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Springer Natural Hazards

Arun Kumar Shandilya

Vinod Kumar Singh
Suresh Chandra Bhatt
Chandra Shekhar Dubey Editors

Geological and
Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth
Springer Natural Hazards
The Springer Natural Hazards series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific books,
aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in Natural Hazard research. The series
includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings.
It covers all categories of hazards such as atmospheric/climatological/oceanographic hazards,
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welcomes book proposals on topics like risk assessment, risk management, and mitigation
of hazards, and related subjects.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10179

Arun Kumar Shandilya •
Vinod Kumar Singh •
Suresh Chandra Bhatt •
Chandra Shekhar Dubey
Editors

Geological
and Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth

123
Editors
Arun Kumar Shandilya Vinod Kumar Singh
Department of Applied Geology Department of Geology
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya Bundelkhand University
Saugor, India Jhansi, India

Suresh Chandra Bhatt Chandra Shekhar Dubey

Department of Geology Professor Emeritus in Science Faculty
Bundelkhand University Sri Sri University
Jhansi, India Cuttack, India

ISSN 2365-0656 ISSN 2365-0664 (electronic)

Springer Natural Hazards
ISBN 978-981-16-4121-3 ISBN 978-981-16-4122-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4122-0

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Dedication

Professor Prem Swarup Saklani (1941–2017)

Eminent Himalayan Geoscientist
Himalayan geologist who made legendary contributions and excellent research on
Geology and Tectonics of Himalaya
Former Vice Chancellor of HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, India, Former
Chairman CSTT, HRD Ministry, Government of India and Former Professor, Department of
Geology, University of Delhi, India

This commemorative book having a large number of research papers pertaining to

Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth is dedicated to Prof. Prem Swarup
Saklani, who died on 24 April 2017 in Dwarka, New Delhi, at the age of 76. Professor Saklani
is recognized as an eminent Himalayan geoscientist and established himself as a legendary and
veteran scientist in the field of Tectonics and Geological research of Himalaya and has
served in several academic and administrative positions at the University of Delhi and in other
organizations.
Professor P. S. Saklani (1941–2017) was born on 23 August 1941 in Payar village in Tehri
District of Uttrakhand. He got his school education from Inter College Srinagar Garhwal, in
1958, and obtained bachelor and master degrees in Geology from Banaras Hindu University
(BHU), Varanasi, in 1960 and 1962, respectively. He has started his academic career as
Assistant Professor in Geology at Punjab University, Chandigarh (1965–1968), and completed
his doctoral degree (Ph.D.) under the stewardship of Late Prof. A. G. Jhingran at the University
of Delhi in 1972. He brilliantly pursued his doctoral work on the ‘Geological studies of the area
south of the Mukhem, Garhwal Himalaya’. Professor Saklani served his service for more than
three decades in the Department of Geology, University of Delhi (1968–2006).
Professor Saklani was a visiting Fellow of the German Academic Exchange programme
(DAAD) from 1973 to 1975 and worked for two years with Prof. Werner Schwan in Erlangen
University, Schlossgarten in Germany. He effectively pursued research on geological and
tectonic aspects of the Himalayas and Alps and recognized himself through his research

v
vi Dedication

contributions as a leading researcher in the field of structural and tectonic geology. To promote
his academic and research career, Prof. Saklani visited the University of Tokyo, Japan, in 1984
and Germany (1989–1990) as a visiting fellow. Professor Saklani supervised one German
student for dissertation work on Himalayan geology.
He has a distinguished record of service in the academic and administrative fields. During
his long academic career at University of Delhi, he served as the Head of Department (1982
and 1984–1987), Dean of Science and chairman of Research and Development Committee
(1985–1987), Chairman Publication Advisory Committee, University of Delhi (1986–1988).
He has served in many other prestigious positions, such as the Chairman of the Commission
for Scientific and Technical Terminology (CSTT), Government of India (1994–1998). Pro-
fessor Saklani was elected as the President of Earth System Science of the 85th Session of
Indian Science Congress in 1997–1998. In 1999, he was appointed as a Vice-Chancellor of
Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna (HNB) Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand,
where he served until 2001. Professor Saklani had a passion for teaching and living amidst his
students and has supervised several students working for their M.Sc. thesis. He has the
recognition of mentoring 11 Ph.D. scholars and 11 M.Phil students, who are also well placed
in different positions in academia as well as the administrative realm.
He was the recipient of several awards, viz. Consulting Editor of American Biographical
Institute, Raleigh, U.S.A.; 21st Century Award: U.P. Ratna Award 1999, All India Intellec-
tuals, New Delhi; Special Achievement Award-2001 (Education), JANYOG, New Delhi,
India; Honorary Colonel Commandant of National Cadet Core (2000), Govt. of India, New
Delhi; etc. He was the Founder Secretary-General of the Geoscience Foundation, India,
Member of Geological Society of India and Member of Indian Council of World Affairs. He
continued to render his academic services as Professor Emeritus in the Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose National Institute of Technology (NIT) for 3 years (2007–2009) after his
superannuation.
He has been superannuated as Professor at the Department of Geology, University of Delhi,
in August 2006. Professor Saklani authored many books, viz. Tectonic Geology, Tectonics of
Garhwal Himalaya, Geology of Lower Himalaya (Garhwal), Structure and Tectonics of
Himalaya, Metamorphism and Tectonics of Himalaya, Glossary of Structural Geology &
Tectonics and edited many books on Geological aspects of Himalaya (volumes 1–5). His
books are very popular among the students of geology in India and abroad. Professor Saklani
published more than 56 research papers of national and international repute on the Himalayan
tectonics. Professor Saklani served as an expert in many selection committees of DST, UGC,
CSIR, UPSC and various universities in India and in Project Assessment Committees.
The unfortunate demise of Prof. Saklani has created a gap among the geo-fraternity, and the
academia has lost a dedicated teacher in Earth Science and society a popular science writer and
educator. His contributions to the Geological and Tectonic aspects of Himalayan and other
themes will forever be remembered. He has left behind his legacy through a number of his
students serving at different academic and research institutes. These students are doing
significant research on tectonics and other aspects of the Himalayas and Indian peninsula.
Professor Saklani was very much supported by his inspiring wife Mrs. Sushila Saklani and son
Mukul and daughters Rajani (deceased) and Anjuli. His irreparable loss will be felt by all his
students and admirers globally.

