Forest Science and Technology

ISSN: 2158-0103 (Print) 2158-0715 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/tfst20

Afforestation and reforestation with the clean

development mechanism: Potentials, problems,
and future directions

Sarah Abdul Razak, Yowhan Son, Woo‐Kyun Lee, Yongsung Cho & Nam Jin
Noh

To cite this article: Sarah Abdul Razak, Yowhan Son, Woo‐Kyun Lee, Yongsung Cho & Nam
Jin Noh (2009) Afforestation and reforestation with the clean development mechanism:
Potentials, problems, and future directions, Forest Science and Technology, 5:2, 45-56, DOI:
10.1080/21580103.2009.9656347

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2009.9656347

Published online: 13 Dec 2010.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 937

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tfst20
Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 45~56 (2009)
Forest Science and
Technology

Afforestation and Reforestation with the Clean Development

Mechanism: Potentials, Problems, and Future Directions
Sarah Abdul Razak1, Yowhan Son1*, Woo-Kyun Lee1, Yongsung Cho2 and Nam Jin Noh1
Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 136-713, South Korea
1

Department of Food and Resource Economics, Korea University, Seoul 136-713, South Korea
2

(Received October 30, 2009; Accepted December 19, 2009)

The Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) has introduced the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) as a
scheme for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction through cooperation between
Annex 1 Parties (investing countries), which are committed to certain GHG emission
reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol, and non-Annex 1 Parties (host
countries), which do not have any commitments to reduce GHG emissions. The
eligibility of forestry projects under the CDM is limited to afforestation/reforestation
(A/R) projects. A/R CDM allows Certified Emissions Reduction Units (CERs) to be
purchased through carbon sequestration by afforestation or reforestation projects
in developing countries. A total of 17 methodologies have been approved by the
Executive Board of the UNFCCC. Out of these, 11 approved methodologies are
for large-scale A/R CDM project activities and 6 are for small-scale A/R CDM
project activities. This study identifies some potential land use changes for the
development of new and approved methodologies of A/R CDM project activities.
These suggested land use changes with high potential are pasture lands, land-
fills, mountainous areas, and mined lands. The suggested future land uses in A/R
CDM project activities are due to their good potential in sequestering carbon, suc-
cess in the establishment of plantation, and unavailability of the approved method-
ologies of A/R CDM project activities that are applicable to these suggested land
uses. A total of 8 project design documents (PDD) of A/R CDM project activities
have been accepted by the Executive Board and registered under the Kyoto Pro-
tocol of the UNFCCC. Some of the problems with A/R CDM project activities
include the planting of large scale monoculture plantations, the planting of exotic
species, and impact on the hydrology of the project areas. Future directions of A/R
CDM project activities are here suggested, which are implementing mixed spe-
cies in a plantation, using native species during reforestation activities, and count-
ing the soil organic carbon pools among the carbon pools measured for carbon
sequestration.
Key words: clean development mechanism, afforestation, reforestation, A/R CDM,
methodology, project design document

INTRODUCTION under the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change
In light of the global climate crisis, international (UNFCCC) is a scheme for greenhouse gas
negotiations led to the adoption of the first (GHG) emission reduction through cooperation
legally binding environmental treaty in the world between Annex 1 Parties (investing countries),
in 1997: the Kyoto Protocol (Lutzeyer, 2008). which are committed to certain GHG emission
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol, and
non-Annex 1 Parties (host countries), which do
*Corresponding author not have any commitments to reduce GHG
E-mail: [email protected] emissions. The Kyoto Protocol introduced the
45
46 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

CDM as one of three market mechanisms (the PROCEDURES AND PROGRESS

other two being Joint Implementation and Emissions
Trading) to make climate change mitigation more Project cycle

cost-effective (Jindal et al., 2008). As stated in Afforestation and reforestation activities must
article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the CDM has undergo the CDM project cycle and apply an
two objectives: to offset GHG emissions pro- approved methodology in order to qualify under
duced in developed countries, and to promote the CDM. Figure 1 shows a simplified schematic
sustainable development in developing countries of the project cycle of CDM activities. For A/R
(Nussbaumer, 2009). CDM project activities, a project participant should
Forests can act as a carbon source or sink, first determine whether it is a large scale or a
depending on the balance between uptake of car- small scale A/R CDM project, based on the size
bon through photosynthesis and release of carbon and types of activity undertaken.
through respiration, decomposition, fires, or removal Subsequently, project participants should apply
by harvesting activities (Nabuurs 2008). The
et al., one of the methodologies approved by the Execu-
eligibility of forestry projects under the CDM is, tive Board (EB) of UNFCCC. If an approved meth-
however, limited to afforestation/reforestation (A/ odology (AR-AM) is applicable, the Designated
R) projects (Streck et 2009). Projects are
al., Operational Entities (DOE) may proceed with the
limited to these two activities because of initial validation of the A/R CDM project activity and sub-
concerns about the potential scale of the impact of mit the CDM-AR-PDD for registration.
additional activities on the previously established However, if none of the approved methodolo-
Kyoto targets (Schlamadinger 2007). Affor-
et al., gies are applicable to the project activity, the
estation and reforestation comprise human-induced project participants should submit a new method-
conversion of nonforest land uses to forest, through ology (AR-NM). Then, the proposed AR-NM will
planting, seeding, and or human-induced promo- be publicized on the UNFCCC CDM website by
tion of natural seed sources. Afforestation differs the secretariat, and public inputs will be invited for
from reforestation only in that afforestation takes a period of 15 working days. Next, project partici-
place on land that has not been forested for at pants need to prepare the A/R methodologies
least 50 years, while reforestation refers to land form for the new proposed baseline and monitor-
that did not contain forest before 1990 (Smith and ing methodology (CDM-AR-NM). Subsequently,
Scherr, 2003).
A/R CDM allows for carbon sequestration offsets
to meet emission reduction obligations for developed
countries through the purchase of ‘carbon credits’
(Certified Emissions Reduction Units (CERs)) from
afforestation or reforestation projects in developing
countries (Trabucco et al., 2008). CDM ‘sink’ projects
require that carbon be sequestered into semi-
permanent ‘sinks’, primarily by growing trees through
afforestation and reforestation (Zomer 2008).
et al.,

