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Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

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 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 241

Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

A. TIBARY1, R. BOUKHLIQ2, K. EL ALLALI3
(Reçu le 26/04/2017; Accepté le 30/06/2017)

Abstract
Male breeding soundness examination (BSE) is an important component of sheep and goat farming. BSE is best performed 2 months
before the breeding season and is based on clinical and physical examination as well as sperm abnormalities detection. Rams are
classified based on physical examination and semen evaluation finding in one of 4 categories: Unsatisfactory, questionable, satis-
factory, and excellent. The satisfactory rams will achieve good reproductive performance if joined to ewes at a ratio of 1:50 for 60
days. However exceptional rams are expected to achieve good reproductive performance at a ratio of 1 ram to 100 ewes. For Buck,
scrotal circumference should be at least 25 cm for breeds weighing more than 40 kg. Buck is deemed satisfactory breeder if he passes
the physical examination, and has an ejaculate with at least 50 % progressively motile spermatozoa and less than 30 % total sperm
abnormalities. This paper reviews factors affecting fertility, sperm production and quality as well as libido and mating ability in the
ram. Details of genital examination and semen evaluation and interpretation of results are discussed. Classification of rams accord-
ing to their reproductive potential is presented. Specific recommendations, when available for the buck, are highlighted. The main
genital diseases are presented. The most frequent culling reason for ram is epididymitis due to Brucella ovis. Systematic culling of
rams with epididymitis improves flock lambing rates by 10 to 15 %. Overall, the examination of the reproductive capacity in the
ram and the buck is an important tool for improvement of flocks/herds fertility and prevention of contagious or hereditary diseases.
Keywords: Genital diseases, fertility, sheep, goat

Examen de l’aptitude à la reproduction chez le bélier et le bouc

Résumé
L’examen de l’aptitude à la reproduction (EAR) du mâle est une composante importante de l’élevage des petits ruminants. L’EAR
est mieux réalisée 2 mois avant la saison de reproduction. Il est basé sur l’examen clinique et physique ainsi que sur la détection
des anomalies des spermatozoïdes. En considérant les résultats de cet examen, les béliers sont classés en 4 catégories: Insatisfai-
sant, douteux, satisfaisant et excellent. Les béliers satisfaisants permettront d’obtenir de bonnes performances de reproduction
s’ils sont mis pendant 60 jours pour saillir des brebis au ratio de 1:50. Cependant, des béliers exceptionnels peuvent réaliser une
bonne performance reproductive au ratio de 1 bélier pour 100 brebis. Chez le bouc, la circonférence scrotale doit être d’au moins
25 cm pour les races pesant plus de 40 kg. Il est considéré comme satisfaisant s’il passe l’examen physique et produit un éjaculat
avec au moins 50 % de spermatozoïdes progressivement mobiles et moins de 30 % d’anomalies totales des spermatozoïdes. Cet
article examine les facteurs affectant la fertilité, la production et la qualité du sperme ainsi que la libido et la capacité de saillie chez
le bélier. Les détails de l’examen de l’appareil génital et du sperme et l’interprétation des résultats sont traités. La classification
des béliers selon leur potentiel de reproduction est présentée. Des recommandations spécifiques, lorsqu’elles sont disponibles
pour le bouc, sont mises en évidence. Les principales maladies génitales sont traitées. La cause de réforme la plus fréquente chez
le bélier est l’épididymite à Brucella ovis. La réforme systématique des béliers à épididymite améliore les taux d’agnelage des
troupeaux de 10 à 15 %. Globalement, l’examen de l’aptitude de reproduction chez le bélier et le bouc est un outil important pour
l’amélioration de la fertilité des troupeaux et la prévention des maladies contagieuses ou héréditaires.
Mots-clés: Reproduction, maladies génitales, fertilité, bélier, bouc

INTRODUCTION In small ruminants BSE is best performed 2 months before

the breeding season as part of a flock health visit. About
Male breeding soundness examination (BSE) has become 10% of rams have poor fertility. Many of these can be
common practice in all domestic animal species. This detected by palpation of testicles without the need for
examination is meant to forecast the ability of a male to electroejaculation although there are some conditions that
impregnate a given number of females within a defined pe- are missed if examination of fresh semen is not carried
riod of time. It is not a fertility test because many males that out. The present paper describes an approach commonly
do not meet the requirements set for the BSE may not be used for BSE in rams and bucks. An emphasis is placed
completely sterile and can even impregnate a large number on health, physical and sperm abnormalities warranting
of females under some specific management conditions culling of rams and bucks from reproduction.
(Ott and Memon, 1980; Gouletsou and Fthenakis, 2010;
Rowe, 2010; Ridler et al., 2012; Van Metre et al., 2012).