Research Contributions: The significant research contributions of Prof. Saklani are listed
below:
Dedication vii

Authored Books

1. 2011 Recent Geology of the Himalaya Selective Scientific Books Pandav Nagar, Delhi,
293 p.
2. 2008 Glossary of Structural Geology and Tectonics, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
191p.
3. 2006 Tectonic Geology, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 161 p.
4. 2004 Geology: an Introduction, Selective & Scientific Books, New Delhi, 93 p.
5. 1993 Geology of the Lower Himalaya (Garhwal), 254 p., International Books and Peri-
odicals, New Delhi.
6. 1991 Elementary Geology, 82 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi.

Edited Books

7. 2008 Himalaya (Geological Aspects). Vol. 5, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 320p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
8. 2006 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 4, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 355 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
9. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 3, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 341 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
10. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 2, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 660 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
11. 2005 Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. 1, Satish Serial Publishing House, Azadpur,
Delhi, 503 p. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
12. 2002 Geoindicators and related environmental studies, 248 p. Pilgrims Publishing,
Varanasi-Kathamandu (jointly with C. S. Dubey).
13. 1991 Tectonic and Metamorphic investigations of Kumaun—Garhwal-Himachal—Lesser
—Himalaya, 216 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. (with an
introduction by P. S. Saklani).
14. 1990 Metamorphism Ophiolites and Orogenic Belts. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
15. 1989 Himalayan Mountain Building, 198 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Pub-
lishers, New Delhi. (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
16. 1988 Geological Society of India (Special issue), Seminar on Himalayan Crystallines,
Metamorphics and Structures, Geol. Soc. Ind., Vol. 31, No. 2, Bangalore, 185–251. (with
an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
17. 1986 Himalayan Thrusts and Associated Rocks, 290 p., Today and Tomorrow’s Printer
and Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
18. 1983 Himalayan Shears, p. 113. Himalayan Books, New Delhi.
19. 1982 Himalaya: Landforms, and Processes, 116 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
20. 1981 Metamorphic Tectonites of the Himalaya, 370 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers
and Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
21. 1980 Shortening Structures in Eastern and North-Western Himalayan Rocks 62 p. Today
and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, Delhi (Authored by W. Schwan; with an
introduction by P. S. Saklani).
viii Dedication

22. 1979 Structural Geology of the Himalaya, 394 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).
23. 1978 Tectonic Geology of the Himalaya, 340 p. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, Delhi (with an introduction by P. S. Saklani).

Published Papers and Articles

24. 2008 Saklani, P. S.* Vertical Folds and Mesoscopic Fabrics, Srinagar Area, Garhwal
Himalaya. In: Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. V, Satish Serial Publishing House,
Delhi.
25. 2008 Bhatt, S. C. Saklani, P. S., Tectonic significance of Shear Indicators and Petrofabrics
of Quartz Mylonites, Garhwal Himalaya, “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), V. 5, edited by
P. S. Saklani, pp. 159–181.
26. 2006 Saklani, P. S.* Geology and Structure of Srinagar Garhwal-Himalaya In: “Himalaya
(Geological Aspects), Vol. IV, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi 153–159.
27. 2006 Saklani, P. S., Geology of Garhwal Himalaya: Retrospect and Prospect. In:
“Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. IV, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
129–152.
28. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of Central Crystallines Nappes, Garhwal Himalaya In:
“Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. II, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 265–280.
29. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Summary of Himalayan and Alpine structure In: “Himalaya (Geo-
logical Aspects), Vol. I, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 117–131.
30. 2005 Saklani, P. S., and Bahuguna V. K., Metamorphics of the Bhagirathi Valley,
Garhwal Himalaya In: “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. II, Satish Serial Publishing
House, Delhi, 207–218.
31. 2005 Saklani, P. S.* Metamorphic and Deformation History of the Central Crystallines
of the Upper Alaknanda Valley, Garhwal Himalaya and its bearing on inverted meta-
morphism In : “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House,
Delhi, 237–255.
32. 2005 Saklani, P. S.* Geology and Morphotectonic Studies using satellite images of a part
of Tehri-Uttarkashi district, Lesser Garhwal Himalaya. In: “Himalaya (Geological
Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, 153–171.
33. 2005 Saklani, P. S., Tectonic Geology of the Main Central Thrust, Garhwal, Uttaranchal
In: “Himalaya (Geological Aspects), Vol. III, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi,
179–189.
34. 1998 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P., Saklani, P. S., and Dubey, C. S., Mesostructure and
deformational history of the Central Crystallines: an example from Garhwal Himalaya,
India. J. Nepal Geol. Soc., V. 17: pp. 59–69.
35. 1998 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K., and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism and Thrust Tectonics
in the Munsiari Group of Central Crystallines Zone of Garhwal Himalaya, India, J. Nepal
Geol. Soc., V. 18: pp. 85–95.
36. 1998 Saklani, P. S., Geology of the Garhwal Himalaya: Retrospect and Prospect, Presi-
dential Address, Earth System Sciences, Ind. Sci. Cong., Calcutta, 32p.
37. 1997 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K., and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic evolution of the Central
Crystallines of the Higher Himalaya along Dhauli Ganga Valley, Garhwal Himalaya.
N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Abh., V. 206: pp. 249–275.
38. 1997 Singh, S. P., Singh, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in the Central Crys-
tallines of Higher Himalaya in Kedarnath valley, Garhwal Himalaya, Him. Geol. V. 18:
119–133.
Dedication ix

