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Springer Natural Hazards
Geological and
Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth
Springer Natural Hazards
The Springer Natural Hazards series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific books,
aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in Natural Hazard research. The series
includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings.
It covers all categories of hazards such as atmospheric/climatological/oceanographic hazards,
storms, tsunamis, floods, avalanches, landslides, erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, and
welcomes book proposals on topics like risk assessment, risk management, and mitigation
of hazards, and related subjects.
Geological
and Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth
123
Editors
Arun Kumar Shandilya Vinod Kumar Singh
Department of Applied Geology Department of Geology
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya Bundelkhand University
Saugor, India Jhansi, India
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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Dedication
v
vi Dedication
contributions as a leading researcher in the field of structural and tectonic geology. To promote
his academic and research career, Prof. Saklani visited the University of Tokyo, Japan, in 1984
and Germany (1989–1990) as a visiting fellow. Professor Saklani supervised one German
student for dissertation work on Himalayan geology.
He has a distinguished record of service in the academic and administrative fields. During
his long academic career at University of Delhi, he served as the Head of Department (1982
and 1984–1987), Dean of Science and chairman of Research and Development Committee
(1985–1987), Chairman Publication Advisory Committee, University of Delhi (1986–1988).
He has served in many other prestigious positions, such as the Chairman of the Commission
for Scientific and Technical Terminology (CSTT), Government of India (1994–1998). Pro-
fessor Saklani was elected as the President of Earth System Science of the 85th Session of
Indian Science Congress in 1997–1998. In 1999, he was appointed as a Vice-Chancellor of
Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna (HNB) Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand,
where he served until 2001. Professor Saklani had a passion for teaching and living amidst his
students and has supervised several students working for their M.Sc. thesis. He has the
recognition of mentoring 11 Ph.D. scholars and 11 M.Phil students, who are also well placed
in different positions in academia as well as the administrative realm.
He was the recipient of several awards, viz. Consulting Editor of American Biographical
Institute, Raleigh, U.S.A.; 21st Century Award: U.P. Ratna Award 1999, All India Intellec-
tuals, New Delhi; Special Achievement Award-2001 (Education), JANYOG, New Delhi,
India; Honorary Colonel Commandant of National Cadet Core (2000), Govt. of India, New
Delhi; etc. He was the Founder Secretary-General of the Geoscience Foundation, India,
Member of Geological Society of India and Member of Indian Council of World Affairs. He
continued to render his academic services as Professor Emeritus in the Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose National Institute of Technology (NIT) for 3 years (2007–2009) after his
superannuation.
He has been superannuated as Professor at the Department of Geology, University of Delhi,
in August 2006. Professor Saklani authored many books, viz. Tectonic Geology, Tectonics of
Garhwal Himalaya, Geology of Lower Himalaya (Garhwal), Structure and Tectonics of
Himalaya, Metamorphism and Tectonics of Himalaya, Glossary of Structural Geology &
Tectonics and edited many books on Geological aspects of Himalaya (volumes 1–5). His
books are very popular among the students of geology in India and abroad. Professor Saklani
published more than 56 research papers of national and international repute on the Himalayan
tectonics. Professor Saklani served as an expert in many selection committees of DST, UGC,
CSIR, UPSC and various universities in India and in Project Assessment Committees.
The unfortunate demise of Prof. Saklani has created a gap among the geo-fraternity, and the
academia has lost a dedicated teacher in Earth Science and society a popular science writer and
educator. His contributions to the Geological and Tectonic aspects of Himalayan and other
themes will forever be remembered. He has left behind his legacy through a number of his
students serving at different academic and research institutes. These students are doing
significant research on tectonics and other aspects of the Himalayas and Indian peninsula.
Professor Saklani was very much supported by his inspiring wife Mrs. Sushila Saklani and son
Mukul and daughters Rajani (deceased) and Anjuli. His irreparable loss will be felt by all his
students and admirers globally.
Research Contributions: The significant research contributions of Prof. Saklani are listed
below:
Dedication vii
Authored Books
1. 2011 Recent Geology of the Himalaya Selective Scientific Books Pandav Nagar, Delhi,
293 p.
2. 2008 Glossary of Structural Geology and Tectonics, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
191p.
3. 2006 Tectonic Geology, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 161 p.
4. 2004 Geology: an Introduction, Selective & Scientific Books, New Delhi, 93 p.
5. 1993 Geology of the Lower Himalaya (Garhwal), 254 p., International Books and Peri-
odicals, New Delhi.
6. 1991 Elementary Geology, 82 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi.
Edited Books
7. 2008 Himalaya (Geological Aspects). Vol. 5, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 320p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
8. 2006 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 4, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 355 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
9. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 3, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 341 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
10. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 2, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 660 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
11. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 1, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 503 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
12. 2002 Geoindicators and related environmental studies, 248 p. Pilgrims Publishing,
Varanasi-Kathamandu (jointly with C. S. Dubey).
13. 1991 Tectonic and Metamorphic investigations of Kumaun—Garhwal-Himachal—Lesser
—Himalaya, 216 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. (with an
introduction by P. S. Saklani).
14. 1990 Metamorphism Ophiolites and Orogenic Belts. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
15. 1989 Himalayan Mountain Building, 198 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Pub-
lishers, New Delhi. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
16. 1988 Geological Society of India (Special issue), Seminar on Himalayan Crystallines,
Metamorphics and Structures, Geol. Soc. Ind., Vol. 31, No. 2, Bangalore, 185–251. (with
an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
17. 1986 Himalayan Thrusts and Associated Rocks, 290 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printer
and Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
18. 1983 Himalayan Shears, p. 113. Himalayan Books, New Delhi.
19. 1982 Himalaya: Landforms, and Processes, 116 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
20. 1981 Metamorphic Tectonites of the Himalaya, 370 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers
and Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
21. 1980 Shortening Structures in Eastern and North-Western Himalayan Rocks 62 p. Today
and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, Delhi (Authored by W. Schwan; with an
introduction by P. S. Saklani).
viii Dedication
22. 1979 Structural Geology of the Himalaya, 394 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
23. 1978 Tectonic Geology of the Himalaya, 340 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
24. 2008 Saklani, P. S.* Vertical Folds and Mesoscopic Fabrics, Srinagar Area, Garhwal
Himalaya. In: Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. V, Satish Serial Publishing House,
Delhi.
25. 2008 Bhatt, S. C. Saklani, P. S., Tectonic significance of Shear Indicators and Petrofabrics
of Quartz Mylonites, Garhwal Himalaya, “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), V. 5, edited by
P. S. Saklani, pp. 159–181.
26. 2006 Saklani, P. S.* Geology and Structure of Srinagar Garhwal-Himalaya In: “Himalaya
(Geological Aspects), Vol. IV, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi 153–159.
27. 2006 Saklani, P. S., Geology of Garhwal Himalaya: Retrospect and Prospect. In:
“Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. IV, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
129–152.
28. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of Central Crystallines Nappes, Garhwal Himalaya In:
“Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. II, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 265–280.
29. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Summary of Himalayan and Alpine structure In: “Himalaya (Geo-
logical Aspects), Vol. I, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 117–131.
30. 2005 Saklani, P. S., and Bahuguna V. K., Metamorphics of the Bhagirathi Valley,
Garhwal Himalaya In: “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. II, Satish Serial Publishing
House, Delhi, 207–218.
31. 2005 Saklani, P. S.* Metamorphic and Deformation History of the Central Crystallines
of the Upper Alaknanda Valley, Garhwal Himalaya and its bearing on inverted meta-
morphism In : “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House,
Delhi, 237–255.
32. 2005 Saklani, P. S.* Geology and Morphotectonic Studies using satellite images of a part
of Tehri-Uttarkashi district, Lesser Garhwal Himalaya. In: “Himalaya (Geological
Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 153–171.
33. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Tectonic Geology of the Main Central Thrust, Garhwal, Uttaranchal
In: “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
179–189.
34. 1998 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P., Saklani, P. S., and Dubey, C. S., Mesostructure and
deformational history of the Central Crystallines: an example from Garhwal Himalaya,
India. J. Nepal Geol. Soc., V. 17: pp. 59–69.
35. 1998 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K., and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism and Thrust Tectonics
in the Munsiari Group of Central Crystallines Zone of Garhwal Himalaya, India, J. Nepal
Geol. Soc., V. 18: pp. 85–95.
36. 1998 Saklani, P. S., Geology of the Garhwal Himalaya: Retrospect and Prospect, Presi-
dential Address, Earth System Sciences, Ind. Sci. Cong., Calcutta, 32p.
37. 1997 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K., and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic evolution of the Central
Crystallines of the Higher Himalaya along Dhauli Ganga Valley, Garhwal Himalaya.
N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Abh., V. 206: pp. 249–275.
38. 1997 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in the Central Crys-
tallines of Higher Himalaya in Kedarnath valley, Garhwal Himalaya, Him. Geol. V. 18:
119–133.
Dedication ix
39. 1996 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic and geodynamic evo-
lution of the Central Crystallines of the Garhwal Himalaya, India, N. Jb. Geol. Palaeont.
Abh., 199(1), 89–109.
40. 1996 Singh, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic and Tectonic history of the Budhakedar
area, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, G. S. I. Sp. Publ. No. 21 (1): pp. 199–203.