While much attention is being given internationally

to opportunities for carbon sequestration to miti-
gate climate change, little attention is being paid
to the environmental tradeoffs that are associated
with these types of schemes (Trabucco et al.,

2008).
The primary objectives of the current study are
(i) to enhance the development of new or approved
methodologies of A/R CDM project activities by
signifying some potentials land use changes, and
(ii) to examine the possible feasibility problems of
A/R CDM project activities, and (iii) to suggest
possible future directions in A/R CDM project
activities as of the 1st of October, 2009. Figure 1. CDM project cycle.
 Sarah Abdul Razak et al. 47

Figure 2. Potentials, problems, and future directions of A/R CDM project activities.

the DOE will independently evaluate the proposed areas, and mined lands.
A/R project activity through the validation pro-
cess. Lastly, a validated project activity will be reg- Pasture lands
istered if it is accepted formally by the EB. The Pasture lands, or pastoral lands, are lands with
verification, certification, and issuance of tCERs or low-growing vegetation cover used for grazing of
ICERs related to the A/R project activity is the livestock such as cattle and horses. Areas con-
next step after the registration of the A/R CDM verted to pastures are often unmanaged and are
project so that they can enter the carbon market subject to varying degrees of degradation. Only
for compliance with reduction targets. Figure 2 about 5% of tropical pastures are well managed
summarizes the potentials, problems, and future and, under such degraded conditions, soil organic
directions of A/R CDM project activities. matter levels can be much lower than those found
under native vegetation (Fearnside and Barbosa,
Methodologies 1998). However, González and Fisher (1994)
There are two types of methodologies in the evaluated the growth of 11 species of plants planted
context of A/R CDM: baseline methodologies and on pasture land, and found out that the species
monitoring methodologies. Both the baseline meth- studied had a high survival in spite of the degraded
odology and the monitoring methodology must be conditions of the site and prevalence of pasture
included in the project design document of A/R grasses. Pastures converted to plantation forests
CDM project activities. Currently, a total of 17 can result in an increase in the rate of carbon
methodologies have been approved by the EB. sequestration from the atmosphere, thus, reduc-
Out of these, 11 are for large-scale and 6 are for ing the net GHG from human activities. Afforesta-
small-scale A/R CDM project activities. Table 1 tion of degraded pastures can potentially enhance
lists all of the approved methodologies for A/R carbon sequestration through afforestation of
CDM project activities available as of 1st October degraded pastures with short-rotation eucalyptus
2009. (Lima et al.,2006).
Currently, the approved methodology for large
Potential land use change for A/R CDM project scale A/R CDM project activities, AR-AM0009,
activities and the approved methodology for small scale A/
There are many types of land use changes that R CDM project activities, AR-AMS0006, involves
have the potential to be A/R CDM project activi- the establishment of forest in a silvopastoral sys-
ties. Some examples of types of lands that are tem resulting in production of pasture rather than
suitable to be implemented for A/R CDM project restoration of pasture lands. Meanwhile, only one
activities are pasture lands, landfills, mountainous methodology, AR-AM0007, is applicable for A/R
48 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

Table 1. Lists of approved methodologies for A/R CDM project activities (as of 1st October 2009).
Reference Scope Title of the Methodology Ver. No.
LARGE SCALE*
AR-AM0001 14 Reforestation of degraded land 3
AR-AM0002 14 Restoration of degraded lands through afforestation/reforestation 2
AR-AM0004 14 Reforestation or afforestation of land currently under agricultural use 3
AR-AM0005 14 Afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented for industrial 3
and/or commercial uses
AR-AM0006 14 Afforestation/reforestation with trees supported by shrubs on degraded land 2
AR-AM0007 14 Afforestation and reforestation of land currently under agricultural 5
or pastoral use
AR-AM0008 14 Afforestation or reforestation on degraded land for sustainable wood 3
production
AR-AM0009 14 Afforestation or reforestation on degraded land allowing for silvopastoral 4
activities
AR-AM0010 14 Afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented on 3
unmanaged grassland in reserve/protected areas
AR-ACM0001 14 Afforestation and reforestation of degraded land 3
AR-ACM0002 14 Afforestation or reforestation of degraded land without displacement of 1
pre-project activities
SMALL SCALE**
Simplified baseline and monitoring methodologies for small-scale
AR-AMS0001 14 afforestation and reforestation project activities under the clean 5
development mechanism implemented on grasslands or croplands
Simplified baseline and monitoring methodologies for small-scale
AR-AMS0002 14 afforestation and reforestation project activities under the CDM 2
implemented on settlements
AR-AMS0003 14 Simplified baseline and monitoring methodology for small-scale CDM
afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented on wetlands 1
Simplified baseline and monitoring methodology for small-scale
AR-AMS0004 14 agroforestry-afforestation and reforestation project activities under 2
the clean development mechanism
Simplified baseline and monitoring methodology for small-scale
AR-AMS0005 14 afforestation and reforestation project activities under the clean
development mechanism implemented on lands having low inherent 2
potential to support living biomass
Simplified baseline and monitoring methodology for small-scale
AR-AMS0006 14 silvopastoral-afforestation and reforestation project activities under the 1
clean development mechanism
Notes: *Large scale methodology is for large scale A/R CDM project activity
**Small scale methodology is for small scale A/R CDM project activity
Source from http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/index.html