39. 1996 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic and geodynamic evo-
lution of the Central Crystallines of the Garhwal Himalaya, India, N. Jb. Geol. Palaeont.
Abh., 199(1), 89–109.
40. 1996 Singh, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic and Tectonic history of the Budhakedar
area, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, G. S. I. Sp. Publ. No. 21 (1): pp. 199–203.
41. 1994 Singh, V. K., Singh, S. P. and Saklani, P. S., Kyanite-Sillimanite-Andalusite-bearing
schist from Central Crystallines of Budhakedar area Garhwal Himalaya. Bull. Ind. Geo.
Assoc. Chandigarh, V. 27: pp. 143–153.
42. 1994 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Strain Transition and Microstructural Fabric analysis
of Quartz-Mylonites exposed within Pratapnagar Nappe, Garhwal Himalaya, India.
J. Geol. Soc. India 43(4): pp. 381–394.
43. 1993 Saklani, P. S., Geological formation and structure of the Central Himalaya Mountain
system—A study in Nature’s Equilibrium, The Central Himalaya Panorama, Inst. Soc.
Res. & App. Anthro., Calcutta, 70–80.
44. 1992 Saklani, P. S.,* Strain estimation in the deformed Hafla (Jutogh) quartzite of Jutogh
thrust sheet, Garhwal Himalaya, Jour. Him. Geol., 3(2): 149–154.
45. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Nainwal, D. C. and Singh, V. K., Geometry of the composite Main
Central Thrust (MCT) in Yamuna Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, India, N. Jb. Geol. Palaeont.
Abh., V. 1991: 364–380.
46. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Mesoscopic structures along the Bhatwari-Tehri-Narendranagar tra-
verse (Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, India)—and their chronologic and kinematic integration in
the deformation plan of the Himalaya, Z. dt. Geol. Ges., 142: 97–113.
47. 1991 Saklani, P. S., Bhatt, S. C., Singh, V.K. and Satendra, Deformation and kinematic
analysis of folds along Krol Thrust of Garhwal Himalaya. Jour. Scientific Research B.
H. U., Platinum Jubilee Year, 41B: 141–150.
48. 1990 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Kinematic framework of heterogenous deformation
within Pratapnagar thrust sheet, Bhagirathi Valley, in Lesser Garhwal Himalaya, U.P.,
Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v. 36(3), pp. 247–261.
49. 1989 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Geothermometry of Central Crystallines of the
Bhagirathi Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, Metamorphism, Ophiolites and Orogenic Belts, In :
Saklani, P. S. (Ed), 1–16, Today and tomorrow’s Publishers, N. Delhi.
50. 1989 Bhatt, S. C. and Saklani, P. S., Analysis of Folds in Dharkot Thrust Sheet. In:
Saklani, P. S. (editor), Himalayan Mountain Building, Today and Tomorrow’s publishers,
New Delhi, pp. 63–90.
51. 1988 Bahuguna, V. K. and Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of the Main Central Thrust in
Garhwal Himalaya. J. Geol. Soc. Ind., v. 31, 197–209.
52. 1986 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Thrust tectonics of Garhwal Himalaya. In:
Saklani P. S. (Ed), Himalayan Thrusts and Associated Rocks, 1–25, Today and tomor-
row’s Publishers, New Delhi.
53. 1983 Saklani, P. S. and Bahuguna, V. K., Main Central Thrust Zone and associated
imbricate structures in Chhatera area, Garhwal Himalaya, In: Saklani, P. S.
(Ed) Himalayan Shears, Himalaya books, N. Delhi, 1–9.
54. 1981 Saklani, P. S. and Doval, S. C. Ghuttu Garhwal Himalaya: Geologic and Meta-
morphic Characteristics, Metamorphic Tectonites of the Himalaya In: Saklani, P. S. (Ed.),
15–26, Today and Tomorrows Publishers, New Delhi.
55. 1979 Saklani, P. S., Folded rocks of Northern Tehri Garhwal, In: Saklani. P. S. (Ed.),
Structural Geology of the Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi, 101–112.
56. 1979 Saklani, P. S., An outline of the Geology of the Lesser Himalaya of Garhwal with
special reference to its Ecology and Development JOSHARD, Garhwal University,
178–45.
57. 1979 Saklani, P. S., A note on the study of Minor Structures in rocks of Srinagar area,
Garhwal Himalaya, U.P., 10th Seminar on Himalayan Geology, W. I. H. G., 178–190.
x Dedication