41. 1994 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P. and Saklani, P. S., Kyanite-Sillimanite-Andalusite-bearing
schist from Central Crystallines of Budhakedar area Garhwal Himalaya. Bull. Ind. Geo.
Assoc. Chandigarh, V. 27: pp. 143–153.
42. 1994 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Strain Transition and Microstructural Fabric analysis
of Quartz-Mylonites exposed within Pratapnagar Nappe, Garhwal Himalaya, India.
J. Geol. Soc. India 43(4): pp. 381–394.
43. 1993 Saklani, P. S., Geological formation and structure of the Central Himalaya Mountain
system—A study in Nature’s Equilibrium, The Central Himalaya Panorama, Inst. Soc.
Res. & App. Anthro., Calcutta, 70–80.
44. 1992 Saklani, P. S.,* Strain estimation in the deformed Hafla (Jutogh) quartzite of Jutogh
thrust sheet, Garhwal Himalaya, Jour. Him. Geol., 3(2): 149–154.
45. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Nainwal, D. C. and Singh, V. K., Geometry of the composite Main
Central Thrust (MCT) in Yamuna Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, India, N. Jb. Geol. Palaeont.
Abh., V. 1991: 364–380.
46. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Mesoscopic structures along the Bhatwari-Tehri-Narendranagar tra-
verse (Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, India)—and their chronologic and kinematic integration in
the deformation plan of the Himalaya, Z. dt. Geol. Ges., 142: 97–113.
47. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Bhatt, S. C., Singh, V.K. and Satendra, Deformation and kinematic
analysis of folds along Krol Thrust of Garhwal Himalaya. Jour. Scientific Research B.
H. U., Platinum Jubilee Year, 41B: 141–150.
48. 1990 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Kinematic framework of heterogenous deformation
within Pratapnagar thrust sheet, Bhagirathi Valley, in Lesser Garhwal Himalaya, U.P.,
Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v. 36(3), pp. 247–261.
49. 1989 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Geothermometry of Central Crystallines of the
Bhagirathi Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, Metamorphism, Ophiolites and Orogenic Belts, In :
Saklani, P. S. (Ed), 1–16, Today and tomorrow’s Publishers, N. Delhi.
50. 1989 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Analysis of Folds in Dharkot Thrust Sheet. In:
Saklani, P. S. (editor), Himalayan Mountain Building, Today and Tomorrow’s publishers,
New Delhi, pp. 63–90.
51. 1988 Bahuguna, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of the Main Central Thrust in
Garhwal Himalaya. J. Geol. Soc. Ind., v. 31, 197–209.
52. 1986 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Thrust tectonics of Garhwal Himalaya. In:
Saklani P. S. (Ed), Himalayan Thrusts and Associated Rocks, 1–25, Today and tomor-
row’s Publishers, New Delhi.
53. 1983 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Main Central Thrust Zone and associated
imbricate structures in Chhatera area, Garhwal Himalaya, In: Saklani, P. S.
(Ed) Himalayan Shears, Himalaya books, N. Delhi, 1–9.
54. 1981 Saklani, P. S. and Doval, S. C. Ghuttu Garhwal Himalaya: Geologic and Meta-
morphic Characteristics, Metamorphic Tectonites of the Himalaya In: Saklani, P. S. (Ed.),
15–26, Today and Tomorrows Publishers, New Delhi.
55. 1979 Saklani, P. S., Folded rocks of Northern Tehri Garhwal, In: Saklani. P. S. (Ed.),
Structural Geology of the Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi, 101–112.
56. 1979 Saklani, P. S., An outline of the Geology of the Lesser Himalaya of Garhwal with
special reference to its Ecology and Development JOSHARD, Garhwal University,
178–45.
57. 1979 Saklani, P. S., A note on the study of Minor Structures in rocks of Srinagar area,
Garhwal Himalaya, U.P., 10th Seminar on Himalayan Geology, W. I. H. G., 178–190.
x Dedication
58. 1978 Singh, S and Saklani, P. S., Some geomorphologic observations in the Ghansyali
area, Garhwal Himalaya Him. Geol. 8, 813–821.
59. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Uttarakhand—its development and economic geology, Himalaya:
Man and Nature, Delhi, 1(10): 10–17.
60. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic events in relation to Deformation in the Bhilangna and
Balganga Valleys, Ghansyali Area. Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, 9th Seminar on
Himalayan Geology, 9(1): 199–210.
61. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Geology and Natural Wealth of Garhwal Himalaya, Himalaya: Man
and Nature, Delhi, (5 & 6): 26–30.
62. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Deformation and Tectonism of Mukhem Area, Lesser Himalaya, In:
Saklani, P. S. (Ed.), Tectonic Geology of the Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers
and Publishers, New Delhi, 15–42.
63. 1977 Saklani, P. S., Khanduri, H. C. and Singh, S., A reappraisal of the geology of a part
of Mussoorie Syncline around Satengal, Garhwal Himalaya. Chayanika Geologica 3,
95–103
64. 1976 Saklani, P. S., Some remarks on the Geology of the Himalaya and adjoining
mountains chains of Iran, Pakistan and USSR, International Himalayan Geology Seminar,
New Delhi, Structure, Tectonics, Seismicity and Evolution, Geol., Surv., Ind. Misc. Publ.,
41: 165–174.
65. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Outline of the Structure of Himalaya and Alps: a comparison, Acta
Universitatis Carolinae, Czechoslovakia, Prague, 3: 221–236.
66. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic Petrology of the Area, South of Mukhem Garhwal
Himalaya, Recent Researches in Geology, Hind. Publ. Corp. India, Delhi, 82–106.
67. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Deformation of Quartz and Mica in tectonites of Tehri Garhwal
Himalaya, 5th Himalayan Geology Seminar, Panjab University, 1969, Pub. Cent. Adv.
Stud. Geol., Panjab University, Chandigarh, 10: 34–44.
68. 1975 Saklani, P. S., A review of Himalayan Orogenesis, Cas. Min. Geol., Czechoslovakia,
Prague, 18: 193–198.
69. 1974 Saklani, P. S., Geologischer Aufbau Des Mukhem Gebiets, Garhwal Himalaya-Eine
Zusammenfassung, Nachr. Deuch. Geol. Ges., Hannover, 10: 20–21.
70. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Occurrence of Stromatolites in the Bhelunta limestone formation of
Pratapnagar area of Garhwal Himalaya, Sci. and Cult., 37: 215–216.
71. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Geological studies of the area, South of Mukhem, Garhwal Himalaya,
(Summ. Doc. Thesis, Univ. Delhi), Geomag., 1: 11–13.
72. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Cataclasis of Allochtohon of the Pratapnagar Quartzite Group, Tehri
Garhwal, Sci. and Cult., 87: 438–439.
73. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in rocks of par autochthonous zone of Mukhem area,
Garhwal Himalaya. Indian Mineralogist, 13, 69–73.
74. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of the Main Central Thrust Zone, Lesser Garhwal Hima-
laya, 27th International Geological Congress, Moscow, USSR, III 1–9, Sections 06–07 :
387–388.
75. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in the rocks of Pratapnagar area, Tehri Garhwal, Uttar
Pradesh, Bull. Ind. Geol., Asso., Punjab University, 7: 115–128.
76. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Lithostratigraphy and Structure of the area between the Bhagirathi and
Bhilangna rivers, Garhwal Himalaya, Himalayan Geology, 2 : 342–355.
77. 1972 Saklani, P. S., and Pande, I. C. Geology of the Pratapnagar area, Tehri Garhwal,
Uttar Pradesh, Bull. Ind. Geol. Asso., 3(1 & 2): 12–18.
78. 1971 Saklani, P. S., Structure and tectonics of Pratapnagar area, Garhwal Himalaya. Him.
Geol., 1, 75–91.
79. 1970 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in rocks of Garhwal Nappe of Garhwal Himalaya.
Pub. Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Punjab University, Chandigarh Vol. 5,
pp. 115–120.
Dedication xi
* Co-authored
Editors:
A. K. Shandilya, Department of Applied Geology, Dr. HS Gour University, Sagar India
#Vinod K. Singh, Department of Geology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India
S. C. Bhatt, Department of Geology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India
C. S. Dubey, Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
# Corresponding editor email: [email protected]
Preface
The earth is a restless planet and has always been influenced by geological and
geo-environmental processes. The interaction of magmatic, tectonometamorphic and metal-
logenic processes are responsible to produce crustal blocks. These blocks are represented by
cratons, shields, and orogenic mobile belts. The studies done by the pioneers on geodynamics
of lithospheric shields are adequate but the new insights are still needed to understand the
detail geological processes. The geo-environmental events attributed to cause natural
calamities and loss of life, land and properties. Although the natural disasters cannot be
prevented, but their impact can be minimize by applying scientific remedial measures.
Therefore, the researchers are more exited to know about the geochemical, geotectonic and
geomorphological changes occurring in the exterior and interior domains of the earth.