1
Comparative Theriogenology, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, USA.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
2
Unité de Reproduction Animale, Département de Médecine, Chirurgie et Reproduction, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Maroc
3
Unité d’Anatomie Comparée, Département des Sciences Biologiques et Pharmaceutiques Vétérinaires, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Maroc
242 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

FACTORS AFFECTING RAM FERTILITY of the rams with semen scores of 3 to 5 had a conception
rate of 80 to 100% whereas only 35 and 25 % of rams with
Outside of the breeding season (before June in Morocco), scores 2 and 1, respectively, could settle more than 80 % of
the size of testicles and numbers of spermatozoa are lower, the ewes (Hulet, 1977; Kimberling, 1984).
especially in breeds with a short breeding season. The tes-
A high correlation was found between some semen param-
ticles should be of similar size, very resilient (turgid) and
eters and fertility or fecundity. In fact, the percentage of
move freely in the scrotum (compare with others of the
live normal spermatozoa, motility, pH and abnormal heads
same age and similar breed). If the history and examination
or mid-pieces were the most correlated with fertility (>60
of the ram and semen show reduced fertility, treatment is
%). Correlation between fecundity and semen parameters
not normally possible. A potentially valuable ram may be
was highest for the percentage of live normal spermatozoa,
tested again 2 months later, as infertility is occasionally
% abnormal necks and % abnormal mid-piece (33 to 44
temporary. The only final evidence of fertility is the pro-
%) (Hulet, 1977; Kimberling, 1984).
duction of lambs (Ridler et al., 2012).
Under natural mating conditions, the reproductive perfor-
Seminal characteristics are highly correlated with the ability
mance of rams can be affected by several factors. These
to impregnate ewes and semen evaluation can identify most
can be grouped into 3 large categories: 1) Factors affecting
rams of low fertility. A scoring system based on the quantity
sperm production, 2) Factors affecting semen quality and
and quality of semen obtained by artificial vagina can be
3) Factors affecting the delivery of semen to the female.
used. Actual fertility (conception rates) obtained from rams
with different semen scores was verified in breeding trials. The objective of the BSE is to evaluate a male based on its
Synchronized ewes were bred to rams and slaughtered 25 ability to produce and deliver semen in sufficient quantity
days later to determine conception rates (presence of em- and achieve high conception rate and fecundity.
bryos). The results of these trials showed that 96 to 97%

Table 1: What to look for during physical examination?

Parameters Significant findings
General alertness, free movement, no lameness, close and uniform fleece, active feeding,
Signs of good health
rumination, no visible wounds, abscesses or injuries.
Listlessness, abnormal posture and behavior, stiff gait, persistent coughing or panting, absence
Signs of ill health of rumination, poor BCS, unthrifty, lameness, diarrhea, patchy loss of fleece, constant rubbing,
separation from flock
Should be 3 or 4 (out of 5 point scale). Over-conditioned or under-conditioned rams are not
Body condition score
desirable
Temperature, pulse and Fever, abnormal cardiac or respiratory function
respiration
Mucous membrane Look for anemia (heavy parasitism)
Teeth Normal bite, normal jaws (no actinobacillosis, hard swelling), good apposition with dental pad
Check for neurological disease (head position), abnormal nasal discharge (nasal bots) , cracked horns
Check for submaxillary and parotid glands swelling or abscesses (Caseous lymphadenitis)
Look for signs of psoroptic mange in the ears or dermatitis due to ringworm
Head and neck Check for regurgitation or difficult swelling
Snoring: pharyngeal or laryngeal injuries, laryngeal chondritis
Head, tongue swelling (blue tongue)
Orf or contagious echtyma lesions on the lips
Check for persistent discharge, blindness or cataracts, keratoconjunctivitis (Pink eye)
Eyes
Entropion (hereditary), check for residual signs of previous surgery
Check for patchy loss of wool, pruritis (fever, mange or scrapies)
Fleece
Dermatophilus congolensis: Chronic exudative infection with areas of crusting
Brisket Common site of abrasions or abscesses
Conformation Bad conformation include: cow hocks, straight hocks, long sloping patterns
Corkscrew claws, shelly horn, splayed claws
Interdigital growths causing pain (young rams)
White line disease: most common. Infection tracts up to the coronary bands. May infect joints
and tendon sheaths resulting in supportive arthritis
Feet Foot rot: characteristic smell
Scald: Interdigital skin inflammation
Strawberry foot-rot: caused by Dermatophilus congolensis may be mixed with Orf virus,
debilitating sores in lower limbs
Lameness reduces serving capacity and daily sperm production
General Watch for signs of urolithiasis
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 243