58. 1978 Singh, S and Saklani, P. S., Some geomorphologic observations in the Ghansyali
area, Garhwal Himalaya Him. Geol. 8, 813–821.
59. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Uttarakhand—its development and economic geology, Himalaya:
Man and Nature, Delhi, 1(10): 10–17.
60. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic events in relation to Deformation in the Bhilangna and
Balganga Valleys, Ghansyali Area. Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, 9th Seminar on
Himalayan Geology, 9(1): 199–210.
61. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Geology and Natural Wealth of Garhwal Himalaya, Himalaya: Man
and Nature, Delhi, (5 & 6): 26–30.
62. 1978 Saklani, P. S., Deformation and Tectonism of Mukhem Area, Lesser Himalaya, In:
Saklani, P. S. (Ed.), Tectonic Geology of the Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers
and Publishers, New Delhi, 15–42.
63. 1977 Saklani, P. S., Khanduri, H. C. and Singh, S., A reappraisal of the geology of a part
of Mussoorie Syncline around Satengal, Garhwal Himalaya. Chayanika Geologica 3,
95–103
64. 1976 Saklani, P. S., Some remarks on the Geology of the Himalaya and adjoining
mountains chains of Iran, Pakistan and USSR, International Himalayan Geology Seminar,
New Delhi, Structure, Tectonics, Seismicity and Evolution, Geol., Surv., Ind. Misc. Publ.,
41: 165–174.
65. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Outline of the Structure of Himalaya and Alps: a comparison, Acta
Universitatis Carolinae, Czechoslovakia, Prague, 3: 221–236.
66. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphic Petrology of the Area, South of Mukhem Garhwal
Himalaya, Recent Researches in Geology, Hind. Publ. Corp. India, Delhi, 82–106.
67. 1975 Saklani, P. S., Deformation of Quartz and Mica in tectonites of Tehri Garhwal
Himalaya, 5th Himalayan Geology Seminar, Panjab University, 1969, Pub. Cent. Adv.
Stud. Geol., Panjab University, Chandigarh, 10: 34–44.
68. 1975 Saklani, P. S., A review of Himalayan Orogenesis, Cas. Min. Geol., Czechoslovakia,
Prague, 18: 193–198.
69. 1974 Saklani, P. S., Geologischer Aufbau Des Mukhem Gebiets, Garhwal Himalaya-Eine
Zusammenfassung, Nachr. Deuch. Geol. Ges., Hannover, 10: 20–21.
70. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Occurrence of Stromatolites in the Bhelunta limestone formation of
Pratapnagar area of Garhwal Himalaya, Sci. and Cult., 37: 215–216.
71. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Geological studies of the area, South of Mukhem, Garhwal Himalaya,
(Summ. Doc. Thesis, Univ. Delhi), Geomag., 1: 11–13.
72. 1973 Saklani, P. S., Cataclasis of Allochtohon of the Pratapnagar Quartzite Group, Tehri
Garhwal, Sci. and Cult., 87: 438–439.
73. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in rocks of par autochthonous zone of Mukhem area,
Garhwal Himalaya. Indian Mineralogist, 13, 69–73.
74. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Tectonics of the Main Central Thrust Zone, Lesser Garhwal Hima-
laya, 27th International Geological Congress, Moscow, USSR, III 1–9, Sections 06–07 :
387–388.
75. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in the rocks of Pratapnagar area, Tehri Garhwal, Uttar
Pradesh, Bull. Ind. Geol., Asso., Punjab University, 7: 115–128.
76. 1972 Saklani, P. S., Lithostratigraphy and Structure of the area between the Bhagirathi and
Bhilangna rivers, Garhwal Himalaya, Himalayan Geology, 2 : 342–355.
77. 1972 Saklani, P. S., and Pande, I. C. Geology of the Pratapnagar area, Tehri Garhwal,
Uttar Pradesh, Bull. Ind. Geol. Asso., 3(1 & 2): 12–18.
78. 1971 Saklani, P. S., Structure and tectonics of Pratapnagar area, Garhwal Himalaya. Him.
Geol., 1, 75–91.
79. 1970 Saklani, P. S., Metamorphism in rocks of Garhwal Nappe of Garhwal Himalaya.
Pub. Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Punjab University, Chandigarh Vol. 5,
pp. 115–120.
Dedication xi

* Co-authored
Editors:
A. K. Shandilya, Department of Applied Geology, Dr. HS Gour University, Sagar India
#Vinod K. Singh, Department of Geology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India
S. C. Bhatt, Department of Geology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India
C. S. Dubey, Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
# Corresponding editor email: [email protected]
Preface

The earth is a restless planet and has always been influenced by geological and
geo-environmental processes. The interaction of magmatic, tectonometamorphic and metal-
logenic processes are responsible to produce crustal blocks. These blocks are represented by
cratons, shields, and orogenic mobile belts. The studies done by the pioneers on geodynamics
of lithospheric shields are adequate but the new insights are still needed to understand the
detail geological processes. The geo-environmental events attributed to cause natural
calamities and loss of life, land and properties. Although the natural disasters cannot be
prevented, but their impact can be minimize by applying scientific remedial measures.
Therefore, the researchers are more exited to know about the geochemical, geotectonic and
geomorphological changes occurring in the exterior and interior domains of the earth.
Keeping in view the above facts the idea has been immerged to edit a book on ‘Geological
and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth’ which is dedicated to an eminent Himalayan
geoscientist late Prof. Prem Swarup Saklani. This book is structured into two sections;
(I) Geological Processes, (II) Geo-Environmental Processes. The chapters pertaining to section
Geological Processes are focusing on the geology, structure and tectonics, geodynamics,
crust-mantle interactions, mineral chemistry, rare-earth deposits, metamorphic processes,
geochemical and geochronological aspects of different parts of the continental crust.
The chapters included in the section Geo-Environmental Processes are highlighting on
seismic hazards, role of geotectonic controls in groundwater contamination and geothermal
systems. It also explores the applications of remote sensing, Geographical Information System
and SRTM data for evaluation of the morphometric and morphotectonics of different water-
sheds and vulnerability of earth towards landslides and natural hazards.
This book will be useful to students, scientists, researchers, academician and planners
working in various organizations. It is a noteworthy collection of articles written by eminent
scholars from different countries of the world.