CDM project activities undertaken on agricultural short-rotation plantation can be established suc-
or pastoral lands. However, this approved meth- cessfully on sanitary landfills. 5 species of tree
odology is only applicable to large scale A/R CDM plantations on 6 sanitary landfills in Finland have
project activities. Thus, there is need for a new showed that most of the stands developed well, in
approved methodology that is specifically applica- a manner suitable for landscaping, and with a high
ble to small scale A/R CDM project activities involv- value of biomass production through leachate irri-
ing the restoration of forest plantations undertaken gation (Ettala, 1988). Construction of barriers, includ-
on pasture or pastoral lands. ing layers of clay, plastic, or placement of soil
deep below plant roots to prevent gas migration,
Landfills can also be advantageous in establishing cover
Landfills, which are also known as wastelands, crops over refuse landfills (Lisk, 1991). Problems
are the disposal site of waste materials by burial, that often affect plantations in landfill areas could
and are the oldest method of waste treatment. A be solved by correct placement and handling of
 Sarah Abdul Razak et al. 49

agricultural cap material, soil amelioration using retention capacity (Barnhisel et al., 2000).
tillage and addition of organic matter (such as However, mine lands show good potential for
sewage sludge), irrigation (possibly using landfill sequestering carbon despite their negative soil
leachate), the installation of drainage and the characteristics. Studies of surface mine revegetation
application of inorganic fertilizers, and selection of with trees began in the 1920s, and reports on
the appropriate species and clones (Nixon et al., planting and success began in the 1940s (Zeleznik
2001). Balooni and Singh (2007) have empha- and Skousen, 1996). The reclamation of mined
sized the need for more investments in afforesta- land could lead to carbon sequestration by restor-
tion of wastelands, but, there is no methodology of ing the soil and reestablishing plantations on the
A/R CDM project activities that is applicable to land. Most large-scale surface coal operators in
landfill area. Currently, approved methodologies, southern West Virginia have reclaimed their mined
such as AR-AMS0005, for small scale A/R CDM areas with grasses and legumes, and a smaller
project activities on lands having low inherent number of operations have established tree plantings
potential to support living biomass is applicable to or wildlife habitat plantings (Skousen et al., 2006).
sand dunes, bare lands, contaminated or mine Reclamation of mine land using an integrated bio-
spoils lands, or highly alkaline or saline soils, but technological approach is a potential option for
not to landfill areas. Thus, there is need for a new enhancing the process of restoration of vegetation
approved methodology that is specifically applica- and soil organic carbon (Juwarkar et al., 2009).
ble to landfill areas. The establishment and growth of 5 hardwood tree
species on a reclaimed West Virginia surface mine
Mountainous areas with compacted soils and a heavy grass groundcover
The uplands in mountainous areas are affected has showed that remedial ripping of compacted
by extensive slash-and-burn systems by farmers. mine soils improves survival and growth of most
Land degradation is a common phenomenon in species regardless of site type (Skousen et al.,

mountainous regions (Shresta and Zinck, 2001). 2009).

Land use changes in mountainous areas could Besides its high potential for sequestering GHG,
stop the degradation of the areas due to upland the reclamation of mined land with forest area
cultivation. Upland cultivation that is currently con- brings other advantages. Forests have a number
tinuing is characterized by decreasing yields and of advantages for postmining land use because it
deteriorating forest and soil quality, signs of land is long-term stable, resistant to invasion of less
degradation are already apparent in villages in desirable weedy species, eventual economic returns,
which this type of household is in the majority development wildlife habitat, and promotion of
(Castella et al., 2006). hydrologic balance in watersheds (Zeleznik and
The establishment of plantations for A/R CDM Skousen, 1996). Reclaimed land can sequester
project activities would be beneficial in solving the more carbon than agricultural land, and thus, the
degradation of the mountainous areas. Further- afforestation of degraded mine spoil can also be
more, there is no methodology of A/R CDM project initiated as a CDM activity under the Kyoto Proto-
activities that is applicable to mountainous areas col (Juwarkar et al.,2009).
or uplands. Thus, there is need for a new approved Currently, AR-AMS0005, the approved method-
methodology for large scale or small scale A/R ology for small scale A/R CDM project activities
CDM project activities that is specifically applica- on lands having a low inherent potential to support
ble to mountainous areas or uplands. living biomass is the only methodology approved
by the EB that is sufficiently applicable to activities
Reclamation of mined lands in the reclamation of mined areas. However, this
Mining is the extraction or removal of minerals methodology is also applicable to sand dunes,
and metals such as manganese, tantalum, cop- bare lands, or highly alkaline or saline soils. Due
per, tin, nickel, aluminum ore, iron ore, gold, silver, to the large area of mined lands in the world, and
and diamonds from the earth. Mining and the the importance of the reforestation of mined lands
associated subsequent processing could cause for reducing GHG, a new methodology is needed
land degradation. Degraded mine lands are often for large scale or small scale A/R CDM project
characterized by acidic pH, low level of key nutri- activities that are applicable specifically to the rec-
ents, poor soil structure, and limited moisture lamation of mined lands.
50 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

PROJECT DESIGN DOCUMENT plantations (Zomer et 2008). Licata

al., et al.