FACTORS AFFECTING SEMEN PRODUCTION FACTORS AFFECTING SEMEN QUALITY

The number of spermatozoa produced on a daily basis is Semen quality can be affected during spermatogenesis or
directly correlated with the amount of healthy testicular during epididymal maturation and storage (Mickelsen et
parenchyma (volume or weight). In practice, estimation of al., 1981; Gouletsou and Fthenakis, 2010; Van Metre et
the volume or weight of the testis can easily be obtained al., 2012). Any disease that may disturb thermoregulation
by measurement of the scrotal circumference at the largest of the testicles or epididymal transit will affect the mor-
diameter (Braun et al., 1980; Burfening and Rossi, 1992; phology of the spermatozoa and the fertilizing ability of
Elmaz et al., 2007). Thus, this parameter has become an semen. These factors include systemic diseases, fever or
important part of the BSE in males. Minimum acceptable pathological processes at the level of the scrotum, testis
scrotal circumferences for a breeding ram have been set or epididymis. It is therefore important to know how to
for two groups of ages: Rams less than 14 months old and examine and recognize abnormalities or lesions of this
rams older than 14 months. part of the genital organs (Table 2).
Sperm production is also affected by sexual activity, The most common genital pathology in rams is contagious
season, nutrition and general health of the ram (Mick- epididymitis (Figure 11). There are two separates entities in
elsen et al., 1982; Ahmad and Noakes, 1995; Avdi et terms of etiology depending on age of the ram: Ram epididy-
al., 2004; Ridler et al., 2012). It is important to conduct mitis (old rams) and lamb epididymitis (virgin rams).
a thorough physical examination and evaluation of the
Ram epididymitis is primarily due to Brucella ovis and
body condition of the ram as part of the BSE (Table 1).
is probably the most common disease that affects breed-
Ram BSE should be conducted 30 to 60 days before join-
ing rams. Systematic culling of rams with epididymitis
ing, preferably during the natural breeding season and
improves flock lambing rates by 10 to 15 %. Bilaterally
on sexually rested rams. Outside the breeding season or
affected rams are usually sterile but some may retain some
after intensive use, rams will have generally smaller and
fertility (up to 40%). Unilaterally affected males will lose
softer testicles.
about half of their fertilizing ability (Van Metre et al.,
2012; Picard-Hagen et al., 2015).

Table 2: Most common abnormalities of the genitalia in rams

Organ Examination Anomalies
Pendulous prepuce
Ram should be placed in a “sitting” position in order Ulcers at the junction of the skin and mucous membrane (can
to visualize the preputial opening. be associated with Orf)
The penis is extended by pushing the sigmoid flexure Abnormal discharge: bloody or purulent (frothy whitish
Penis and
upward and retracting the prepuce with the other hand discharge may be normal)
prepuce
at the same time. Ulcerative balanoposthitis: bloody discharge
The surface of the penis and the urethral process should Adhesions, scarring tissue (Figure 1)
be examined closely for lesions Balanitis, absence or inflammation of the urethral process
(Figure 2)
Scrotal skin lesions: dermatitis (Figure 3), abscesses (Figure
4), cuts
Inspect and palpate the scrotum and its content while
the ram is in the “sitting” and standing position. Asymmetry: testicular degeneration, atrophy, hypoplasia
(Figure 5)
Scrotum Evaluate length of wool.
Scrotal hernia (large soft mass between the testicles and the
Evaluate for symmetry. abdominal walls) (Figure 6)
Measure scrotal circumference
Palpate for increased sensitivity (orchitis, scrotal abscesses)
(Figures 7, 8, 9)
Soft flabby testis: degeneration or atrophy
Hard firm testis: orchitis, severe degeneration with fibrosis,
Palpate each testicle separately for consistency, size, severe hypoplasia
and presence of lesions. Hypoplasia: associated with incomplete descent and may be
Testis should be smooth, freely moveable, ovoid in heritable: rams with one testicle half the length and diameter
Testicles of the other testicle should be removed from breeding
shape and resilient.
Ultrasonography is indicated in valuable rams or rams Cryptorchidism and monorchidism (Figure 10)
with abnormal semen Orchitis and epididymitis
Varicocele: Firm lobulated mass detected at the level of the
spermatic cord.
Spermatocele: Spontaneous and permanent hard swelling.
Palpate the tail of the epididymis
Epididymis Epididymitis: enlarged, adhesions (Figures 11, 12, 13, 14)
Size of the epididymis in relationship to size of testis
244 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

a b
a b

Figure 1: Ulcerative balanaposthitis (pizzle rot) in rams (a: severe; b: moderate) due to excessive production of ammonia by
Corynebacterium renale.