Sagar, India Arun Kumar Shandilya

Jhansi, India Vinod Kumar Singh
Jhansi, India Suresh Chandra Bhatt
Cuttack, Odisha Chandra Shekhar Dubey

xiii
Contents

Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 1

A. K. Shandilya, V. K. Singh, S. C. Bhatt, and C. S. Dubey

Geological Processes
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights
from Detrital Zircons Search in Ordovician Sandstones of the Uraltau Uplift,
Southern Urals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
N. B. Kuznetsov, T. V. Romanyuk, and E. A. Belousova
Astroblems in the Early Earth History: Precambrian Impact Structures
of the Kola-Karelian Region (East Baltic Shield) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Tatiana V. Kaulina, Lyudmila I. Nerovich, Vadim L. Il’chenko, Lyudmila M. Lialina,
Evgeny L. Kunakkuzin, Maria A. Ganninbal, Sergey V. Mudruk, Dmitry V. Elizarov,
and Elena S. Borisenko
Crustal Evolution of Bundelkhand Craton in Archean and Comparison
with Other Indian Cratons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A. I. Slabunov and Vinod K. Singh
Structure and Geological Processes of the Earth: Seismic Evidences
from the Indian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
V. Vijaya Rao and Damodara Nara
World Class Hutti Gold Deposit—An Archean Orogenic Gold Deposit
in Hutti-Maski Greenstone Belt, Karnataka, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Prabhakar Sangurmath
Indian Rare-Earth Deposits: Related Industry, Balance Problem
and Atmnirbhar Bharat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Yamuna Singh
Petrology and Geochemistry of Mafic–Ultramafic Rocks from Taka Area,
Western Bastar Craton, Central India: An Implication for Their Genesis
and Mineralization Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Vivek P. Malviya, Rajkumar R. Meshram, Sanjeet K. Verma, G. Gopalkrishna,
M. Shareef, Tushar M. Meshram, M. L. Dora, Suresh A. Chore, and Pankaj Mehta
Metamorphism of the Central Bundelkhand Greenstone Complex
of the Bundelkhand Craton, Indian Shield and Its Geodynamic Setting . . . . . . . . 143
Oleg S. Sibelev, Alexander I. Slabunov, Vinod K. Singh, and Sumit Mishra
Tectonostratigraphic Terranes of the Bundelkhand Craton (Indian Shield) . . . . . 155
Vinod K. Singh, A. I. Slabunov, N. S. Nesterova, M. M. Singh, and S. C. Bhatt

xv
xvi Contents

Tectonic Evolution of Babina–Prithvipur Crustal Shear Zones, Bundelkhand

Craton, India: Implications of Shear Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
S. C. Bhatt and Vinod K. Singh
‘Dudhmania Shear Zone’—As Interpreted from the Satellite Image and Its
Ground Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
D. C. Banerji

Geo-Environmental Processes
Shallow Structure and Seismic Hazard in the Coastal Odisha, India . . . . . . . . . . 189
A. K. Rai and Rama K. Nayak
A Critical Evaluation of the Role of Geotectonics in Groundwater Arsenic
Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Mohammad Ayaz Alam, Abhijit Mukherjee, and Prosun Bhattacharya
Tectonic and Structural Controls on Geothermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Mohammad Ayaz Alam
A GIS-based Approach for Morphometric Analysis of Jamini Basin
and Its Subwatersheds: Implication for Conservation of Soil and Water
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, Rahul Singh, Mohd Saif, and M. M. Singh
Morphometric and Morphotectonic Studies of Sindh Basin, Central India,
Using Advance Techniques of Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, Rahul Singh, V. K. Singh, and Adesh Patel
Morphometric Analysis of Rohni Watershed, Upper Betwa Basin,
Bundelkhand Region, Central India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
S. C. Bhatt, Sumit Mishra, Rubal Singh, and S. Bhatt
Quantitative Morphometric Analysis of Watershed of Upper Pahuj Basin,
Bundelkhand Region, Central India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
S. C. Bhatt, Rubal Singh, M. Taiyab, and S. Bhatt
Morphotectonics of Kayadhu River Basin in Washim-Hingoli-Nanded
Districts, Maharashtra: A Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Bhagwan B. Ghute and Shaikh Md. Babar
Landslide Investigations Along the Road Corridor Between Nandprayag
and Gopeshwar, Chamoli District, Uttarakhand Lesser Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Rahul Negi, R. A. Singh, Pooja Saini, Piyush K. Singh, and Harish Khali
About the Editors

Prof. Arun Kumar Shandilya is a faculty at Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Hari
Singh Gour University, Sagar, India. He has 41 years of Research and Teaching experience.
He has published more than 80 Research papers in national and International journals. He has
received Dr. V. S. Prabhakar Rao Gold Medal at graduation level (1974) and Dr. Radha
Krishana Award in 1993, by Government of Madhya Pradesh. He served as the Head
Department of Applied Geology, Dean, Student’s Welfare, Chief Coordinator (DST Instru-
mentation Centre -SIC) and Director, UGC Remedial Coaching Centre, Professor In Charge
University Store and Purchase. He has served as the Subject Expert in the UPSC, state Public
Service Commission (PSC), Scientific Terminology Commission, Govt. of India, and in the
National Working Group for International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP) of
Geological Survey of India, Kolkata. He has completed 06 Research projects and supervised
06 Ph.D. students. Presently, he is working as member of editorial board of many journals,
expert in Research Degree Committee (RDC) and Board of Studies (BOS) in various
Universities.