Keeping in view the above facts the idea has been immerged to edit a book on ‘Geological
and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth’ which is dedicated to an eminent Himalayan
geoscientist late Prof. Prem Swarup Saklani. This book is structured into two sections;
(I) Geological Processes, (II) Geo-Environmental Processes. The chapters pertaining to section
Geological Processes are focusing on the geology, structure and tectonics, geodynamics,
crust-mantle interactions, mineral chemistry, rare-earth deposits, metamorphic processes,
geochemical and geochronological aspects of different parts of the continental crust.
The chapters included in the section Geo-Environmental Processes are highlighting on
seismic hazards, role of geotectonic controls in groundwater contamination and geothermal
systems. It also explores the applications of remote sensing, Geographical Information System
and SRTM data for evaluation of the morphometric and morphotectonics of different water-
sheds and vulnerability of earth towards landslides and natural hazards.
This book will be useful to students, scientists, researchers, academician and planners
working in various organizations. It is a noteworthy collection of articles written by eminent
scholars from different countries of the world.
xiii
Contents
Geological Processes
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights
from Detrital Zircons Search in Ordovician Sandstones of the Uraltau Uplift,
Southern Urals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
N. B. Kuznetsov, T. V. Romanyuk, and E. A. Belousova
Astroblems in the Early Earth History: Precambrian Impact Structures
of the Kola-Karelian Region (East Baltic Shield) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Tatiana V. Kaulina, Lyudmila I. Nerovich, Vadim L. Il’chenko, Lyudmila M. Lialina,
Evgeny L. Kunakkuzin, Maria A. Ganninbal, Sergey V. Mudruk, Dmitry V. Elizarov,
and Elena S. Borisenko
Crustal Evolution of Bundelkhand Craton in Archean and Comparison
with Other Indian Cratons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A. I. Slabunov and Vinod K. Singh
Structure and Geological Processes of the Earth: Seismic Evidences
from the Indian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
V. Vijaya Rao and Damodara Nara
World Class Hutti Gold Deposit—An Archean Orogenic Gold Deposit
in Hutti-Maski Greenstone Belt, Karnataka, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Prabhakar Sangurmath
Indian Rare-Earth Deposits: Related Industry, Balance Problem
and Atmnirbhar Bharat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Yamuna Singh
Petrology and Geochemistry of Mafic–Ultramafic Rocks from Taka Area,
Western Bastar Craton, Central India: An Implication for Their Genesis
and Mineralization Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Vivek P. Malviya, Rajkumar R. Meshram, Sanjeet K. Verma, G. Gopalkrishna,
M. Shareef, Tushar M. Meshram, M. L. Dora, Suresh A. Chore, and Pankaj Mehta
Metamorphism of the Central Bundelkhand Greenstone Complex
of the Bundelkhand Craton, Indian Shield and Its Geodynamic Setting . . . . . . . . 143
Oleg S. Sibelev, Alexander I. Slabunov, Vinod K. Singh, and Sumit Mishra
Tectonostratigraphic Terranes of the Bundelkhand Craton (Indian Shield) . . . . . 155
Vinod K. Singh, A. I. Slabunov, N. S. Nesterova, M. M. Singh, and S. C. Bhatt
xv
xvi Contents
Geo-Environmental Processes
Shallow Structure and Seismic Hazard in the Coastal Odisha, India . . . . . . . . . . 189
A. K. Rai and Rama K. Nayak
A Critical Evaluation of the Role of Geotectonics in Groundwater Arsenic
Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Mohammad Ayaz Alam, Abhijit Mukherjee, and Prosun Bhattacharya
Tectonic and Structural Controls on Geothermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Mohammad Ayaz Alam
A GIS-based Approach for Morphometric Analysis of Jamini Basin
and Its Subwatersheds: Implication for Conservation of Soil and Water
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, Rahul Singh, Mohd Saif, and M. M. Singh
Morphometric and Morphotectonic Studies of Sindh Basin, Central India,
Using Advance Techniques of Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, Rahul Singh, V. K. Singh, and Adesh Patel
Morphometric Analysis of Rohni Watershed, Upper Betwa Basin,
Bundelkhand Region, Central India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
S. C. Bhatt, Sumit Mishra, Rubal Singh, and S. Bhatt
Quantitative Morphometric Analysis of Watershed of Upper Pahuj Basin,
Bundelkhand Region, Central India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, M. Taiyab, and S. Bhatt
Morphotectonics of Kayadhu River Basin in Washim-Hingoli-Nanded
Districts, Maharashtra: A Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Bhagwan B. Ghute and Shaikh Md. Babar
Landslide Investigations Along the Road Corridor Between Nandprayag
and Gopeshwar, Chamoli District, Uttarakhand Lesser Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Rahul Negi, R. A. Singh, Pooja Saini, Piyush K. Singh, and Harish Khali
About the Editors
Prof. Arun Kumar Shandilya is a faculty at Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Hari
Singh Gour University, Sagar, India. He has 41 years of Research and Teaching experience.
He has published more than 80 Research papers in national and International journals. He has
received Dr. V. S. Prabhakar Rao Gold Medal at graduation level (1974) and Dr. Radha
Krishana Award in 1993, by Government of Madhya Pradesh. He served as the Head
Department of Applied Geology, Dean, Student’s Welfare, Chief Coordinator (DST Instru-
mentation Centre -SIC) and Director, UGC Remedial Coaching Centre, Professor In Charge
University Store and Purchase. He has served as the Subject Expert in the UPSC, state Public
Service Commission (PSC), Scientific Terminology Commission, Govt. of India, and in the
National Working Group for International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP) of
Geological Survey of India, Kolkata. He has completed 06 Research projects and supervised
06 Ph.D. students. Presently, he is working as member of editorial board of many journals,
expert in Research Degree Committee (RDC) and Board of Studies (BOS) in various
Universities.
Prof. Suresh Chandra Bhatt a faculty in geology at Bundelkhand University Jhansi, India
has specialization in Structural and Tectonic geology, Sedimentology, and Environmental
Geology. He has distinguished record of services in academic and administrative field and has
been working at several academic and administrative positions since last two decades. He is a
recipient of Young Scientist project (1990), USSR fellowship (1987), CSIR pool scientist
(1994) and did innovative research on tectonics of Himalaya and Bundelkhand craton and on
palaeoclimate and chronosratigraphic status of Thar Desert. He authored two text books, three
xvii
xviii About the Editors
edited volumes and published more than 55 research papers. He guided five Ph.D. scholars
under his stewardship. Professor Bhatt is a life member of Geological Society of India, Indian
Society for Rock Mechanics and Tunnelling Technology, and Indian Society for Construction
and Materials. He is working as a member of editorial board of several journals.
Prof. Chandra Shekhar Dubey is presently working as a Professor Emeritus in the Faculty
of Science, Sri Sri University, Cuttack, Odisha, India. He has worked in the field of Earth and
Environmental Science for the last three decades. He worked as Vice Chancellor in Sanskriti
University Mathura and Director of Institute of Lifelong Learning and Campus of Open
Learning besides being Head, Centre of Advanced Studies, Department of Geology and Dean
of Science in University of Delhi, India. He has published 57 papers in peer reviewed
International and National Journals, one patent for removal of Arsenic and has supervised 15
Ph.D. students. He has been a visiting Professor to Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble,
France and recipient of International UNESCO CNR-Indo- Italian, NSF-DST Indo-US and
B. P. Koirala India-Nepal Fellowship grants. He has worked as a Chairman/Expert member in
several National and International committees in Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Water resources, University Grants Com-
mission, DRDO and ICDE, Norway, HKT etc.
Geological and Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth: Introduction
The geological (endogenic and exogenic) processes operat- understand the mechanism of geological processes involved
ing in interior and exterior domains of earth are bringing in crustal evolution.
dynamic changes in the lithospheric and geomorphic terrains This edited volume dedicated to late Prof. Prem Swarup
of this planet since its origin. The interplay of magmatic, Saklani addresses the multidisciplinary themes pertaining to
tectonometamorphic and metallogenic processes is continu- the role of tectonism and magmatism in crustal evolution and
ously evolving new continental and oceanic plates (blocks) global distribution of metallic and non-metallic mineral
enriched with magmatic plume and economic minerals. The deposits. It gives valuable information on geodynamic
diverging and converging margins of these blocks were evolution, structural, petrological, isotopic, metamorphic,
stressed and formed orogenic mobile belts and mountains. geochemical and geochronological attributes of continental
The undeformed stable blocks are referred to as shields and and oceanic crust and is challenging reassessments of the
cratons. These small nuclear cratonic blocks were welded existing paradigms. This book also advocates the role of
together by troughs and rifts and became a good site for tectonics in contamination of groundwater, and control of
sedimentary deposits through Precambrian. The drainage patterns and geothermal systems. It explores the
geo-environmental events manifesting as seismic, volcanic, vulnerability of earth towards natural hazards, viz. earth-
floods, cyclones and drought are poising great threat to the quakes, floods, cyclones, tsunami, volcanism, cyclones and
environment and socio-economic status of the world. These drought. This volume throws light on the applications of
calamities are attributed to causing loss of life, land and remote sensing, Geographical Information System (GIS) and
depletion of resources and are continuously reshaping the SRTM data for evaluation of the morphometric and mor-
dimension of various landscapes. photectonic parameters and exploring the susceptibility of
Despite the detailed study (based on petrological, geo- river basins toward erosion and flood.