(2008) emphasize a need for caution when plan-

The project design document (PDD) describes ning afforestation projects on large scales. The
the A/R CDM project activity as well as a baseline fast-growing species of this type of plantation con-
and monitoring methodology for the project activ- sumes huge volumes of water, and threaten biological
ity. Project participants should prepare a com- diversity and local sustainable livelihoods. The most
pleted PDD and submit it for validation and common ecological issues with large scale indus-
registration toward developing the A/R CDM trial plantations include loss of biodiversity, soil
project activity. Currently, a total of 8 PDDs of A/R erosion and fertility, excessive water consumption,
CDM project activities have been accepted by the and the destruction of natural forests (Bull et al.,

EB and registered under the Kyoto Protocol. Table 2006).

2 lists all the registered PDDs (as of 1st October
2009) with information on each project’s host, Exotic species

date registered, methodology used, area of the Exotic species, also known as alien or non-
project, annual average of estimated GHG reduc- native species, are usually fast-growing, have
tions, duration and starting date of the crediting been introduced as a sustainable economic alter-
period, and total estimated net anthropogenic native to reduce the harvest of native forests.
GHG removal by sinks. However, the introduction of exotic species in A/R
CDM project activities could lead to a complex
Problems array of negative consequences. All plantations
Large-scale plantations that replace native forest may have negative con-
Large-scale monoculture plantations are typi- sequences on biodiversity (Lindenmayer and
cally composed of fast-growing eucalyptus and pine Hobbs, 2004). An example of a negative conse-
trees. Afforestation with fast-growing tree species quence of using exotic species is that it may
such as Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp. is an deplete water resources. The increase in evapo-
important economic activity in many tropical coun- transpiration due to conversion of native forests to
tries. Plantation areas, which are often large, sup- high-density ponderosa pine plantations could
ply wood for industry, energy, and farm purposes have a large impact on water resources. (Licata et

(Zinn et al., 2002). These types of plantations are al.,2008).

usually monocultures, use invasive and non-native Besides that, an exotic species will also affect
species as their plant, and involve intensive and the diversity and community composition of a for-
destructive practices. An industrial plantation is est. Studies conducted in other Australian ecosys-
also planted as a large scale plantation. Industrial tems have shown that exotic pine plantations
forest plantations are defined as those stands provide relatively poor quality habitat for many for-
established by planting and/or seeding in the pro- est-dependent animals, especially hollow-depen-
cess of afforestation or reforestation (Bull et al., dent, nectivorous, and frugivorous vertebrates,
2006). By the 1960s, the launching of large-scale and many types of invertebrates (Lindenmayer
plantation programs began in many tropical and and Hobbs, 2004). Pine plantations generally sup-
subtropical countries, and by 2000 there was a port more species than grazing land or pastures,
significant increase in the area of plantations for although they support substantially fewer bird spe-
industrial purposes, with global estimates of 4.5 cies than native forest (Luck and Korodaj, 2008).
million ha per year being reported (Cossalter and
Pye-Smith, 2003). Hydrology

The current rules of A/R CDM have not pre- Despite the numerous statements in the regis-
vented the planting of destructive large-scale tered PDDs about the ability of their project areas
monoculture plantations in project areas. Conse- to improve watershed management and reduce
quently, this type of plantation has been con- surface runoff and erosion, further information on
structed in some A/R CDM projects. A/R CDM the particulars of these situations is lacking. In
rules do not currently encourage, nor make it easy, fact, A/R CDMs project activities may pose many
to promote small-scale, small-holder, less inten- problems to the hydrology of an ecosystem. Land
sive approaches such as agroforestry practices, use changes resulting from the adoption of A/R
and it is more likely that much of A/R CDM CDM involve alterations of the hydrological cycle,
projects will be in the form of fast-growing timber both on flows of water and sediment, and levels of
Table 2. List of registered project design documents for A/R CDM project activities (as of 1st October 2009).
Annual average Starting date Total estimated
Project title Host registered Methodology Area (ha) ofreductions
Date estimated Duration of crediting
period of crediting net GHG
(tonnes) period (tonnes)
LARGE SCALE
Facilitating reforestation for Guangxi
Watershed Management in Pearl River Basin China 10-Nov-06 AR-AM0001 4,000 25, 795 30 years (Fixed) 1-Apr-06 773,842
Moldova soil conservation project Moldova 30-Jan-09 AR-AM0002 20,289.91 179, 242 20 years (Renewable) 1-Oct-02 3,584,846 Sa
Reforestation of severely degraded landmass in India ra
5-Jun-09 AR-AM0001 3,070.19 57, 792 30 years (Fixed) 2-Jul-01 1,733,753 h
Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh Ab
SMALL SCALE du
lR
Small scale cooperative afforestation CDM pilot az
project activity on private lands affected by shift- India 23-Mar-09 AR-AMS0001 369.87 11, 596 20 years (Renewable) 1-Jul-08 231,920 ak
ing sand dunes in Sirsa, Haryana e
Cao Phong reforestation project Viet Nam 28-Apr-09 AR-AMS0001 365 2, 665 16 years (Renewable) 1-May-09 42,645 t
a