Prof. Vinod Kumar Singh is working on Precambrian geodynamics of Bundelkhand Craton

and teaching at Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India since November, 1999. He did Ph.D. in
Geology from University of Delhi and worked on Structure and Tectonics on Himalayan
orogenic belts. He worked on Plaeaomagnetism at Tubingen University, Germany as scientists
and co-researcher with Prof. Erwin Appel in a collaborative project funded by German
Research Council. He is working in collaboration with Institute of Geology, KRC, Petroza-
vodsk, Russia on geodynamic evolution of earth crust. Prof. Singh using integrated approach
involving new and innovative methods, geological fields indeed represent both
Archean/Proterozoic and Himalayan (and related) orogens, to understand the geodynamics of
crustal evolution. He received ILTP and DST-RFBR projects to understand the global geo-
dynamics by comparing the lithospheric structures and geodynamics of Bundelkhand Craton
and Karelian Craton with Russian collaborators Prof. A. I. Slabunov and Prof. DrSc Sergei A.
Svetov. Prof. Singh has published about sixty contributions in reputed journals, book chapters
and also edited five books and journals. He is a member of editorial board of several journals.

Prof. Suresh Chandra Bhatt a faculty in geology at Bundelkhand University Jhansi, India
has specialization in Structural and Tectonic geology, Sedimentology, and Environmental
Geology. He has distinguished record of services in academic and administrative field and has
been working at several academic and administrative positions since last two decades. He is a
recipient of Young Scientist project (1990), USSR fellowship (1987), CSIR pool scientist
(1994) and did innovative research on tectonics of Himalaya and Bundelkhand craton and on
palaeoclimate and chronosratigraphic status of Thar Desert. He authored two text books, three

xvii
xviii About the Editors

edited volumes and published more than 55 research papers. He guided five Ph.D. scholars
under his stewardship. Professor Bhatt is a life member of Geological Society of India, Indian
Society for Rock Mechanics and Tunnelling Technology, and Indian Society for Construction
and Materials. He is working as a member of editorial board of several journals.

Prof. Chandra Shekhar Dubey is presently working as a Professor Emeritus in the Faculty
of Science, Sri Sri University, Cuttack, Odisha, India. He has worked in the field of Earth and
Environmental Science for the last three decades. He worked as Vice Chancellor in Sanskriti
University Mathura and Director of Institute of Lifelong Learning and Campus of Open
Learning besides being Head, Centre of Advanced Studies, Department of Geology and Dean
of Science in University of Delhi, India. He has published 57 papers in peer reviewed
International and National Journals, one patent for removal of Arsenic and has supervised 15
Ph.D. students. He has been a visiting Professor to Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble,
France and recipient of International UNESCO CNR-Indo- Italian, NSF-DST Indo-US and
B. P. Koirala India-Nepal Fellowship grants. He has worked as a Chairman/Expert member in
several National and International committees in Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Water resources, University Grants Com-
mission, DRDO and ICDE, Norway, HKT etc.
 Geological and Geo-Environmental
Processes on Earth: Introduction

A. K. Shandilya, V. K. Singh , S. C. Bhatt, and C. S. Dubey

The geological (endogenic and exogenic) processes operat- understand the mechanism of geological processes involved
ing in interior and exterior domains of earth are bringing in crustal evolution.
dynamic changes in the lithospheric and geomorphic terrains This edited volume dedicated to late Prof. Prem Swarup
of this planet since its origin. The interplay of magmatic, Saklani addresses the multidisciplinary themes pertaining to
tectonometamorphic and metallogenic processes is continu- the role of tectonism and magmatism in crustal evolution and
ously evolving new continental and oceanic plates (blocks) global distribution of metallic and non-metallic mineral
enriched with magmatic plume and economic minerals. The deposits. It gives valuable information on geodynamic
diverging and converging margins of these blocks were evolution, structural, petrological, isotopic, metamorphic,
stressed and formed orogenic mobile belts and mountains. geochemical and geochronological attributes of continental
The undeformed stable blocks are referred to as shields and and oceanic crust and is challenging reassessments of the
cratons. These small nuclear cratonic blocks were welded existing paradigms. This book also advocates the role of
together by troughs and rifts and became a good site for tectonics in contamination of groundwater, and control of
sedimentary deposits through Precambrian. The drainage patterns and geothermal systems. It explores the
geo-environmental events manifesting as seismic, volcanic, vulnerability of earth towards natural hazards, viz. earth-
floods, cyclones and drought are poising great threat to the quakes, floods, cyclones, tsunami, volcanism, cyclones and
environment and socio-economic status of the world. These drought. This volume throws light on the applications of
calamities are attributed to causing loss of life, land and remote sensing, Geographical Information System (GIS) and
depletion of resources and are continuously reshaping the SRTM data for evaluation of the morphometric and mor-
dimension of various landscapes. photectonic parameters and exploring the susceptibility of
Despite the detailed study (based on petrological, geo- river basins toward erosion and flood.
chemical, geophysical and geochronological data) done on The book is organized into two sections; (I) Geological
geodynamics of lithospheric shield and geo-environmental Processes, (II) Geo-Environmental Processes. The main
events, the innovative research is still needed with more findings of these chapters are summarized in the following
scientific ideas to understand these processes. The present paragraphs.
days’ studies focussed on magmatic and geodynamic sys- N.B. Kuznetsov et al. discussed the structural, tectonic
tems of various shields are concentrated on U-Pb SHRIMP and geochronological status of the composite Bashkir anti-
age, Lu-Hf isotope, trace elements studies, detrital zircons clinorium of the Southern Urals consisting of two parts: the
investigations, and metallogeny of the different parts of the Bashkir (western part) and Uraltau (eastern part) Uplifts.
earth’s crust. These research investigations will be helpful to The detrital zircon from Ordovician sandstones of the
Uraltau and Bashkir Uplifts stated that the amalgamation of
the Precambrian Bashkir and Uraltau basements occurred
A. K. Shandilya before Late Ordovician. Detritus of post-Upper Ordovician
Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Hari Singh Gour University, sedimentary complexes of the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts
Sagar, India
originated from identical feeding provinces and was depos-
V. K. Singh (&)
S. C. Bhatt ited in the same basin, sealing its pre-Ordovician composite
Department of Geology, Institute of Earth Sciences, Bundelkhand
University, Jhansi, India heterogeneous basement.
e-mail: [email protected] T.V. Kaulina et al. studied the Precambrian structures of
C. S. Dubey the Kola-Karelian region of East Baltic Shield, which can be
Sri Sri University, Cuttack, India impact related. Impact signs were found in two structures of