a b

Figure 2: Balanitis. (left) early case, (right) case with compromise (necrosis) of the urethral process due to urolithiasis.

Figure 3: Scrotal dermatitis: differentials include mange Figure 4: Ram presenting a ruptured scrotal abscess with
and contact dermatitis adhesions and periorchitis
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 245

Figure 5: Ram presenting a severe scrotal asymmetry due Figure 6: Young ram lamb (14 months) with enlarged asym-
to unilateral testicular atrophy metric scrotum due to an inguinal hernia

Figure 7: Mature ram with severe swelling of the scrotum Figure 8: Testis from an infertile mature ram showing a
due to a bilateral orchitis periorchitis and abscess

a b

Figure 9: Enlarged inguinal area in an infertile mature ram with inguinal and peri-testicular abscesses due to C. pseudotu-
berculosis (a: clinical evaluation; b: postmortem evaluation)
246 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

a b
Figure 10: Unilateral cryptorchidism in a ram lamb (left). (a) comparison with a lamb of the same age, (b) unilateral right
cryptorchidism

Figure 11: Rams with severely enlarged tail of the epididymis and testicular atrophy due to epididymitis (left, right)

a b

Figure 13: Unilateral cauda epididymis enlargement due to spermastasis. Clinical pre-castration evaluation (a), post-cas-
tration evaluation (b)
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 247

The primary route of infection in breeding males is the Semen quality may start to deteriorate within 2 to 3 weeks of
oral or ocular mucous membrane. Homosexual behavior, infection. Ejaculate abnormalities consist of decreased motil-
oral ingestion, genito-nasal investigation amongst rams or ity, decreased sperm concentration and increased number of
ram/ewes are suspected to be the primary mechanisms of spermatozoa with detached heads (Table 3) (Cameron and
transmission. Venereal transmission to ewes is possible. Lauerman, 1976; Kimberling et al., 1986; McLaren, 1988).
Vertical transmission from ewes to male lambs by trans- In addition to epididymitis other differential diagnoses of
placental crossing or via milk has been suggested (Ridler increased scrotal size (i.e. swelling) include:
and West, 2011; Picard-Hagen et al., 2015).
Inguinal hernia with omentum extending through the
The organism causes hyperplasia of reticuloendothelial cells, inguinal ring.
septicemia, and localizes in the epididymis, seminal vesicles, • Edema of the scrotal skin.
bulbourethral glands and ampullae of the vas deferens, re- • Hematoma.
sulting in gross lesions (epididymitis and local interstitial
swelling) with plasmocytic and lymphocytic infiltration • Orchitis.
in the perivascular regions and migration of polymorpho- • Hydrocele.
nuclear leukocytes (PMN’s) into the epididymal lumen. • Varicocele.
Ductal epithelial cells undergo hyperplasia in response to • Spermatocele.
the inflammation and form obstructing folds into the lumen
as well as mural cysts. Spermatozoa accumulate proximal • Puncture wound causing cellulitis.
to the obstruction and eventually cause a rupture of the duct Infected rams can be detected by serology. Complement
and extravasation of sperm cells into the interstitial tissue and fixation test (CF) is usually positive within 6 to 9 weeks
development of granulomas (Carvalho et al., 2012). Pressure of infection (titer 1:160 or greater) and remains elevated
from the obstruction leads to degeneration of the seminifer- for up to 7 months or longer. CF is a screening test but
ous tissue and testicular atrophy. lacks sensitivity and specificity (too many false negative
and false positive results). An ELISA test is more sensitive
and false positives are generally not a problem. ELISA is
also useful in the early detection of the disease (Ridler
and West, 2011; Franca et al., 2014; Ridler et al., 2014).
Lamb epididymitis is caused primarily by Actinobacillus
seminis (Heath et al., 1991). It affects rams at pre-breeding
age, particularly those that are on high plane of nutrition.
The infection in a group of ram lambs is spread by oral-
nasal contact with urine of preputial secretion during the
typical prepuce investigation behavior displayed by rams.
Ascending infection has also been incriminated. Prevention
of the disease by vaccination or prophylactic antibiotics is
of limited value. Some lambs with high PMN’s have been
treated successfully with long acting tetracycline (20 mg/
kg). Actinobacillus seminis was isolated from rams with ab-
normal semen or fertility. In one study (Al-Katib and Den-
nis, 2005), clinical signs were not always present although
Figure 12: Postmortem gross lesion of epididymitis due to two of five experimentally infected rams presented palpable
B. ovis