Carbon sequestration through reforestation in Bolivia 11-Jun-09 AR-AMS0001 247 4, 341 21 years (Fixed) 12-Feb-08 91,165
l.

the Bolivian tropics by smallholders

Uganda Nile Basin reforestation project No. 3 Uganda 21-Aug-09 AR-AMS0001 341.9 5,564 20 years (Renewable) 1-Apr-07 111,798
Reforestation of croplands and grasslands in
low income communities of Paraguarí department, Paraguay 6-Sep-09 AR-AMS0001 215.2 1,523 20 years (Fixed) 25-Jul-07 30, 468
Paraguay
Note: Source from http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/projsearch.html

51
52 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

actual evapotranspiration (AET) or vapor flows Another factor that may contravene the positive
(Trabucco 2008).
et al., effects of an A/R CDM hydrology project is the
Activities during the planting of forest could also choice of species for plantations. Ilstedt et al.

affect the hydrology of a reforested area. Nitrate (2007) found an increase in infiltrability after tropi-
increases have been attributed to biological miner- cal afforestation and tree planting for agroforestry,
alization of organic matter, combined with reduced but the level of knowledge currently available
nutrient uptake due to the killing of root systems about rates of infiltration under different edaphic
as a consequence of tree harvesting, and is asso- conditions and the effects of species and tech-
ciated with other losses, including those of organic niques is severely lacking. Furthermore, Dierick
nitrogen, ammonium, and potassium (Cummins and Holscher (2009) have added to this point by
and Farrell, 2003). Different degrees of human dis- suggesting that water use and transpiration rates
turbance, including improper mechanical cultivation found in 10 co-occurring tropical angiosperm tree
and land shaping, have brought about differences species showed considerable variation across
in vegetation structure and soil properties, which species; thus, species selection may indeed be an
have a further impact on soil and water loss effective tool to control water use of reforested
(Zheng 2008).
et al., stands and optimize the balance between wood
The size of the catchment areas contributes production or carbon sequestration and the use of
greatly to their vulnerability during reforestation. It water resources applying to little-structured refor-
is predicted that reforestation can only benefit to estation stands.
small catchment areas rather than large ones. Currently, PDDs only assess the positive aspects
Paired-watershed research has traditionally focused of A/R CDM project activities towards the hydrol-
on very small basins and studied sudden changes; ogy of the project areas, for instance, in reducing
thus, we believe that the time has come to study recurrent flooding or sediment transfer, but not on
larger watersheds, which undergo more diffuse the negative aspects of A/R CDM project activi-
and gradual changes, because the results of such ties. Thus, further research on a large number of
will be directly usable by water resource manag- observed watershed areas is needed in order to
ers (Andréassian, 2004). Future plantation expan- assess the successful of A/R CDM project activi-
sion would not be expected to importantly influence ties in mitigating greenhouse gas reduction.
the flow regime in large catchments, but can have
local impacts in affected catchments smaller than FUTURE DIRECTIONS
2000 km2 in particular, by increasing the fre-
quency of low flow conditions, and even more so if Mixed-species plantation

most of the area is already under forest (Van Dijk The problems created by large-scale plantations
et al., 2007). Impacts of A/R CDM on the hydro- may be solved by using mixed-species planta-
logical cycle are not evident on a regional or glo- tions. One of the benefits of using mixed-species
bal scale under the current rules, because the plantations are the reduced incidence of disease
land area that is potentially affected is not signifi- and insect attack (Nichols 2006). This could
et al.,

cant (Trabucco 2008).

et al., be due to the fact that species mixtures have a
Reforestation is well-known to significantly reduce varied genetic composition as compared to the
the amount of surface runoff, but the amount of uniform genetic composition of monoculture plan-
salt entering the reservoir that results in an tations. The potential risk of monocultures is that
increase in the salinity of a reservoir is still poorly because of the uniform genetic composition, the
studied. Reforestation can still help to reduce invasion of a pest would affect all or most of the
stream salt exports from smaller catchments, but trees (Kelty, 2006).
reductions in average stream salinity and high Furthermore, mixed-species plantations have an
salinity events may well be difficult to achieve (Van excellent ability to restore degraded land, and
Dijk et al., 2007). Many of the current registered could be used in A/R CDM project activities. Eco-
A/R CDM project activities only mentioned the logical restoration of degraded land requires a
benefits of their project area in reducing the sur- moderate to very large number of planted species
face runoff or stream flow but not their drawbacks in order to firmly reestablish part of the native
regarding water or stream salinity. Thus, A/R CDM diversity of tree vegetation, and to foster the
project activities may not be an appropriate strat- establishment of additional native plant species in
egy to alleviate salinity problems. the plantation understory (Kelty, 2006). Mixed-
 Sarah Abdul Razak et al. 53

species plantations also have the potential to benefits in terms of ecosystem services such as
sequester more carbon than monocultures (For- watershed protection, biodiversity conservation,
rester et al., 2006), so the plantation of mixed spe- and resilience to a variety of environmental stresses
cies in a degraded land could also contribute to (McNamara et al., 2006).
GHG reduction.
Bristow et al. (2006) showed that by growing E. Soil organic carbon pools