chemical, geophysical and geochronological data) done on The book is organized into two sections; (I) Geological
geodynamics of lithospheric shield and geo-environmental Processes, (II) Geo-Environmental Processes. The main
events, the innovative research is still needed with more findings of these chapters are summarized in the following
scientific ideas to understand these processes. The present paragraphs.
days’ studies focussed on magmatic and geodynamic sys- N.B. Kuznetsov et al. discussed the structural, tectonic
tems of various shields are concentrated on U-Pb SHRIMP and geochronological status of the composite Bashkir anti-
age, Lu-Hf isotope, trace elements studies, detrital zircons clinorium of the Southern Urals consisting of two parts: the
investigations, and metallogeny of the different parts of the Bashkir (western part) and Uraltau (eastern part) Uplifts.
earth’s crust. These research investigations will be helpful to The detrital zircon from Ordovician sandstones of the
Uraltau and Bashkir Uplifts stated that the amalgamation of
the Precambrian Bashkir and Uraltau basements occurred
A. K. Shandilya before Late Ordovician. Detritus of post-Upper Ordovician
Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Hari Singh Gour University, sedimentary complexes of the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts
Sagar, India
originated from identical feeding provinces and was depos-
V. K. Singh (&) S. C. Bhatt ited in the same basin, sealing its pre-Ordovician composite
Department of Geology, Institute of Earth Sciences, Bundelkhand
University, Jhansi, India heterogeneous basement.
e-mail: [email protected] T.V. Kaulina et al. studied the Precambrian structures of
C. S. Dubey the Kola-Karelian region of East Baltic Shield, which can be
Sri Sri University, Cuttack, India impact related. Impact signs were found in two structures of
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
A. K. Shandilya et al. (eds.), Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth, Springer Natural Hazards,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4122-0_1
2 A. K. Shandilya et al.
the Kola region: the Jarva-varaka massif of 2498 ± 6 Ma apatite-magnetite hydrothermal veins are significantly
and Javrozero structure of *1.9 Ga. They described the appearing along the Singhbhum Shear Zone and South
tectonic and metamorphic history of these two probable Purulia Shear Zones. The vast stretches of deposits may be
astroblemes and established their geochemical and operated in the large-scale mining operations, whereas
geochronological status. small-scale mining would be preferred in small-scale
A.I. Slabunov and V.K. Singh pointed out that Indian deposits.
Shield consists of Bundelkhand, Aravalli, Singhbhum, V.P. Malviya et al. reported the whole rock’s major, trace,
Bastar, Western and Eastern Dharwar Cratons. The crustal REE and PGE geochemistry and mineral chemistry of Cr-
evolutions of these cratons (except Singhbhum Craton) show spinel and other minerals of the serpentinite associated
that geodynamic mechanisms, similar to modern talc-tremolite-chlorite and chromitite rock from western
plate-tectonic and mantle-plume mechanisms, were active Bastar Craton, in Central India, which occurr as enclaves
during Paleo–Neoarchean time. However, all cratons exhibit within Amgaon granite gneiss. They suggested that serpen-
their own crustal evolution pattern in Mesoarchean. Crustal tinite and talc-tremolite schist were formed from dunite,
evolution in Neoarchean of Bundelkhand and Aravalli Cra- hurzburgitic and lherzolitic protolith, respectively. High Cr
tons, Western and Eastern Dharwar Cratons have many # indicate, high-degree of partial melting of mantle peri-
similar features, therefore, it is assumed as a part in Meso– dotite. Cr-spinel crystallized from boninitic melt at a high
Neoarchean time elements of the Kenorland Supercontinent, degree of partial melting. The IPGE (Ir, Ru) enrichment
but not in a single block. relative to PPGE (Pd, Pt, Rh) and the relatively low Pd/Ir
V. Vijaya Rao and Damodara Nara focussed on the role values suggest that their parental melts were produced by
of geological processes (external and internal) on the evo- melting of a moderately depleted peridotite similar to the
lution of crustal structures of Indian shield. They pointed out ones described for other IPGE-rich chromitites originated in
that the seismic images are providing key evidence of the back-arc basins in the supra-subduction tectonic setting.
mechanism of plate tectonics, subduction process, and O.S. Sibelev et al. documented at least three stages of
interaction of crust and mantle plume and evolution of metamorphic processes in the Central Bundelkhand terrane
sedimentary basins from Archean to Recent. The crust– of the Bundelkhand Craton: (1) ca 2.8 Ga eclogite-facies;
mantle interaction played a vital role in forming rift-basins (2) ca. 2.7 Ga amphibolites-facies and metasomatism asso-
and post-collisional extension in the form of mafic dyke ciated with its retrograde branch; (3) ca 1.9–1.8 Ga
swarms and alkaline complexes. Mantle convection process prehnite-pumpellyite-facies presumably associated with reef
is bringing the earth’s terranes together to form superconti- formation giant two-phase hydrothermal quartz veins. The
nents while scattering is caused by the accumulation of heat Mesoarchean (ca 2.8 Ga) eclogite-facies metamorphism is
above the rising convection cells due to mantle plume associated with subduction processes; Neoarchean (ca.
activity. The production of huge sediments from Himalayan 2.7 Ga) metamorphism is predetermined by
mountain ranges by erosion and weathering are responsible accretion-collision events; metamorphic processes associ-
for the formation of the world’s largest Bengal fan. ated with 2.55–2.50 Ga subduction-accretion events are
Prabhakar Sangurmath contributed to the geological extremely poorly defined; the latest Paleoproterozoic (1.9–
characteristics of Archean Orogenic Hutti gold deposits of 1.8 Ga) prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metamorphism is asso-
India. He remarked that the Dharwar gold deposits are ciated with rifting in the Bundelkhand Craton.
confined to subparallel reefs hosted within sheared metaba- V.K. Singh et al. confirmed that the Bundelkhand Craton
salts and are processing 2500 tons of ore body per day in six consists of three Tectonostratigraphic terranes: Central,
reefs. The detailed underground geological studies on indi- Northern and Southern Bundelkhand terrane. This tectonic
vidual lodes are essential to obtain ore shoots extension division is in good agreement with available geodynamic
along the strike as well as at depth, for the Hutti Gold Mine, models showing the evolution of the craton. Individual ter-
which seems to be a suitable area. rane displays its own Paleo–Mesoarchean evolution pattern.
Yamuna Singh has presented a synthesis of rare-earth In the Neoarchean, that they amalgamated during an
deposits hosted in various geological domains of India. accretion-collision event and became one crustal block, a
According to him, the rare earth in beach placer deposits craton was built.
occur in the eastern and western coast of India and the S.C. Bhatt and V.K. Singh have remarked that the central
Chhotanagpur granitic complex is found rich in heavy Bundelkhand tectonic unit delineated by E-W sub-vertical
rare-earth-bearing stream placer deposits in Jharkhand and Neoarchean crustal shear zone was subjected to three phases
Chhattisgarh. Amba Dongar and Kamthai are rich in of deformations (D1-D3), which were followed by D4 mag-
carbonatite-hosted rare-earth deposits in Western India, matic and NE-SW trending D5 Riedel shears (quartz reefs).
whereas low-grade Y ore was found in the Samchampi The central Babina-Prithvipur shear zone (*500 m wide)
carbonatite complex. The concentrations of REE-bearing are characterized by mylonitic foliation, asymmetrical
Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth: Introduction 3
rotated porphyroblasts (ra and rb mantled clasts), asym- the oil and gas industry, based on how geothermal resources
metrical pressure shadows and deformation lamellae. The can be found and developed effectively. An array and
sinistral top-to-SW sense of shear movement was dominant combination of tectonic and structural conditions that favor
and the presence of undulose extinction and deformation geothermal systems’ existence and sustenance have been
lamellae infers that the crystal plastic process was dominant presented with examples.
during the evolution of mylonite. S.C. Bhatt et al. carried out the quantitative morphometric
D.C. Banerjee presented a detailed synthesis of field geol- analysis of the Jamini watershed by using advanced tech-
ogy combined with imagery analysis from WNW-ESE niques of remote sensing and GIS. They inferred that the
trending Dudhmania Shear Zone. It is unique in its charac- mean bifurcation ratio of Jamini and its all sub-watersheds
teristics, having cross-cut relationship with the ENE-WSW are suggestive of strong structural control. The drainage
trending Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Mahakoshal Group. He density reveals that the impermeable soil is indicative of low
stated that the WNW-ESE Dudhmania shear zone is evolved groundwater storage capacity in hard rock granitic terrain.
by mylonitization of rocks of Agori and Parsoi Formations of The form factor, elongation and circulatory ratios imply that
Mahakoshal Group, and was affected by a non-coaxial sinis- the Jamini basin and its sub-watersheds are significantly
tral movement between the northern Obra-Amsi-Jiawan fault elongated and show a low peak flow of longer duration. The
and the southern Songarh-Kasar-Dudhi fault. Ruggedness and Melton ruggedness number infers that the
A.K. Rai and R.K. Nayak discussed methods to deter- terrain is slightly rugged and less prone to erosion and
mine the shallow crustal structure, and its importance in sediment transport. The S-shaped hypsometric curves are
understanding the site characteristics and the seismic haz- indicating moderate susceptibility of the basin towards ero-
ards. They used ambient noise records to compute Hori- sion whereas the hypsometric index values are suggestive of
zontal to vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) and estimate the occurrence of mature geomorphic terrain with moderately
peak frequency, whereas multi-channel surface wave eroded landscapes.