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
A. K. Shandilya et al. (eds.), Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth, Springer Natural Hazards,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4122-0_1
2 A. K. Shandilya et al.

the Kola region: the Jarva-varaka massif of 2498 ± 6 Ma apatite-magnetite hydrothermal veins are significantly
and Javrozero structure of *1.9 Ga. They described the appearing along the Singhbhum Shear Zone and South
tectonic and metamorphic history of these two probable Purulia Shear Zones. The vast stretches of deposits may be
astroblemes and established their geochemical and operated in the large-scale mining operations, whereas
geochronological status. small-scale mining would be preferred in small-scale
A.I. Slabunov and V.K. Singh pointed out that Indian deposits.
Shield consists of Bundelkhand, Aravalli, Singhbhum, V.P. Malviya et al. reported the whole rock’s major, trace,
Bastar, Western and Eastern Dharwar Cratons. The crustal REE and PGE geochemistry and mineral chemistry of Cr-
evolutions of these cratons (except Singhbhum Craton) show spinel and other minerals of the serpentinite associated
that geodynamic mechanisms, similar to modern talc-tremolite-chlorite and chromitite rock from western
plate-tectonic and mantle-plume mechanisms, were active Bastar Craton, in Central India, which occurr as enclaves
during Paleo–Neoarchean time. However, all cratons exhibit within Amgaon granite gneiss. They suggested that serpen-
their own crustal evolution pattern in Mesoarchean. Crustal tinite and talc-tremolite schist were formed from dunite,
evolution in Neoarchean of Bundelkhand and Aravalli Cra- hurzburgitic and lherzolitic protolith, respectively. High Cr
tons, Western and Eastern Dharwar Cratons have many # indicate, high-degree of partial melting of mantle peri-
similar features, therefore, it is assumed as a part in Meso– dotite. Cr-spinel crystallized from boninitic melt at a high
Neoarchean time elements of the Kenorland Supercontinent, degree of partial melting. The IPGE (Ir, Ru) enrichment
but not in a single block. relative to PPGE (Pd, Pt, Rh) and the relatively low Pd/Ir
V. Vijaya Rao and Damodara Nara focussed on the role values suggest that their parental melts were produced by
of geological processes (external and internal) on the evo- melting of a moderately depleted peridotite similar to the
lution of crustal structures of Indian shield. They pointed out ones described for other IPGE-rich chromitites originated in
that the seismic images are providing key evidence of the back-arc basins in the supra-subduction tectonic setting.
mechanism of plate tectonics, subduction process, and O.S. Sibelev et al. documented at least three stages of
interaction of crust and mantle plume and evolution of metamorphic processes in the Central Bundelkhand terrane
sedimentary basins from Archean to Recent. The crust– of the Bundelkhand Craton: (1) ca 2.8 Ga eclogite-facies;
mantle interaction played a vital role in forming rift-basins (2) ca. 2.7 Ga amphibolites-facies and metasomatism asso-
and post-collisional extension in the form of mafic dyke ciated with its retrograde branch; (3) ca 1.9–1.8 Ga
swarms and alkaline complexes. Mantle convection process prehnite-pumpellyite-facies presumably associated with reef
is bringing the earth’s terranes together to form superconti- formation giant two-phase hydrothermal quartz veins. The
nents while scattering is caused by the accumulation of heat Mesoarchean (ca 2.8 Ga) eclogite-facies metamorphism is
above the rising convection cells due to mantle plume associated with subduction processes; Neoarchean (ca.
activity. The production of huge sediments from Himalayan 2.7 Ga) metamorphism is predetermined by
mountain ranges by erosion and weathering are responsible accretion-collision events; metamorphic processes associ-
for the formation of the world’s largest Bengal fan. ated with 2.55–2.50 Ga subduction-accretion events are
Prabhakar Sangurmath contributed to the geological extremely poorly defined; the latest Paleoproterozoic (1.9–
characteristics of Archean Orogenic Hutti gold deposits of 1.8 Ga) prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metamorphism is asso-
India. He remarked that the Dharwar gold deposits are ciated with rifting in the Bundelkhand Craton.
confined to subparallel reefs hosted within sheared metaba- V.K. Singh et al. confirmed that the Bundelkhand Craton
salts and are processing 2500 tons of ore body per day in six consists of three Tectonostratigraphic terranes: Central,
reefs. The detailed underground geological studies on indi- Northern and Southern Bundelkhand terrane. This tectonic
vidual lodes are essential to obtain ore shoots extension division is in good agreement with available geodynamic
along the strike as well as at depth, for the Hutti Gold Mine, models showing the evolution of the craton. Individual ter-
which seems to be a suitable area. rane displays its own Paleo–Mesoarchean evolution pattern.
Yamuna Singh has presented a synthesis of rare-earth In the Neoarchean, that they amalgamated during an
deposits hosted in various geological domains of India. accretion-collision event and became one crustal block, a
According to him, the rare earth in beach placer deposits craton was built.
occur in the eastern and western coast of India and the S.C. Bhatt and V.K. Singh have remarked that the central
Chhotanagpur granitic complex is found rich in heavy Bundelkhand tectonic unit delineated by E-W sub-vertical
rare-earth-bearing stream placer deposits in Jharkhand and Neoarchean crustal shear zone was subjected to three phases
Chhattisgarh. Amba Dongar and Kamthai are rich in of deformations (D1-D3), which were followed by D4 mag-
carbonatite-hosted rare-earth deposits in Western India, matic and NE-SW trending D5 Riedel shears (quartz reefs).
whereas low-grade Y ore was found in the Samchampi The central Babina-Prithvipur shear zone (*500 m wide)
carbonatite complex. The concentrations of REE-bearing are characterized by mylonitic foliation, asymmetrical
Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth: Introduction 3