pellita and A. peregrina in mixed-species stands, Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a sink for the
significantly larger individual trees, and presum- anthropogenic atmospheric excess of GHG, and
ably higher value stems, of both species can be in regards to global warming it is very important
grown. The high total productivity in a plantation of for every region to estimate their current SOC. It is
mixed species increases the supply of nutrients. vitally important that any SOC stock estimates are
Furthermore, stratification of species mixtures as accurate as possible in order to correctly quan-
could contribute to more-efficient use of available tify the emission reductions required (Bell and
soil moisture. Species mixtures, due to their Worrall, 2009).
higher productivity and more efficient use of avail- However, most of the registered A/R CDM
able water and nutrient resources, could provide project activities have only dealt with aboveground
an alternative to monocultures for growing Euca- biomass, which represent about 90% of the total
lyptus wood (Forrester et al., 2009). tree biomass, whereas belowground biomass rep-
Although there are many forest plantations that resent between 2% and 10% of the total tree bio-
are established as monocultures, research has mass. Out of the 8 PDDs of A/R CDM project
shown species mixtures to have many potential activities that have been registered, only one
advantages. Thus, it is suggested that every project, the Moldova Soil Conservation Project,
project should have a mixed-species plantation in included the SOC as one of the carbon pools
its A/R CDM project activities toward better mitiga- measured. Thus, since the soil carbon pool has a
tion of the GHG emission. huge role in mitigating GHG emissions, it is rec-
ommended that more projects account for it.
Native species The size of the organic carbon pool in the soil is
The complex problems created by exotic spe- largely affected by soil conditions. The SOC stock
cies may be solved by using native species instead. of a soil can be affected by specific tillage prac-
Carpenter et al. (2004) studied the potential of 2 tices, which can expose the soil organic matter to
exotic and 5 native tree species in reestablishing the oxidation processes that result in SOC
trees in tropical overgrazed pastures, and found removal as carbon dioxide, to more rapid decom-
that native species are the outstanding performer position of crop residues into carbon dioxide, and
in terms of growth and survival, and that a system to disruption of aggregates that exposes SOC to
of crop rotation may also be sustainable. The fast microbial and enzyme activity (Olson et al., 2005).
growing native species appeared to be well Quantifying the potential of cropland soils to
adapted to the low input forestry practiced by restore the prior SOC will help to evaluate the
farmers in the lowland humid tropics and were contribution of cropland soils as a carbon source
characterized by high survival and good adaptabil- or sink to the global carbon balance (Liang et al.,
ity to the low-intensity site preparation and mainte- 2009). Erosion has a great impact on SOC, and
nance characteristic of the region (Haggar et al., affects the proper accounting of the carbon flux
1998). that indirectly influences management of climate
Native tree plantations have become an exten- change. Thus, in order to effectively reduce car-
sively used land use management option in Costa bon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere, SOCs
Rica during the last 20 years, as a restorative tool should be efficiently maintained. Crop type, crop
for degraded lands and also because of their rotation, tillage type, fertilizer used, and organic
potential use as providers of ecosystem services amendments all influence the amount and distri-
(FAO, 2006). The benefits of selecting excellent bution of the organic matter within the soil (Bell
native species to control soil erosion should not and Worrall, 2009).
be overlooked (Zheng et al., 2008). Increasing The SOC pool is quite large, and a change in
attention is being placed on increasingly complex the SOC pool size will have a great impact on the
rehabilitation designs involving mixtures of native carbon budget. Thus, it is suggested that all
species, which are expected to deliver greater projects should measure the change of soil car-
54 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

bon pools of the project area in their A/R CDM mandatory process to assess environmental impacts
project activities. The measuring and monitoring of sinks projects is also seriously needed. Further-
of the changes in SOC pools together with above- more, the afforestation and reforestation project
ground biomass and belowground biomass could activities that have the maximum potential to deliver
be a significant asset in carbon sequestration environmental services and contribute to the
toward mitigating global warming. Since only few restoration of ecological connectivity and ecological
works providing information on the subject exist corridors should be promoted and given full attention.
as yet, more studies on SOC pools are needed for Destructive land use and forest management
better mitigation of GHG emissions. practices that occur as a result of A/R CDM
implementation should be strongly opposed. Lastly,
CONCLUSION the development of suitable policies assisted by
worldwide scientific studies should be supported
This study identified some specific types of land toward better understanding of the potential of A/R
that have a positive potential in land use changes CDM project activities for climate change mitigation.
to enhance the development of new or approved
methodologies of A/R CDM project activities. Those ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
lands are pasture lands, landfills, mountainous
areas, and mined lands. The suggested land uses This study was carried out with the support of
have potential benefits for future land use in A/R the ‘Forest Science & Technology projects (Project
CDM project activities such as good potential in No. S210909L010130)’ grant provided by the Korea
sequestering carbon and success in the establish- Forest Service. The author is grateful to anony-
ment of plantations. However, approved method- mous colleagues for their direct or indirect involve-
ologies of A/R CDM project activities that are ment in this study.
specifically applicable to these suggested land
uses are very scarce. Contributing to this is the LITERATURE CITED
fact that deforestation, soil carbon management,
and revegetation are not included in the A/R CDM
project activities. Andréassian, V. 2004. Waters and forests: from his-
Problems analyzed in this study include those of torical controversy to scientific debate. Journal
large scale monoculture plantations, the planting of Hydrology 291: 1-27.
Balooni, K. and Singh, K. 2007. Prospects and prob-
of exotic species, and impacts on hydrology. Destruc- lems of afforestation of wastelands in India: A
tive large scale monoculture plantations consume synthesis of macro- and micro-perspectives.
huge volumes of water, change the native planta- Geoforum 38: 1276-1289.
tion, threaten biological diversity and local sustain- Barnhisel, R. I., Darmody, R.G.. and Daniels, W.L.
able livelihoods, and require intensive nutrient 2000. Reclamation of drastically disturbed lands.
management. The current A/R CDM rules have Agronomy monograph pp.1082.
the serious fault of not excluding just such use of Bell, M.J. and Worrall, F. 2009. Estimating a region's
large scale monoculture plantations. Procedures soil organic carbon baseline: The undervalued
such as an environmental and social assessment role of land-management. Geoderma 152: 74-
process must be established to ensure sufficient 84.
environmental impact assessments so as to Bristow, M., Vanclay, J.K., Brooks, L. and Hunt, M.
successfully screen out large-scale plantations. 2006. Growth and species interactions of Euca-
The current A/R CDM rules also fail to clearly lyptus pellitain a mixed and monoculture planta-
exclude the plantation of exotic species, which tion in the humid tropics of north Queensland.
threaten ecosystems, habitats, and other native Forest Ecology and Management 233: 285-294.
species by their introduction. Bull, G.Q., Bazett, M., Schwab, O., Nilsson, S., White,
The future directions of A/R CDM project activi- A. and Maginnis, S. 2006. Industrial forest plan-
ties suggested include implementing mixed-spe- tation subsidies: Impacts and implications. For-
cies in a plantation, using native species during est Policy and Economics 9: 13-31.
reforestation activities, and counting the SOC into Carpenter, F.L, Nichols, J.D. and Sandi, E. 2004.
the carbon pools measured for carbon sequestra- Early growth of native and exotic trees planted
tion. The A/R CDM rules should at least prevent on degraded tropical pasture. Forest Ecology
subsidies to environmentally damaging projects. A and Management 196: 367-378.
 Sarah Abdul Razak et al. 55