(MASW) dispersion data were used to estimate shallow S.C. Bhatt et al. have presented the morphometric and
subsurface velocities. They conclude that shallow seismic morphotectonic attributes of the Sindh basin of central India.
parameters could provide critical information which can be They concluded that the low density and frequency of the
used for assessment of impacts of natural hazards, and par- watershed is indicative of the occurrence of coarse perme-
ticularly the seismic hazard in a region. Nearly 40% popu- able soil in the low relief terrain of the basin. The elongation
lation which resides within 100 km of the coastline are ratio and form factor reveal that the basin is elongated and
vulnerable to various types of natural hazards such as less prone to erosion. The high density of lineaments rep-
earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, etc. resented by fractures, faults, foliations corresponds the ori-
M.A. Alam et al. focused on delineation and segmenta- entations of low-order streams. The high-order streams
tion of Arsenic enriched portions of the lithosphere, based on following major NE-SW trending lineaments are controlled
some insightful works and representative examples from by major tectonic features.
across the world, form the basis for discussing the role of Further, S.C. Bhatt et al. stated that the Rohni watershed
geotectonics in Arsenic contamination of aquifers in this of Bundelkhand of central India represented by dendritic
chapter. Apart from the origin and development of the drainage pattern is structurally controlled. The five
magmatic arc, which is the primary source of Arsenic, the sub-watersheds of this watershed showing high Rho Coef-
chapter deals with the geotectonic control for other primary ficient value is suggestive of high hydrologic storage and the
Arsenic sources as well, viz. Arsenic-enriched hydrothermal form factor and elongation ratio indicates that the basin is
and magmatic fluids that contaminate surface and ground- elongated and is less prone to erosion and flood. The youth
water, natural leaching of ore (especially metal sulfide) and mature stages are dominant in the basin with semiper-
deposits that releases Arsenic to surrounding environments, meable soil and less erosion exposure. The drainage orien-
which is accelerated by metal mining and processing activ- tation is represented by polymodal distribution (NE-SW,
ities, and coal deposits and hydrocarbon reservoirs, together E-W and NW-SE) and the ENE-WSW trending high order
with the exploitation processes of both these fuel resources. streams show major tectonic control.
M.A. Alam discussed the role of regional (tectonic) and S.C. Bhatt et al. attempted the morphometric evaluation
local (structural) controls on the geothermal systems, with of the Upper Pahuj basin of the Bundelkhand region of
representative examples from across the world. The discus- Central India. Five orders of streams showing dendritic
sion takes a break from the traditional description of the drainage pattern are inherently controlled by geological
geothermal systems as high-medium-low enthalpy, liquid or structures. The moderate drainage density and low frequency
vapor dominated, etc., and focuses on what defines and are suggestive of low infiltration rate and have sparse veg-
drives the geothermal systems. It follows the concept of etation on less permeable rocky terrain. The low elongation
treating the geothermal systems as “play types'’, similar to ratio and form factor infer that the basin catchment is
4 A. K. Shandilya et al.
elongated and is showing low peak flows of greater intervals. sensitivity of earth. It would be beneficial to researchers,
The circulatory ratio and ruggedness number indicate that planners, graduate and post-graduate students at the global
the youth stage was dominant in the basin and the terrain is level.
showing moderate slope and slight morphology. We are extremely thankful to the Department of Geology,
B.B. Ghute and S. Md. Babar have attempted the mor- Bundelkhand University, Jhansi for providing facilities to
photectonic and morphometric analysis of the Kayadhu river complete the editorial work of this book. We express our
basin in Washim-Hingoli-Nanded districts, Maharashtra. gratitude to Mr. Mukul Saklani for providing the bio-data of
They inferred that the geomorphic indices of the river show his father late Prof. P.S. Saklani. We are highly grateful to
a positive marker of the tectonic inscription on the drainage Prof. Prosun Bhattacharya for helping us in correcting the
network. According to them, the moderate hypsometric relevant part of the ‘Dedication’ of this volume. We grate-
integral value indicates that the basin is still under a mature fully acknowledge Mr. Aninda Bose and Ms. Silky Abhay
stage of erosion. The presence of Knick points implies that Sinha of Springer Nature for their immense help and support
southwestward tilting of the drainage basins with asymmetry during several stages of editing of the book. We extend our
exhibits the lineament control on smaller tributaries and the sincere thanks to all the authors for their scientific contribu-
area is inherently influenced by tectonics. tion to this volume. We are deeply grateful and extend our
In the last chapter of this dedicated volume, Negi et al. thanks to all the following reviewers for giving their con-
have carried out landslide investigations between the structive and fruitful reviews on the manuscripts within the
Nandprayag and Gopeshwar corridor in the Chamoli district timelines for this dedicated book: Alper Baba, Victor Bala-
of Uttarakhand, India. They studied six landslides along this gansky, Suresh C. Bhatt, Tapas K. Biswal, A.K. Biyani,
corridor for a detailed study and found that the rainfall, Ramon Carbonell, Gautam K. Dinkar, M.L. Dora, Syed Hilal
slope, lithology, geological structures, drainage, cutting of Farooq, Adam A. Garde, Bhagwan Ghute, Dinesh Gupta,
mountain slope for road widening, toe cutting by river play Varun Joshi, J.R. Kayal, Niteshkumar N. Khonde, Alok
an important role in increasing landslides in this region. Kumar, Niraj Kumar, Rajinder Kumar, Manoj Limaye,
Therefore, it is essential to identify the safe and unsafe zones Jyotirmoy Mallik, Vivek P. Malviya, S.N. Mohapatra, Wal-
and the geological and geotechnical investigations are con- ter D. Mooney, R.C. Patel, B.C. Prabhakar, Divya Prakash,
sidered important factors to be studied before carrying out Ritesh Purohit, Abhishek K. Rai, D.S. Rao, D.V. Subba Rao,
any major construction in such a vulnerable hilly terrain. Jyotisankar Ray, Ajit K. Sahoo, Uma Shankar, Dhruv Sen
This book has wide perspectives of understanding the Singh, Sandeep Singh, Padum K. Singh (departed), A.I.
geodynamic, tectonic and petrogenetic history of mineral- Slabunov, Vaibhava Srivastava, Sergei Svetov, Joseline
ized domains of earth’s crust and geoenvironmental Soledad Tapia, Sanjeet K. Verma and K.S. Vignesh.
Geological Processes
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir
Anticlinorium: Insights from Detrital Zircons
Search in Ordovician Sandstones
of the Uraltau Uplift, Southern Urals
integrated characteristics of the studied dZr provide new
constraints for their primary sources. A comparison of Southern Urals Bashkir anticlinorium Bashkir and
obtained data with rock types, U-Pb and Hf model ages of Uraltau Uplifts Ordovician Detrital zircons U-Pb
the crystalline complexes of the of Volga-Uralia base- age Hf systematic Trace-elements Provenance
ment, as well as characteristics of dZr from Late Sources
N. B. Kuznetsov
Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pygevsky 7,
Moscow, 119017, Russian Federation
1 Introduction and Geological Settings
N. B. Kuznetsov (&)
Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy
of Sciences, Lermontova St. 128, Irkutsk, 664033, Russian The Bashkir anticlinorium (BA) is located in the west of the
Federation Southern Urals (Fig. 1a). The BA is an extensive outcrop of
N. B. Kuznetsov E. A. Belousova Precambrian rocks, traditionally interpreted as a relic of a
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Core to Late Precambrian passive margin of Baltica (Precambrian
Crust Fluid Systems/GEMOC, Macquarie University, Sydney, basement of the East European Platform) and its Early
NSW 2019, Australia Precambrian basement (Puchkov 2010), or a relic of an
N. B. Kuznetsov inland rift-like basin, transformed at the beginning of the
Рeoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 6 Paleozoic into a passive margin of Baltica (Ivanov 1998).
Miklukho-Maklaya St, Moscow, 117198, Russian Federation
The BA is divided into two parts by the Zyuratkul fault:
T. V. Romanyuk Bashkir Uplift and the northern Uraltau Uplift (Figs. 1b, c).
Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of
Science, B. Gruzinskaya 10, Moscow, 123242, Russian Federation
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 7
A. K. Shandilya et al. (eds.), Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth, Springer Natural Hazards,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4122-0_2
8 N. B. Kuznetsov et al.
To the west of the Zyuratkul fault within the Bashkir metamorphosed and experienced Pre-Ordovician deforma-
Uplift, the Upper Precambrian Formations occur and did not tions (Golionko and Artemova 2016; Puchkov 2010) are
experience Pre-Ordovician deformations and metamorphism widespread eastward the Zyuratkul fault within the northern
(Puchkov 2010). Their lower part is composed of predomi- Uraltau Uplift (Uraltau Uplift hereafter). Middle Riphean
nantly sedimentary (including the bottom level of the Early volcanic and intrusive rocks (Mashak, Shatak, and Kuvash
Riphean) non-metamorphosed rocks interpreted as a Formations) are widely represented here (Ivanov 1998;
strato-typical Riphean section (Stratotype 1983; Ivanov Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010).