Figure 14: Cauda epididymis from an infertile mature ram showing sperm granulomas
248 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

lesions. Necrotic testicular and epididymal abscesses may frequently (at 30 to 60 day interval) in order to detect rams
be seen on postmortem examination. A. seminis was iso- that may have been incubating the disease but were not
lated from seminal vesicles and epididymis of a ram with no serologically positive.
gross lesions. This suggests that A. seminis infection may be
All positive or suspect rams should be culled and replaced
widespread and should be considered in cases of infertility
by negative virgin ram lambs. Leasing or exchanging rams
(Mbai et al., 1996; Al-Katib and Dennis, 2005; Otter, 2008;
should be discouraged unless the other flocks have the
Al-Katib and Dennis 2009; Gouletsou and Fthenakis, 2015;
same eradication program.
Acosta-Dibarrat et al., 2016).
Eradication of brucellosis can be achieved gradually in
Control of ram epididymitis in a flock rests mainly on
larger flocks by first establishing two flocks: a “clean”
periodic examination of rams and strict enforcement of
and an “infected” flock with strict separation. Clean rams
guidelines for scrotal palpation, scrotal circumference,
are used on separate ewes and should be tested at the end
semen quality and ELISA testing. In most breeds, all ram
of each breeding season. Replacement for the clean flock
lambs with less than 30 cm scrotal circumference or ab-
must be ELISA negative, and rested for 30 days after
normal testicular consistency should be culled from breed-
purchase. As the incidence of infection is reduced in the
ing. In geographical areas where the disease is endemic,
clean flock and the natural attrition decreases infected
rams should also be evaluated after the breeding season.
flock numbers, a total eradication program can be initiated.
Vaccination may be used as an adjunct control method.
However, vaccinated rams cannot be serologically tested.
In this case, semen culture is needed to identify infected FACTORS AFFECTING DELIVERY OF SEMEN
rams. Vaccination may be performed twice a year, pre- The most important factors that play a role in the ability of
breeding and after the breeding season. (Ridler and West, the ram to deliver semen to ewes are physical unsoundness,
2011; Picard-Hagen et al., 2015). libido and management conditions (Toe et al., 1994; Gou-
A stricter control program consists of performing a BSE on letsou and Fthenakis, 2010; Menegassi et al., 2012; Smith et
all rams in addition to serology and semen culture. Rams al., 2012; Van Metre et al., 2012). Physical problems such as
should be tested at pre-breeding exam and 30 to 60 days lameness, blindness (Table 1) and penile or preputial prob-
after the joining period. All rams with abnormal semen lems (Table 2) may not interfere with semen production or
parameters, small scrotal circumference or suspected of quality but rams will not be able to find estrous ewes and/
having epididymis or are positive to the ELISA should be or mate them, resulting in poor reproductive performance.
immediately culled (Ridler and West, 2011). Libido (mating ability or serving capacity) is another factor
In flocks where brucellosis is already present, eradication that affects the reproductive capacity of the ram (Alexander
can be accomplished using one of several management et al., 2012). Unfortunately, this is not evaluated during the
approaches based on testing and culling infected rams routine examination of the ram. It is very important to be
and avoiding the introduction of new infected animals. able to track ram sexual activity after joining and identify
In the initial part of the program, rams should be tested rams with poor serving capacity. This is easily done if the