Castella, J.C., Boissau, S., Thanh, N.H. and Novosad, Jindal, R., Swallow, B. and Kerr, J. 2008. Forestry-
P. 2006. Impact of forestland allocation on land based carbon sequestration projects in Africa:
use in a mountainous province of Vietnam. Land Potential benefits and challenges. Natural
Use Policy 23: 147-160. Resources Forum 32: 116-130.
Cossalter, C. and Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast-Wood Juwarkar, A.A., Mehrotraa, K.L., Nair, R., Wanjari, T.,
Forestry-Myths and Realities. Center for Interna- Singh, S.K. and Chakrabarti, T. 2009. Environ-
tional Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia. mental Monitoring and Assesment DOI 10.1007/
Cummins, T. and Farrell, E.P. 2003. Biogeochemi- s10661-008-0710-y.
cal impacts of clearfelling and reforestation on Kelty, M.J. 2006. The role of species mixtures in
blanket-peatland streams II. major ions and dis- plantation forestry. Forest Ecology and Manage-
solved organic carbon. Forest Ecology and ment 233: 195-204.
Management 180: 557-570. Liang, A., Yang, X., Zhang, X., McLaughlin, N., Shen,
Dierick, D. and Holscher, D. 2009. Species-specific tree Y. and Li, W. 2009. Soil organic carbon changes
water use characteristics in reforestation stands in particle-size fractions following cultivation of
in the Philippines. Agricultural and Forest Mete- Black soils in China. Soil and Tillage Research
orology 149: 1317-1326. 105: 21-26.
Ettala, M.O. 1988. Short-rotation tree plantations at Licata, J.A., Gyenge, J.E., Fernández, M.E., Schlich-
sanitary landfills. Waste Management and ter, T.M. and Bond, B.J. 2008. Increased water
Research 6: 291-302. use by ponderosa pine plantations in northwest-
FAO, 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment ern Patagonia, Argentina compared with native
2005. Progress Towards sustainable forest man- forest vegetation. Forest Ecology and Manage-
agement. FAO For. Paper 147, 320 pp. In: Jime- ment 255: 753-764.
nez, J.J., R. Lal., H.A. Leblanc and R.O. Russo. Lima, A.M.N., Silva, I.R., Neves, J.C.L., Novais, R.F.,
2007. Soil organic carbon pool under native tree Barros, N.F., Mendonc, E.S., Smyth, T.J., Mor-
plantations in the Caribbean lowlands of Costa eira, M.S. and Leite, F.P. 2006. Soil organic car-
Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 241: bon dynamics following afforestation of degraded
134-144. pastures with Eucalyptus in southeastern Brazil.
Fearnside, P.M. and Barbosa, R.I. 1998. Soil car- Forest Ecology and Management 235: 219-231.
bon changes from conversion of forest to pas- Lindenmayer, D.B. and Hobbs, R.J. 2004. Fauna
ture in Brazilian Amazonia. Forest Ecolology conservation in Australian plantation forests-a
and Management 108: 147-166. review. Biology Conservation 119: 151-168.
Forrester, D.I., Theiveyanathan, S., Collopy, J.J. and Lisk, D.J. 1991. Environmental effects of landfills.
Marcar, N.E. 2009. Enhanced water use effi- Science of the Total Environment 100: 415-468.
ciency in a mixed Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia Luck, G.W. and Korodaj, T.N. 2008. Stand and land-
mearnsii plantation. Forest Ecology Management scape-level factors related to bird assemblages
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.07.036. in exotic pine plantations: Implications for forest
Forrester, D.I., Bauhus, J. and Cowie, A.L. 2006. management. Forest Ecology and Management
Carbon allocation in a mixed-species plantation 255: 2688–2697.
of Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia mearnsii . Lutzeyer, S. 2008. Climate trading The Clean Devel-
Forest Ecology and Management 233: 275-284. opment Mechanism and Africa. Stellenbosch
González J.E. and Fisher, R.F. 1994. Growth of native Economic Working Papers.
forest species planted on abandoned pasture McNamara, S., Tinh, D.V., Erskine, P.D., Lamb, D.,
land in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Man- Yates, D. and Brown, S. 2006. Rehabilitating
agement 70: 159-167. degraded forest land in central Vietnam with
Haggar, J.P., Briscoe, C.B. and Butterfield, R.P. mixed native species plantings. Forest Ecology
1998. Native species: a resource for the diversi- and Management 233: 358-365.
fication of forestry production in the lowland Nabuurs, G.J., Thurig, E., Heidema, N., Armolaitis,
humid tropics. Forest Ecology and Manage- K., Biber, P., Cienciala, E., Kaufmann, E., Maki-
ment 106: 195-203. paa, R., Nilsen, P., Petritsch, R, Pristova, T.,
Ilstedt, U., Malmer, A., Verbeeten, E. and Murdiyarso, Rock, J., Schelhaas, M.J., Sievanen, R., Somo-
D. 2007. The effect of afforestation on water infil- gyi, Z. and Vallet, P. 2008. Hotspots of the Euro-
tration in the tropics: A systematic review and pean forests carbon cycle. Forest Ecology and
meta-analysis. Forest Ecology and Manage- Management 256: 194-200.
ment 251: 45-51. Nichols, J.D., Bristow, M. and Vanclay, J.K. 2006.
56 Forest Science and Technology Vol. 5, No. 2 (2009)

