, and Athenians. Military prowess was
highly esteemed in Greek society, with young men undergoing rigorous
training in warfare from a young age.

One of the most famous military conflicts in Ancient Greece was the
Greco-Persian Wars, which lasted from 499 to 449 BC. The Persians,
led by King Xerxes, sought to expand their empire into Greek
territories, leading to a series of battles that showcased the military
might of both civilizations. Notable engagements such as the Battle of
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Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis demonstrated the strategic
capabilities and fighting spirit of the Greek forces.

The concept of hoplite warfare was prevalent in Ancient Greece, with

soldiers known as hoplites forming the backbone of Greek armies.
These heavily armored infantrymen fought in close formation, known
as the phalanx, wielding spears and shields to defend themselves and
push back enemy forces. The discipline and cohesion of hoplite units
were crucial in achieving victory on the battlefield.

Conquests and territorial expansion were common objectives for many

Greek city-states, with prominent examples including Alexander the
Great's conquest of the Persian Empire and the Spartan hegemony
over the Peloponnese. Military campaigns were often driven by a
desire for power, resources, and prestige, leading to the establishment
of vast empires and influential city-states throughout the
Mediterranean region.

Warfare also fostered cultural exchanges and technological

advancements in Ancient Greece, as military conflicts necessitated
innovation and adaptation in tactics, weaponry, and fortifications. The
development of siege warfare, naval tactics, and military strategy were
closely linked to the experiences and challenges faced by Greek
armies in battle.

Overall, warfare and conquest were integral components of Ancient

Greek civilization, shaping its history, culture, and political landscape.
The legacy of Greek military prowess continues to influence modern
understanding of military history and stratagem, highlighting the
enduring significance of Ancient Greece in the realm of military studies
and research.

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Chapter 4 The Legacy of the Roman Empire

4.1 Roman Government and Law

The Roman government was a complex system that evolved over time.
In the early years of the Republic, power was divided between two
consuls who were elected for one-year terms. These consuls were
responsible for leading the military, enforcing the law, and making
decisions regarding foreign policy.

As the Roman Empire grew, so too did the government. The Roman
Senate played a crucial role in governing the empire, as it was made
up of wealthy and influential individuals who advised the consuls and
later, the emperors. The Senate had the power to approve or reject
laws proposed by the consuls and to declare war.

The Roman legal system was also highly developed and influential.
Roman law was based on the principles of equity, justice, and the
protection of private property. The Twelve Tables, a set of laws
written in the early years of the Republic, formed the basis of Roman
law and influenced legal systems in Europe for centuries to come.

One of the key features of Roman law was the concept of "innocent
until proven guilty." This principle ensured that individuals accused of
crimes were entitled to a fair trial and the opportunity to defend
themselves. Roman law also laid the groundwork for modern legal
concepts such as contracts, property rights, and civil law.

The legacy of the Roman government and legal system can still be
seen today in many aspects of modern society. The idea of a republic,
with elected officials representing the interests of the people, is a
concept that has been adopted by many countries around the world.
Similarly, the principles of Roman law continue to influence legal
systems in various parts of the world, demonstrating the enduring
legacy of the ancient Roman civilization.

4.2 Architecture and Engineering

Roman architecture and engineering were among the most advanced
in the ancient world, leaving a lasting legacy that can still be seen in
many modern structures. The Romans excelled in the construction of
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roads, bridges, aqueducts, and buildings, utilizing innovative
techniques and materials to create durable and impressive structures.

One of the most notable achievements of Roman engineering was the

development of the arch and vault. The Romans were able to create
large, open spaces by using arches and vaults to distribute the weight
of a structure evenly. This allowed them to build grand structures such
as the Colosseum and the Pantheon, which still stand as testaments to
their engineering prowess.

Roman engineers also revolutionized the construction of aqueducts,

which were essential for supplying cities with clean water. The Roman
aqueducts were marvels of engineering, utilizing gravity to transport
water from distant sources to urban centers. These aqueducts often
spanned hundreds of kilometers and required precise calculations to
maintain a steady flow of water.

Additionally, Roman engineers were skilled in the construction of roads

and bridges, which were crucial for the expansion and maintenance of
the empire. The Roman road network connected all parts of the
empire, facilitating trade, communication, and military movement.
Roman bridges were constructed using stone and concrete, allowing
for the safe passage of people and goods over rivers and ravines.

Furthermore, Roman architecture had a lasting influence on

subsequent civilizations, with many of their building techniques and
designs being adopted and adapted by later cultures. The Roman use
of concrete, for example, allowed for the construction of larger and
more durable structures than previously possible. The Roman
architectural style, with its columns, arches, and domes, can be seen
in buildings around the world, including government buildings,
churches, and museums.

In conclusion, the legacy of Roman architecture and engineering is

vast and enduring. The innovative techniques and materials developed
by Roman engineers have stood the test of time and continue to
influence modern construction practices. The impressive structures
built by the Romans serve as a reminder of their engineering skill and
creativity, leaving a lasting mark on the architectural history of the
world.
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4.3 Trade and Commerce
Trade and commerce were crucial components of the economy in the
Roman Empire. The network of roads and maritime trade routes
facilitated the movement of goods and services throughout the vast
empire. The Romans were able to trade with distant regions such as
Egypt, Arabia, India, and China, importing goods such as silk, spices,
and precious metals.

The Roman government played a significant role in regulating trade

and commerce. The state was involved in various industries, such as
mining and agriculture, and controlled the distribution of goods
through a system of tariffs and regulations. The empire's currency, the
denarius, was widely used in trade transactions, and the Romans
developed advanced banking and financial systems to facilitate
commerce.