1998; Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010). The upper part is In the western and south-western Bashkir Uplift, the
composed of terrigenous formations of the Upper Vendian Upper Precambrian Formations are covered by the Paleozoic
Asha Group (Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010) or Upper strata, the section of which begins with low-thickness Upper
Vendian-Cambrian in age (Kuznetsov and Shazillo 2011). Emsian quartzous sandstones (Takaty Formation) (Kuznet-
Late Precambrian Formations that are unevenly sov et al. 2014a, b; Puchkov 2010). At the same time, in the
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights … 9
southern Bashkir Uplift and within the Uraltau Uplift, the approach makes it more reliable to identify the source rocks
Paleozoic section begins with a thin-thickness of Upper of detrital zircons and to reconstruct the evolution of the
Ordovician quartzous sandstones (Kuznetsov et al. 2016; supplying provinces than can be done based on U-Pb ages of
Puchkov 2010). The oldest sedimentary units overlying the detrital zircons only (Veevers et al. 2005, 2006; Belousova
Asha Group are Lower Devonian in age (Takaty Formation) et al. 2015; Romanyuk et al. 2018; Kuznetsov et al. 2018,
in the western part of the Bashkir Uplift and Middle 2019). The study of dZr was carried out using LA-ICP-MS
Ordovician age in the southern one. The most striking dif- technique, a description of which and detailed methodology
ference between the Paleozoic Formations that overlay the are given in previous publications (Griffin et al. 2000;
Upper Precambrian complexes within the Bashkir and Ural- Jackson et al. 2004).
tau Uplifts is the nature of parallel and angular unconformi- U-Pb ages with discordance D: 10% > D > −5% are
ties between these rocks and the underlying formations. used to plot the histograms and probability density plots
Differences in the structure of the Precambrian Forma- (PDP) of the ages (Ludwig 2012; Vermeesch 2012, 2018).
tions of the western and eastern parts of the BA (see Fig. 1C) For zircons with age over 1 Ga, the used age is calculated
made it possible to suggest its composite structure (Kuz- based on 206Pb/207Pb ratio, for zircons with age younger than
netsov 2009). In accordance with this, the Bashkir Uplift is a 1 Ga, 206Pb/238U ratio was used.
relic of a Late Precambrian passive margin of Baltica Attempts to determine such characteristics of individual
(Kuznetsov et al. 2013; Romanyuk et al. 2013), and the zircon grains as indicators of magmatic, metamorphic or
Uraltau Uplift is a relic of an alien structure in relation to the hydrothermal (sometimes called «metasomatic») nature of a
contiguous part of Baltica. The Uraltau Uplift block moved crystal (or even separate its core/rim), a forecast of the type of
along the Zyuratkul fault to its present-day position with a parental rocks of zircon, assessment of crystallization tem-
large-amplitude dextral displacement (Kuznetsov 2009). peratures, zoning, etc., by the morphology of the crystal and
To develop and to test the idea of a composite structure of metamict zones features in it, optical, CL-and BSE-images,
the BA (i.e. to unravel the ultimate origin and nature of the contents of trace and REE for zircon, the composition of
Uraltau Uplift block and details of its evolution, as well as to gas/fluid and inherited inclusions and other data, have a very
constrain the time of conjugation of the Bashkir and Uraltau long history (Heaman et al. 1990; Hoskin et al. 2000; Hoskin
Uplifts), we have studied detrital zircons (dZr) from different and Ireland 2000; Griffin et al. 2000, 2004; Liu et al. 2001;
stratigraphic units of the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts Belousova et al. 2002, 2006, 2010, 2015; Corfu et al. 2003;
(Romanyuk et al. 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019a, b, 2000; Hoskin and Schaltegger 2003; Liu and Xu 2004; Watson
Kuznetsov et al. 2012, 2013, 2014a, b, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018). et al. 2006; Hawkesworth and Kemp 2006; Harrison et al.
This paper deals with the first results of the integrated detrital 2007; Grimes et al. 2007, 2015; Ferry and Watson 2007;
zircons study of the Upper Ordovician sandstones (sample Fedotova et al. 2008; Fu et al. 2008; Skublov et al. 2012;
K12-006), which overlap unevenly metamorphosed Late Fornelli et al. 2014; Chapman et al. 2016 and many others).
Precambrian rocks of the Uraltau Uplift with an angular But unlike the study of U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotopic systems of
unconformity. The integrated characteristics of individual zircons, where there have been developed common adopted
detrital zircon grains aim to better identify the provenance of technologies, the interpretation of concentrations of trace and
dZr and to try to reveal relationships of affinity or alien rela- REE elements in zircons has not been yet developed up to a
tionships between studied strata and those of Volga-Uralia, generally accepted technology.
Kazakhstan and the Western Urals. This paper focuses on a There were many attempts to develop some criteria to
comparison of age spectra of dZr from Ordovician sandstones distinguish magmatic, metamorphic and hydrothermal zir-
of the Uraltau Uplift (sample K12-006) and age spectra of dZr cons (e.g. Rubin et al. 1989, 1993; Corfu and Davis 1991;
from Ordovician sandstones of the Bashkir Uplift (sample Claoue-Long et al. 1990; Kerrich and King 1993; Ramezani
K12-025), which overlap non-metamorphosed Late Precam- et al. 2000; Hu et al. 2004; Hoskin 2005; Schaltegger et al.
brian rocks with a parallel unconformity. 2005; Pettke et al. 2005; Kebede et al. 2007; Pelleter et al.
2007; Fu et al. 2009; Rubatto 2017 and many others). For
example, Hoskin and Schaltegger (2003) had tried to sum-
2 Methodology marize textural and compositional characteristics of
hydrothermal zircons, but they had to conclude that the
The study was carried out using the TerraneChron®, ana- characteristics are not definitive. The hydrothermal zircons
lytical approach (Griffin et al. 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007; may be zoned or unzoned on cathodoluminescence images
Belousova et al. 2002, 2006) developed at the (CLI); spongy in texture; anhedral or faceted in morphology;
CCSF/GEMOC Center (Macquarie University, Sydney). and either high or low in common-Pb. By now, there are no
The methodology integrates in situ U-Pb age, trace-element doubtless criteria to distinguish between metamorphic and
and Lu-Hf-isotope analyses on zircons. Such an integrated magmatic zircons.
10 N. B. Kuznetsov et al.
Nevertheless, it has been reliably established that certain fractionation of their parent magmas and reflect the trends in
statistical trends and appreciable differences in the their composition in the direction from the primitive crust
trace-elements contents are recorded in zircons from certain towards a more enriched crust. The diagrams «U/Yb versus
types of rocks and different origins (Hoskin and Ireland Hf» and «U/Yb versus Nb/Yb» are most statistically effec-
2000; Hoskin 2005; Belousova et al. 2002, 2006, 2015; tive for distinguishing between zircons from oceanic basalts
Schulz et al. 2006; Fedotova et al. 2008; Kaczmarek et al. and zircons from the continental crust (Grimes et al. 2015).
2008; Kostitsyn et al. 2015; Fershtater et al. 2012; Grimes Important information on zircons is carried by the REE
et al. 2015, and others). Thus, in general, Rare Earth Ele- spectra, which are represented in the form of values nor-
ments (REE) contents in zircons increase from basic rocks malized to chondrite (we use the values for CI-chondrite
(gabbroids and basaltoids), in which the total content of REE from (McDonough and Sun 1995)). A monotonic increase in
is (5–10) 100 ppm up to (1–2) 1000 ppm, to felsic the content of elements from light to heavy is typical for the
rocks (granitoids and their effusive analogs), in which the normalized REE spectra of zircons, which is complicated by
total content of REE is (2–5) 1000 ppm. Furthermore, the two anomalies: positive Ce and negative Eu.
REE contents in zircons from pegmatites and nepheline The REE spectra of zircons from granitoids are highly
syenites can reach even 1–3 mass %. For such rocks as ordered for the heavy REEs: in the interval from Dy to Lu,
kimberlites, the typical total content of REE in zircons is the slope of the zircon spider diagrams is rather stable. Its
usually less than 50 ppm. In zircons from carbonatites and value is characterized by the Lu/Dy (sometimes Yb/Sm or
lamproites the total REE content is larger and can increase Lu/Gd) ratio, and the contents of the heaviest REEs (Yb and
up to 500 ppm (Belousova et al. 2002, 2015), but its average Lu) are used as a marker for classifications. Statistically, the
value is 100–250 ppm (Hoskin and Ireland, 2000). zircon that is crystallized in the igneous rock has a steeper
An important indicator is the Th/U ratio (see the review slope for heavy REEs (larger Yb/Sm values) than the crystal
by Kirkland et al. 2015; Rubatto 2017), which varies from formed in rocks of high degrees of metamorphism (Rubatto
0.1 to 1 in most zircons. Low Th/U ratios are statistically and Hermann 2007; Rubatto 2017).