Table 3: Summary of clinical and laboratory features of epididymitis in rams

Etiology Effects Diagnosis
Ram epididymitis
Acinetobacter iwoffi
Actinobacillus
Actinomycetem comitans
Actinobacillus seminis Enlarged tail of the epididymis. However up to 25 % of B. ovis: ELISA is more
positive rams may not show any lesions sensitive and false positives
Arcanobacter pyogenes
Presence of flocculates in semen generally not a problem. It
Brucella ovis
Presence of leukocytes in semen is also useful in the early
Brucella abortus detection of the disease.
Corynebacterium ovis Decreased sperm output
Positive complement
Hemophilus somnus Marked decline in sperm motility
fixation (CF) test within 1
Histophilusovis Morphology: detached heads and tail abnormalities, no to 2 weeks after infection.
Moraxella spp. significant increase in head abnormalities
Pasteurella spp. Main tail abnormalities: bent, coiled around the head
Staphylococcus spp. Firs abnormalities appear 1 to 6 weeks after infection
Streptococcus spp. Bilaterally affected rams are usually sterile but a few may
Actinobacillus retain some fertility.
Actinomycetem comitans
Lamb Actinobacillus seminis
Culture
epididymitis Hemophilus somnus
Histophilus ovis
Pasteurella spp.
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 249

ram is fitted with a marking harness. This management croscopy of a fixed sample is useful for characterization of
procedure will allow the breeder to also monitor sexual some head and acrosomal defects (Figure 26). Diffquick®
activity in ewes and the number of ewes returning to estrus. or Giemsa staining techniques are helpful in identifying
Monitoring of serving capacity is critical when using young spheroids and white blood cells (Figure 24).
virgin rams because of their lack of experience.
Ultrasonography of the scrotum and its content may be
Ram to ewe ratio should be adjusted for each management indicated in some cases and is discussed in detail in a
condition according to the following general guidelines: separate article (Boukhliq et al., 2018). This technique
• 1 ram to 50 ewes for paddock mating (mature rams) allows visualization of lesions that may not be palpable.
• 1 ram to 25 ewes for paddock mating (young rams) Sperm granuloma or spermatic granuloma results from
• 1 ram to 30 ewes for mating in rough terrain extravasation of spermatozoa into the interstitium of the
organ. Expect for the granulomatous reaction, they are mi-
• 1 ram to 15 ewes for synchronized flock croscopically similar to spermatocele. Sperm granulomas
• 1 ram to 10 ewes for out of season breeding (Figure 14) and spermatoceles (localized accumulation
of spermatozoa within a dilated epididymal or testicular
BREEDING SOUNDNESS EXAMINATION duct) are common and may be non-infectious due to blind
AND INTERPRETATION efferent tubules and segmental aplasia of the Wollfian duct.

The current Society for Theriogenology (SFT) guide-

lines for BSE emphasize the general health, physical ex-
amination (Tables 1 and 2), scrotal circumference (Figure
15), sperm morphology and motility. Ejaculates are col-
lected most commonly by electroejaculation (Figure 16).
The semen samples should be protected from cold shock in
order to evaluate motility (Figure 17). The characteristics
of the normal ram ejaculate are summarized in Table 4.
Determination of sperm concentration is not usually per-
formed in the field. However, the gross appearance of the
ejaculate may be used as an estimate (Table 5) (Figure 18).
Motility can be evaluated grossly (wave like motion) on a
non-diluted sample without cover slip (x 100). Individual
motility may be performed on a cover-slipped sample after
dilution of semen with an appropriate semen extender (x
200 x 400) (Table 6). Sperm morphology should always be
performed under oil (x 1000). Various staining techniques
are available but the most common is eosin-nigrosin
staining procedure (Figures 19, 20, 21, 22). The main
abnormalities that are often missed by practitioners are
head (vacuoles, diadems), acrosomal defects (folded or Figure 15: Scrotal circumference measurement is per-
knobbed) (Figure23) and other cells (spheroids, medusa formed using a measuring tape at the largest diameter
including both testicles
cells) (Figure 24). Observation under phase contrast mi-

Figure 16: Equipment for examination and semen collection in rams and bucks. [A]: a) small ruminant artificial vagina, b)
scrotal circumference tape, c) handheld electroejaculator with linear electrode, d) handheld electroejaculator with circular
electrode, [B]: e-f) Technique of electroejaculation in a standing ram
250 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