Mixed-species plantations: Prospects and chal- Smith, J. and Scherr, S.J. 2003. Capturing the value
lenges. Forest Ecology and Management 233: of forest carbon for local livelihoods. World
383-390. Development 31: 2143-2160.
Nixon, D.J, Stephens, W., Tyrrel, S.F. and Brierley, Streck, C., Tuerk, A. and Schlamadinger, B. 2009.
E.D.R. 2001. The potential for short rotation Foresty offsets in emissions trading systems: a
energy forestry on restored landfill caps. Biore- link between systems? Mitigation Adaptation
source Technology 77: 237-245. Strategic Global Change 14: 455-463.
Nussbaumer, P. 2009. On the contribution of labelled Trabucco, A., Zomer, R.J., Bossio, D.A., Straaten,
Certified Emission Reductions to sustainable O.V. and Verchot, L.V. 2008. Climate change
development: A multi-criteria evaluation of CDM mitigation through afforestation/reforestation: A
projects. Energy Policy 37: 91-101. global analysis of hydrologic impacts with four case
Olson, K.R., Lang, J.M., and Ebelhar, S.A. 2005. studies. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
Soil organic carbon changes after 12 years of 126: 81-97.
no-tillage and tillage of Grantsburg soils in Van Dijk, A.I.J.M., Hairsine, P.B., Arancibia, J.P. and
southern Illinois. Soil and Tillage Research 81: Dowling, T.I. 2007. Reforestation, water avail-
217-225. ability and stream salinity: A multi-scale analy-
Schlamadinger, B., Johns, T., Ciccarese, L., Braun, sis in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Forest
M., Sato, A., Senyaz, A., Stephens, P., Takahashi, Ecology and Management 251: 94-109.
M. and Zhang, X. 2007. Options for including land Zeleznik, J.D. and Skousen, J.G.. 1996. Survival of
use in a climate agreement post-2012: improving three tree species on old reclaimed surface
the Kyoto Protocol approach. Environmental mines in Ohio. Journal of Environmental Quality
Science and Policy 10: 295-305. 25: 1429-1435.
Shresta, D.P. and Zinck, J.A. 2001. Land use classi- Zheng, H., Chen, F., Ouyang, Z., Tu, N., Xu, W.,
fication in mountainous areas: integration of Wang, X., Miao, H., Li, X. and Tian, Y. 2008.
image processing, digital elevation data and field Impacts of reforestation approaches on runoff
knowledge (application to Nepal). International control in the hilly red soil region of Southern
Journal of Applied Eath Observ̇ation and Geoin- China. Journal of Hydrology 356: 174-184.
formation 3: 78-85. Zinn, Y.L., Resck, D.V.S. and da Silva, J.E. 2002.
Skousen, J., Gorman, J., Pena-Yewtukhiw, E., King, J., Soil organic carbon as affected by afforestation
Stewart, J., Emerson, P. and DeLong, C. 2009. with Eucalyptus and Pinusin the Cerrado region
Hardwood tree survival in heavy ground cover of Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 166:
on reclaimed land in West Virginia: Mowing and 285-294.
ripping effects. Journal of Environmental Quality Zomer, R.J, Trabucco, A, Bossio, D.A. and Verchot,
38: 1400-1409. L.V. 2008. Climate change mitigation: A spatial
Skousen, J., Ziemkiewicz, P. and Venable, C. 2006. analysis of global land suitability for clean develo-
Tree recruitment and growth on 20-year-old, pment mechanism afforestation and reforestation.
unreclaimed surface mined lands in West Vir- Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 126:
ginia. International Journal of Mining, Reclama- 67-80.
tion and Environment 20: 142-154.