considered to be characteristic of zircon crystals of meta- For zircons of high-temperature metamorphic origin,
morphic origin, unlike zircons of magmatic origin. However, which are crystallized in the presence of garnet, the lower
there is still no consensus on the threshold Th/U value: in heavy REE and Y are described (Rubatto 2002; Rubatto and
different works, values Th/U from 0.5 to 0.1 are established. Hermann 2007; Fedotova et al. 2008; Skublov et al. 2012;
Thus, value 0.5 in (Kirkland et al. 2015), 0.2 in (Hoskin and Fornelli et al. 2014), because the garnet competes with zir-
Schaltegger 2003), 0.1 in (Teipel et al. 2004). In general, the con on these items. For eclogites, also a low Th concentra-
accumulated data (see Rubatto 2017) indicate that Th/U tion (no higher than 3 ppm on average) and a significant
values from 0.5 to 0.1 are fixed in zircons of both magmatic decrease in the concentrations of all REE (to 22 ppm) and
and metamorphic origin. For example, zircon rims from the particularly LREE (<2 ppm), and relatively low concentra-
Sulu UHP mafic and felsic rocks show higher values of Th/U tions of Y (34 ppm), U (100 ppm), and P (41 ppm) at an
up to 0.4 (Zhang et al. 2009). On the other hand, zircons elevated Hf concentration (11 400 ppm on average) have
crystallized in granites at low temperatures are characterized been revealed (Skublov et al. 2012).
by higher U contents and lower Th, which, as a result, leads The discriminative «(Sm/La)N versus La» and «Ce/Ce*
to lower Th/U values in low-temperature crystals (Harrison versus (Sm/La)N» diagrams based on distinct REE patterns
et al. 2007). Therefore, in the diagrams, we mark the interval from magmatic and hydrothermal zircons were presented in
Th/U from 0.5 to 0.1 as «Zircons magmatic or metamorphic (Hoskin 2005). Further researches revealed that not all data
origin» and believe that only zircons with a ratio Th/U < 0.1 points reported for zircons which are thought to be
can have a metamorphic origin with a high degree of hydrothermal ones fill in the «hydrothermal» area in this
probability. discriminate diagram (Fu et al. 2009). However, the pro-
High ratios of Th/U > 1.5, together with other charac- posed in (Hoskin, 2005) signs of «uplifted» LREEs spectra
teristics, are statistically inherent in zircons from mafic rocks (a higher content of La (La > * 2 ppm) and a lower
(Heaman et al. 1990; Kaczmarek et al. 2008; Linnemann (Sm/La)N ((Sm/La)N < 10))) and weak Ce/Ce* anomaly
et al. 2011). It can’t be ignored that in the zircons with high (Ce/Ce* < 10) are the effective indicators to suppose if not a
Th/U are sometimes formed in environments of high degrees pure hydrothermal origin of zircon, but at least a
of metamorphism (Wanless et al. 2011). hydrothermal imprint on the zircon. Metamictic zircons also
Very low U/Yb ratios are recorded for zircons from often show «uplifted» LREE spectra.
oceanic basalts NMORB (U/Yb < 0.1) (Grimes et al. 2015). The above information was summarized in the scheme of
Higher values U/Yb are not unique and can be inherent in a classification shown in Fig. 2 to distinguish between a
wide range of rocks. However, in general, an increase in the magmatic/metamorphic/hydrothermal origin of zircon. For
ratio of U/Yb and the Hf content in zircons indicate the zircons whose magmatic origin is supposed, the CART
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights … 11
When studying the trace-elements content (Figs. 4b, 5, 6, 7, grains # 19, 28, 43, 44, 45, 46, 56, 84, 95 and 101 (the
8, 9, 10, 11 and 12), the La content was not determined for content is below the detection limit). Further, for calculating
Ce anomalies, the La content for these zircons was adopted
at 0.01 ppm. Five grains have yielded anomaly high P and Y
contents (Table 1), which may suggest an apatite inclusion in
the LA crater. They also show very high contents of total
REE and Ti (Fig. 7). They are marked as «apatite» in
Table 1.
Zircon #101 showed very low Th/U = 0.03 (Fig. 4b) and
it was classified as «metamorphic». It also differs from other
zircons in a high content of Hf (Fig. 9) and steep REE
spectra in heavy REE (Figs. 6 and 8).
Seven zircons (#14, 30, 34, 41, 49, 62 and 65) showed
elevated La content of more than 2 ppm and weak Ce/Ce*
anomalies less than 10. Their data points on discriminant
diagrams in Fig. 5 fall in a field far besides «Magmatic
zircons fields», so they were classified as «non-magmatic»
zircons. Two zircons (#30 and 49) from «non-magmatic»
zircons fit well to fields of «Hydrothermal zircons» in dis-
criminant diagrams of Fig. 5 and were classified as
«Hydrothermal zircons». The rest «non-magmatic» zircons
Fig. 3 Results of the U-Pb dating of detrital zircons from the K12-006 are marked as «Metamictic». There were revealed no zircons
sample. A—Concordia and ellipses (some with analysis numbers), with flat REE spectra in heavy REE (Figs. 6 and 8) that
showing a 68.3% confidence interval for measurements. B, C and D (at
the grey background)—the enlarged fragments of Concordia. Classi-
would suggest their «HTM-Gr» origin, neither zircons with
fication of the zircons (see Table 1 and Fig. 2): “SM” = «syenite/mon- the signature of NMORB (Fig. 12).
zonite», “?SM” = «granite», but probably «syenite/monzonite», For the 58 detrital zircons having the most probable
“Carb” = «carbonatite», “Metamict” = metamictic zircon, “Hydroth” = magmatic origin, the CART classification (Fig. 2) indicates
hydrothermal zircon, “Apatite” = apatite inclusion in the LA sam-
pling, “Metam” = metamorphic zircon
that the parental rocks were most likely «granites» (24) and
Table 1 Some characteristics of the studied zircons with specific trace-element contents and results of their classification
# Analysis Th/U P Y La Yb Lu U Total LuCI Hf U–Pb D% eHf TDMC Classification
# (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) REE /DyCI % Age ± 1S (Epsilon (Ga)
(ppm) (Ma) Hf)
1 1 0.43 1826 4353 0.38 1245 219 464 2835 5.42 2.13 1968 ± 18 2.7 −4.2 ± 0.7 2.9 ?SM
2 10 0.52 525 5249 0.28 1344 227 672 3260 4.25 1.47 1230 ± 17 0.8 5.5 ± 0.7 1.7 SM
3 12 0.42 1820 4334 0.16 1336 239 367 2837 6.60 2.09 1937 ± 15 −2.0 0.4 ± 0.6 2.6 ?SM
4 14 0.89 165 1930 2.66 446 89 154 1063 3.27 1.36 1969 ± 19 −8.8 Metc
5 15 0.55 12,698 28,252 47.88 1721 230 1184 11,035 7.52 1.05 2651 ± 22 45.2 Apatite
6 19 0.741 271 429 <0.008 116 20.5 98 287 4.82 1.90 2703 ± 17 −0.8 −2.5 ± 0.5 3.3 Carbon
7 24 0.465 20,163 36,674 9.23 5851 798 1018 20,244 1.66 2.11 *1842 ± 83 35.7 Apatite
8 30 0.784 3080 1768 68.32 587 107 685 1626 6.72 1.71 530 ± 4 6.8 7.3 ± 0.5 1.1 Hydroth
9 34 0.497 789 1647 2 431 77 576 1212 3.53 1.90 1941 ± 47 11.0 Metc
10 41 0.65 1349 4202 2.48 636 105 741 2701 1.44 1.96 *2556 ± 22 19.1 Metc
11 49 0.546 3302 4402 45.52 1153 196 230 3127 4.13 1.60 1269 ± 31 4.6 Hydroth
12 51 0.372 12,081 16,806 74.72 3322 509 3106 10,750 2.50 1.56 435 ± 4 −2.4 Apatite
13 52 0.35 537 5058 0.26 1317 219 785 3194 4.33 1.89 2027 ± 26 0.03 4.2 ± 0.6 2.4 SM
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights …
14 54 0.474 1568 4207 0.95 972 163 806 2800 3.27 1.90 1292 ± 52 6.4 ?SM
15 57 0.221 2567 5241 0.84 2365 439 499 4384 11.27 2.21 1692 ± 18 2.9 -1.1 ± 1.0 2.5 SM
16 62 0.555 261 1725 2.08 401 69 112 1127 3.39 1.44 1208 ± 30 0.1 5.5 ± 0.4 1.7 Metc
17 65 0.44 600 3245 2.97 840 145 414 2050 4.53 1.96 1185 ± 29 −0.1 Metc
18 71 0.48 302 3940 0.15 1064 163 483 2559 3.93 1.65 1593 ± 44 1.4 ?SM
19 77 0.124 6947 15,024 7.46 2220 368 2659 8302 1.67 2.70 *1850 ± 50 3.0 Apatite
20 86 2.034 10,818 14,468 111.37 3082 520 2537 11,678 2.39 1.31 549 ± 71 71.7 Apatite
21 96 0.81 611 8632 0.20 2323 394 926 5392 4.87 1.53 1506 ± 24 0.9 3.2 ± 0.5 2.1 SM
22 101 0.022 145 1151 <0.012 668 159 700 1140 22.95 2.82 978 ± 7 7.0 19.6 ± 0.7 0.5 Metamor
Notes D = 100% *(age(206Pb/238U)/age(207Pb/206Pb) – 1). Correction for non-radiogenic lead was executed in according to (Andersen 2002). The model ages of the TDM mantle and the crustal
substrate TDMC (two-stage model) were estimated. TDMC assumes that zircon parental magma originated from an average continental crust (176Lu/177Hf for the averaged crust = 0.015) that was
produced from the depleted mantle (Griffin et al., 2000, 2004, 2006; Belousova et al., 2006, 2010; Liu et al. 2013). The decay-constant k for 176Lu was adopted as k176Lu 1.867 10–11 yr−1
(Scherer et al. 2001). The current ratios in chondrite (176Hf/177Hf)CH = 0.282785 ± 0.000011 and (176Lu/177Hf)CH = 0.0336 ± 0.0001 were taken from (Bouvier et al. 2008), in the depleted
mantle (176Hf/177Hf)DM = 0.28325 and (176Lu/177Hf)DM = 0.0384 from (Griffin et al. 2000)
TDM = 1/k ln{1 + ((176Hf/177Hf)Z – (176Hf/177Hf)DM)/((176Lu/177Hf)Z-(176Lu/177Hf)DM)}, TDMC = TDM-(TDM-t) ((FC – FZ)/(FC – FDM)), FC,Z,DM = {((176Lu/177Hf)C,Z,DM)/((176Lu/177Hf)CH)
– 1}
Classification: SM = «syenite/monzonite», ?SM = «granite», but probably «syenite/monzonite», because a small deviation down from CART-criteria (Y = 4433 ppm); Carbon = «Carbonatite»;
Metamor = metamorphic zircon (Th/U < 0.1); “Hydroth” = probable hydrothermal origin, “Metc” = probable metamictic alteration of zircon; Apatite = probable apatite inclusion in the studied
zircon due to high P (>6500 ppm) and Y (>14,000 ppm); * near U-Pb Age—correction of age for common-Pb is > 20 Ma
13
Another random document with
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shackled. But after some time, through the Commander, West, I
received authentic reports and testimony of witnesses, with
photographs, which definitely convinced me that numerous men of
the Todt Organization, fathers of families, unarmed, old people, who
were wearing an arm band with a swastika—that was their badge—
had been shackled with a loop around their necks and the end of the
rope fastened around their bent-back legs in such a way that they
had strangled themselves.