Epididymal granulomas in the caput and cauda epididymis to retest the ram should be given to the owner. Unsatisfactory
are seen as anechoic or hyperechoic areas with a distinct category will include rams with the following:
margin with or without a hyperechoic capsule. Granu-
• Severe health problems, congenital abnormalities, bad
lomas of the testis are generally microscopic and do not
conformation.
appear on ultrasound. Enlargement of the mediastinum
testis is detected when granulomas are present in the head • Cryptorchidism, hernias, epididymitis, scrotal abscess,
of the epididymis. Heterogeneous testicular parenchyma severe balanoposthitis (“pizzle rot”), penile adhesion,
with presence of numerous hyperechoic foci is typical very soft testicles, lumps or scrotal swelling, orchitis,
for testicular degeneration associated with testicular and testicular hypoplasia, marked difference in size between
epididymal granulomas. the testicles.
Rams are classified based on physical examination and • Scrotal circumference: Less than 30 cm for lambs or less
semen evaluation finding in one of 4 categories: Unsatis- than 33 cm for rams
factory, questionable, satisfactory, and excellent. • Sperm morphology: > 50 % abnormalities
• Sperm motility: < 30 %
The Unsatisfactory ram • Positive ELISA test for B. ovis (should be done on all
A ram is classified as unsatisfactory if it fails to meet the range rams and rams over 9 months of age)
minimum requirements for any one part of the examination. • Clinical signs: Depression, fever, pink eye, foot rot, lame-
Normally, these rams should be culled from the breeding pro- ness, bluetongue, sore mouth, ring worm, other contagious
gram. However, if there are no infectious problems and the diseases would render the ram either unsatisfactory or
veterinarian thinks that the changes are reversible, the option questionable.

Table 4: Testicular size and evaluation of reproductive quality in rams (Modifid from Yarney and Sanford (1993))
8 to 14 months Over 14 months
Size Score Size Score
Less than 28 cm Questionable Less than 32 cm Questionable
28 to 36 cm Satisfactory 32 to 40 cm Satisfactory
More than 36 cm Excellent More than 40 cm Excellent
*Testicular size can be 2-3 cm smaller out of the breeding season.

Table 5: Correlation between the appearance of ram ejaculate and sperm concentration
Ejaculate appearance Sperm concentration (x 109/ml)* Comment
Watery <0.5 Probably infertile
Cloudy 0.5-1 Probably infertile
Milky 1-3 Low fertility
Creamy 3-4 Probably fertile
Thick creamy .4 Probably fertile
*Accurate sperm concentration may be obtained by hemocytometer or spectrophometry

Figure 17: Field technique to protect semen from cold Figure 18: Gross appearance of the ejaculate with decreasing
shock using a warm water bath density from left to right (refer to Table 5 for explanation)
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 251

The Questionable ram • Mild to moderate balanoposthitis, scrotal dermatitis,

This category includes all rams with one questionable frost bite, mange.
parameter or suffering from a treatable or reversible • Scrotal circumference: less than 30 cm for lambs or less
condition. These rams may be used in a limited breed- than 33 cm for rams.
ing program if they do not have any contagious disease. • Sperm morphology: >30% abnormalities.
Questionable rams should be retested within 50 to 60 days • Sperm motility: < 30%.
after implementation of treatment and re-classified as sat- • Suspect ELISA test for B. ovis, retest in 30 to 60 days.
isfactory or unsatisfactory breeders. Common reasons for
classifying a ram as questionable include: The Satisfactory ram
• Body condition score: Under-conditioned (1 or 2) or
over-conditioned (5). This category includes rams that meet all the minimum
requirements for general health, scrotal circumference,
sperm motility and morphology. These rams will achieve
good reproductive performance if joined to ewes at a ra-
tio of 1:50 for 60 days. They should fulfill the following
requirements:
• Good general health
• Good conformation
• Normal genital tract
• No previous history of infertility
• Body condition score of 3 to 4
• Scrotal circumference: 30 cm or more for <14 months
of age, 33 cm or more for 14 months or older
• Sperm morphology: ≥70 % normal
• Sperm motility: ≥30 % progressive motility
• ELISA negative for B. ovis.

Figure 19: Morphological abnormalities of the sperm head Figure 20: Morphological abnormalities of the midpiece and
(eosin-nigrosin stain) tail (esosin-nigrosin stain)
Table 6: Evaluation of gross sperm motility
Score Description
Dense, rapidly moving waves.
5 Very good Individual sperm cannot be observed.
90% or more are active
Vigorous moving waves, but not as rapid as score 5.
4 Good
70-80 % or more are active
Only small, slow moving waves.
3 Fair Individual sperm can be observed.
45-65 % are active
2 Poor No waves are formed.
Some movement of sperm: 20-40 % are active
1 Very poor
Very few spermatozoa show signs of life
0 Dead All spermatozoa are motionless
252 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