The Romans also had a sophisticated system of inland and maritime

trade routes, with well-established markets and trading centers in
major cities such as Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople. Merchants
and traders played a crucial role in the economy, importing and
exporting a wide range of goods and commodities, such as grain, wine,
olive oil, and pottery.

Trade and commerce in the Roman Empire were not only driven by
economic interests but also had significant cultural and political
implications. The exchange of goods and ideas between different
regions fostered cultural exchange and innovation, while also
promoting political alliances and diplomacy. The empire's trading
partners were able to benefit from Roman technology, engineering,
and agricultural practices, further enhancing the interconnectedness of
the ancient world.

Overall, trade and commerce played a vital role in the economy and
society of the Roman Empire, helping to sustain the empire's vast
territories and diverse population. The legacy of Roman trade and
commerce can still be seen today in the global networks of commerce
and cultural exchange that continue to shape our world.

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Chapter 5 The Mysteries of the Mayan Civilization

5.1 Mayan Calendar and Astronomy

The Mayan civilization had a deep understanding of astronomy, which
is evident in their advanced calendar system. Their calendar was
incredibly accurate, even more so than the calendars of some modern
civilizations. The Mayans believed that time was cyclical, and they
were able to track various celestial events such as the movements of
the sun, moon, and planets.

The Mayans had two main calendars: the Haab, which was a 365-day
solar calendar, and the Tzolk'in, which was a 260-day ritual calendar.
These two calendars were combined to create a more complex
calendar system that could track longer periods of time with great
precision. The Mayans also had a Long Count calendar, which was used
to track longer periods of time, such as the cycles of Venus and
eclipses.

One of the most famous aspects of the Mayan calendar is the 2012
phenomenon, which gained widespread attention due to a
misinterpretation of the Long Count calendar. Some believed that the
world would come to an end in 2012, based on the end of a cycle in the
Mayan calendar. However, this interpretation was incorrect, as the
Mayans did not predict the end of the world, but rather the end of a
cycle and the beginning of a new one.

The Mayans were also skilled astronomers, as evidenced by their

astronomical observatories and their ability to accurately predict
celestial events such as eclipses. They were able to track the
movements of the planets and stars with great precision, which
allowed them to develop a complex understanding of the cosmos.
Their astronomical knowledge was integrated into their religious beliefs
and rituals, as they believed that celestial events had a direct impact
on human life.

Overall, the Mayan calendar and astronomy are testament to the

advanced knowledge and understanding of the cosmos that the
Mayans possessed. Their calendar system was incredibly accurate, and

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their astronomical observations were ahead of their time. By studying
the Mayan civilization's calendar and astronomical practices,
researchers can gain valuable insights into the cultural, religious, and
scientific achievements of this ancient civilization.

5.2 Religious Rituals and Ceremonies

Religious rituals and ceremonies played a central role in the daily life
of the ancient Mayan civilization. These rituals were deeply intertwined
with their beliefs and worldview, influencing everything from
agriculture to politics. One of the most important aspects of Mayan
religion was their relationship with the gods, who were believed to
control all aspects of life.

The Mayans conducted elaborate ceremonies to honor their gods, often

involving elaborate dances, music, and offerings of food and precious
items. These rituals were seen as a way to communicate with the gods
and ensure their favor in matters such as good crops, health, and
success in battle. The Mayans believed that failure to perform these
rituals could lead to disaster and misfortune.

One of the most well-known Mayan religious practices was

bloodletting, in which the Mayans would pierce their bodies with sharp
objects to release blood as an offering to the gods. This act was
believed to be a way of sacrificing a part of oneself to the gods, in
exchange for their protection and blessings. Bloodletting was often
performed by rulers and nobles, as a way to demonstrate their power
and devotion to the gods.

Another significant aspect of Mayan religious rituals was the use of

sacred spaces such as temples, pyramids, and ball courts. These
structures were seen as gateways to the spiritual realm, where the
gods resided. Ceremonies were conducted in these spaces to honor the
gods and seek their guidance and protection. The Mayans also
believed in the importance of aligning these structures with celestial
events such as solstices and equinoxes, as a way of maintaining
harmony with the cosmos.

In conclusion, religious rituals and ceremonies were a central part of

Mayan society, shaping their beliefs, practices, and interactions with
the divine. These rituals were seen as essential for maintaining the
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balance between the spiritual and earthly realms, and ensuring the
well-being of the community as a whole. Through their elaborate
ceremonies and offerings, the Mayans sought to establish a connection
with the gods and receive their blessings and protection in return.

5.3 Decline and Disappearance

The decline and disappearance of the Mayan civilization is a topic that
has puzzled academics and researchers for centuries. There are
various theories that attempt to explain why such a sophisticated
civilization suddenly collapsed. One theory suggests that
environmental factors, such as deforestation and drought, played a
significant role in the decline. It is believed that the Mayans' intensive
agricultural practices led to the destruction of the forests, which in turn
affected the ecosystem and ultimately contributed to the collapse of
their civilization.

Another theory posits that internal factors, such as warfare, social

unrest, and political instability, also played a role in the decline of the
Mayan civilization. Evidence of violence and conflict has been found in
many Mayan cities, leading some researchers to believe that infighting
among rival city-states may have weakened the civilization from
within.

Furthermore, the Mayan civilization was heavily reliant on trade and

commerce, and the collapse of their trading networks may have
contributed to their decline. The loss of access to vital resources and
trade routes could have had devastating effects on the economy and
ultimately led to the downfall of the civilization.

The exact reasons for the decline and disappearance of the Mayan
civilization remain a subject of debate among academics and
researchers. Some believe that a combination of environmental,
internal, and external factors contributed to the collapse, while others
argue that a single cataclysmic event may have triggered the downfall.
Despite the uncertainty surrounding their decline, the legacy of the
Mayan civilization continues to fascinate scholars and researchers
around the world.

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