I may add that I kept these photographs from the Führer, and I
did not tell him of these aggravating incidents which to me had been
proved. I concealed them from the German people and from the
Propaganda Ministry. Then came the English radio report denying
emphatically that any German soldier had been shackled at Dieppe.
Some time later, a Commando troop made an attack on the
island of Saercq. Again we received official reports that German
prisoners had been shackled.
Finally we captured the so-called British order for close combat.
That was the last straw for the Führer; I also studied it very carefully.
These close-combat instructions showed by pictures how men could
be shackled in such a way that they would strangle themselves
through the shackling, and it was stated exactly within what time
death would occur.
DR. EXNER: Therefore, the reasons which Hitler gave for his
Order 498 were actually based on reliably reported facts. I remark
that Hitler referred to prisoners who had been shackled, prisoners
who had been killed, and that criminals, as Commandos...
THE PRESIDENT: You are paraphrasing the evidence in a way
that is inaccurate, because the defendant has just said that he kept
these things from Hitler. You are now saying that Hitler knew about
them. That is not what the witness said.
DR. EXNER: Then, I must ask you whether the facts upon which
this order is based were reported to you.
JODL: I believe the Tribunal has Document 498-PS. In it the
Führer first makes the general statement that for some time our
opponents in their conduct of the war have been using methods
which violate the international Geneva Convention. I must support
this statement as true on the basis of reports which, regrettably, we
had been receiving since the summer of 1941. I do not wish to go
into individual cases. There was an outrageous incident with a British
U-boat in the Aegean Sea. There was the order in North Africa that
German prisoners of war should not be given water before they were
interrogated. There were a large number of such reports.
THE PRESIDENT: Defendant, the Tribunal thinks that it is very
difficult to go into individual incidents which occurred long before this
order was drafted, and you have told us what you said the order was
drafted in respect of, namely the shackling; and you are now
referring to other things which you allege happened long before that.
It does not seem that it is possible for the Tribunal to investigate all
those matters which happened long before.
JODL: And I do not want to speak about these matters any
longer. I only want to point out, as I think I must, that generally
speaking the reasons given by the Führer for this order did not
spring from a diseased imagination but were based on actual proof
in his and in our possession. For it is certainly very different whether
I, in my own mind, had to admit there was some justification for this
order or whether I considered the whole order an open scandal. That
is a vital point for my own conduct. But I shall try to be very brief. The
fact that many previously convicted persons and criminals were
included in the Commandos, who were of course reckless people,
was proved by the testimony of prisoners; and the fact that prisoners
were shackled was obvious from captured orders and the testimony
of witnesses.
THE PRESIDENT: You have told us that already. We have
heard that more than once—that you had evidence before you that
prisoners were shackled and that you had the Canadian orders
before you.
DR. EXNER: Perhaps you can just say a few words on the
subject of killing prisoners.
JODL: In conclusion, I want to say that I did not see any order,
any captured order, which decreed death for German prisoners of
war, though this was also contained as a reason in the Führer Order.
But I must explain that the British Ministry of War advised us—I
cannot recall exactly whether it was via Geneva or through the radio
—that situations might very well arise in which prisoners of war
would have to be killed—no, rather, in which prisoners of war would
have to be shackled because otherwise one would be forced to kill
them. And so, if at the end here the Führer says orders have been
found according to which the Commandos were on principle to kill
prisoners, then I think he is referring to the British close-combat
instructions which described a method of shackling which would
cause death.
DR. EXNER: And that was your own part in this Commando
Order?
JODL: My part consisted only in distributing this order, or having
it distributed, in accordance with express instructions.
DR. EXNER: The Prosecution said once that you also signed
this order—one of these two orders, I do not know which one. That is
not correct?
JODL: No, I signed only a general decree to have one of the
orders kept secret.
DR. EXNER: Yes, we will deal with that in a moment. Could you
have refused to transmit this order?
JODL: No, if I had refused to transmit an order of the Führer, I
would have been arrested immediately; and I must say, with
justification. But as I said, I was not at all sure whether this decree,
either in its entirety or in part, actually violated the law; and I still do
not know that today. I am convinced that if one were to convene here
a conference of experts on international law, each one of them would
probably have a different opinion on the subject.
DR. EXNER: General, you can speak a little faster.
Could you have made counterproposals?
JODL: At any other time, probably yes. At that time, however—a
time of conflict with the Führer—it was not possible for me to speak
to him personally at all. To broach the subject during the general
conference on the situation was quite out of the question. Therefore I
intended in the execution of this order to adopt a very magnanimous
attitude, and I was certain that the commanders-in-chief would do
the same.
DR. EXNER: And what do you mean by magnanimous? Could
this order have been interpreted in different ways?
JODL: Yes. The order offered two ways of avoiding the
treatment of really decent soldiers like criminals. If a Commando
troop, mostly encountered in fights at night, was not wiped out but
captured, as was the rule in almost all cases, that was already
certain proof that our troops did not consider these men as bandits. It
was then the task of the commanders-in-chief to make an
investigation. If it was purely a reconnaissance operation, the entire
action did not fall within the sphere of the Commando Order at all
and would not be reported as a Commando raid. However, if the
operation was really carried out by a sabotage and demolition unit,
its equipment had to be examined. It had to be investigated whether
the men were wearing civilian clothing under their uniforms; whether
they were carrying the famous armpit guns, which go off
automatically when the arms are lifted in the act of surrender; or
whether they used other despicable methods during the fighting. The
commanders-in-chief could then act in accordance with the outcome
of such an investigation. I believe that in that way it was quite
possible—and in fact it happened many times, I might almost say in
the bulk of cases—that the shooting of brave, decent soldiers was
avoided.
DR. EXNER: Could you yourself exert any influence on the
practices followed by the troops?
JODL: I tried to exert my influence on various occasions. When
it was reported to me that a Commando unit had been captured—
which according to the Führer decree was not allowed—then I raised
no questions or objections. I made no report at all to the Führer on
Commando operations which met with only minor success. And
finally, I often dissuaded him from taking too drastic views, as in the
Pescara case, which Field Marshal Kesselring has already described
here, when I succeeded in convincing the Führer that only a
reconnaissance unit was involved.
DR. EXNER: Were many units actually wiped out?
JODL: Commando operations decreased considerably as a
result of the public announcements in the Wehrmacht communiqué. I
believe that not more than 8 or 10 cases occurred in all.
For a time, during the months of July and August 1944,
increasingly large numbers of terrorists were reported killed in the
Wehrmacht communiqué; these, however, were not Commando
troops, but insurgents who were killed in the fighting in France. That
may be proved if the Tribunal will read Document 551-PS, Figure 4.
There the order is given—it is USA-551, on Page 117.
MR. ROBERTS: My Lord, it is Page 70 of Book 7.
JODL: Or Page 117 of our Volume II. There it is ordered...
DR. EXNER: What is ordered? I should like to deal now with
another document, Document 532-PS.
THE PRESIDENT: It is time to break off.
[A recess was taken.]