Figure 21: Sperm from an infertile ram with a high inci- Figure 22: Cytoplasmic droplets: Proximal cytoplasmic
dence of double midpiece and tail and abnormal mitochon- (bottom image) and distal (top). Increased rate of droplets is
drial sheath usually observed in immature or overused exhausted rams
or rams that are recovering from severe dyspermatogenesis
or epididymal sperm transport problem

Figure 23: Abnormal acrosomes: Knobbed acrosome (top), detached/swollen acrosome (bottom)
 Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét. (2018) 6 (2):241-255 253

The Excellent ram reputable breeders with sound biosecurity and preven-
This category includes rams that meet more stringent tive herd health program. Bucks should be examined for
requirements for scrotal circumference, motility and mor- gastrointestinal parasites particularly if they come from
phology. Exceptional rams are expected to achieve good areas where there is a problem of anthelmintic resistance.
reproductive performance at a ratio of 1 ram to 100 ewes. If arthritis is due to CAEV, the buck should be eliminated
They should have the following attributes: from reproduction because of the increased susceptibility
of his daughters to the same disease. Common abnormali-
• Excellent health ties of the genital organs are summarized in Table 7.
• BCS, 3 to 4 Scrotal circumference should be at least 25 cm for breeds
• Scrotal circumference: more than 33 for less than 14 weighing more than 40 kg (Figure 27). Most dairy breed
months old and more than 35 for 14 months or older bucks have SC of 25 to 28 cm when they reach 45 kg of
• Sperm morphology: ≥ 90 % normal body weight. Dairy bucks may be as early as 7 months of
• Sperm motility: > 50 % progressive age. Meat breed bucks have a SC of 26 to 29 cm around 7
months of age (45 kg BW) (Almeida et al., 2007; Rowe,
• ELISA negative for B. ovis 2010).
Semen can be collected by electroejaculation, however the
BREEDING SOUNDNESS EXAMINATION IN owner should be warned that goat tends to vocalize a lot
THE BUCK and that this procedure may be better done under sedation.
The authors prefer to collect bucks using and artificial
There are no specific guidelines for BSE in the male goat vagina, which is readily accepted when in presence of an
(Ott and Memon, 1980; Al-Ghalban et al., 2004; Rowe, estrous doe. Non-estrous does have also been used suc-
2010; Ridler et al., 2012). Most practitioners use the cessfully. In general, a buck is deemed satisfactory breeder
same approach described for rams. Bucks should ideally if he passes the physical examination, and has an ejaculate
be tested for Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and with at least 50 % progressively motile spermatozoa and
Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV). It is impor- less than 30 % total sperm abnormalities (Rowe, 2010;
tant to remind clients that bucks should be purchased from Ridler et al., 2012). Some bucks may produce yellow

Figure 24: Spheroid or round spermatids (a) and medusa cells (b) or ciliated
border of epididymal epithelium. When present in the ejaculate signify a b
severe degenerative process

Table 7: Common genital abnormalities in bucks.

Atrophy or degeneration
Hypoplasia (nutrition, intersex XXY/XY, Robertsian translocation, Polled goats, hypothyroidism
Cryptorchidism (hereditary in Angora goats)
Testis Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome: Hypoplastic testes, rudimentary epididymis, presence of
bicornuate uterus and all accessory sex glands normal size
Orchitis: May be due to coliform, Pseudomonas, Actinobacillus seminis, Staphylococcus pyogenes,
B. melitensis (occasional orchitis)
Scrotal hernia
Epididymitis
Epididymis Sperm granuloma due to obstruction of the head of the epididymis is a common cause of infertility
in polled bucks
Segmental aplasia of the body of the epididymis (polled and horned goats)
Congenital diverticulum of the urethra
Hair rings
Loss of urethral process (accidental)
Penis and prepuce
Urolithiasis
Balanophosthitis
Balanoposthitis due to caprine herpesvirus-1 associated to vulvovaginitis in does (contagious)
Poor libido
Others Gynecomastia: Polled intersex, XO/XY. May start out fertile then fertility decreases with age due to
mineralization of testicular parenchyma. High producing lines
Cytogenetics: fertile XX/XXXY buck
254 Tibary et al.: Ram and Buck Breeding Soundness Examination

ejaculates (Figure 28). This is due to a genetic ability to rams and bucks is an important veterinary service to sheep
produce and concentrate large amounts of riboflavin. This and goat producers. Not only it can greatly impact fertility
character does not affect fertility (Mendoza et al., 1989). but also it reduces chance of introduction of contagious
or hereditary diseases in the herd of flock.
CONCLUSION
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