rotated porphyroblasts (ra and rb mantled clasts), asym- the oil and gas industry, based on how geothermal resources
metrical pressure shadows and deformation lamellae. The can be found and developed effectively. An array and
sinistral top-to-SW sense of shear movement was dominant combination of tectonic and structural conditions that favor
and the presence of undulose extinction and deformation geothermal systems’ existence and sustenance have been
lamellae infers that the crystal plastic process was dominant presented with examples.
during the evolution of mylonite. S.C. Bhatt et al. carried out the quantitative morphometric
D.C. Banerjee presented a detailed synthesis of field geol- analysis of the Jamini watershed by using advanced tech-
ogy combined with imagery analysis from WNW-ESE niques of remote sensing and GIS. They inferred that the
trending Dudhmania Shear Zone. It is unique in its charac- mean bifurcation ratio of Jamini and its all sub-watersheds
teristics, having cross-cut relationship with the ENE-WSW are suggestive of strong structural control. The drainage
trending Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Mahakoshal Group. He density reveals that the impermeable soil is indicative of low
stated that the WNW-ESE Dudhmania shear zone is evolved groundwater storage capacity in hard rock granitic terrain.
by mylonitization of rocks of Agori and Parsoi Formations of The form factor, elongation and circulatory ratios imply that
Mahakoshal Group, and was affected by a non-coaxial sinis- the Jamini basin and its sub-watersheds are significantly
tral movement between the northern Obra-Amsi-Jiawan fault elongated and show a low peak flow of longer duration. The
and the southern Songarh-Kasar-Dudhi fault. Ruggedness and Melton ruggedness number infers that the
A.K. Rai and R.K. Nayak discussed methods to deter- terrain is slightly rugged and less prone to erosion and
mine the shallow crustal structure, and its importance in sediment transport. The S-shaped hypsometric curves are
understanding the site characteristics and the seismic haz- indicating moderate susceptibility of the basin towards ero-
ards. They used ambient noise records to compute Hori- sion whereas the hypsometric index values are suggestive of
zontal to vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) and estimate the occurrence of mature geomorphic terrain with moderately
peak frequency, whereas multi-channel surface wave eroded landscapes.
(MASW) dispersion data were used to estimate shallow S.C. Bhatt et al. have presented the morphometric and
subsurface velocities. They conclude that shallow seismic morphotectonic attributes of the Sindh basin of central India.
parameters could provide critical information which can be They concluded that the low density and frequency of the
used for assessment of impacts of natural hazards, and par- watershed is indicative of the occurrence of coarse perme-
ticularly the seismic hazard in a region. Nearly 40% popu- able soil in the low relief terrain of the basin. The elongation
lation which resides within 100 km of the coastline are ratio and form factor reveal that the basin is elongated and
vulnerable to various types of natural hazards such as less prone to erosion. The high density of lineaments rep-
earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, etc. resented by fractures, faults, foliations corresponds the ori-
M.A. Alam et al. focused on delineation and segmenta- entations of low-order streams. The high-order streams
tion of Arsenic enriched portions of the lithosphere, based on following major NE-SW trending lineaments are controlled
some insightful works and representative examples from by major tectonic features.
across the world, form the basis for discussing the role of Further, S.C. Bhatt et al. stated that the Rohni watershed
geotectonics in Arsenic contamination of aquifers in this of Bundelkhand of central India represented by dendritic
chapter. Apart from the origin and development of the drainage pattern is structurally controlled. The five
magmatic arc, which is the primary source of Arsenic, the sub-watersheds of this watershed showing high Rho Coef-
chapter deals with the geotectonic control for other primary ficient value is suggestive of high hydrologic storage and the
Arsenic sources as well, viz. Arsenic-enriched hydrothermal form factor and elongation ratio indicates that the basin is
and magmatic fluids that contaminate surface and ground- elongated and is less prone to erosion and flood. The youth
water, natural leaching of ore (especially metal sulfide) and mature stages are dominant in the basin with semiper-
deposits that releases Arsenic to surrounding environments, meable soil and less erosion exposure. The drainage orien-
which is accelerated by metal mining and processing activ- tation is represented by polymodal distribution (NE-SW,
ities, and coal deposits and hydrocarbon reservoirs, together E-W and NW-SE) and the ENE-WSW trending high order
with the exploitation processes of both these fuel resources. streams show major tectonic control.
M.A. Alam discussed the role of regional (tectonic) and S.C. Bhatt et al. attempted the morphometric evaluation
local (structural) controls on the geothermal systems, with of the Upper Pahuj basin of the Bundelkhand region of
representative examples from across the world. The discus- Central India. Five orders of streams showing dendritic
sion takes a break from the traditional description of the drainage pattern are inherently controlled by geological
geothermal systems as high-medium-low enthalpy, liquid or structures. The moderate drainage density and low frequency
vapor dominated, etc., and focuses on what defines and are suggestive of low infiltration rate and have sparse veg-
drives the geothermal systems. It follows the concept of etation on less permeable rocky terrain. The low elongation
treating the geothermal systems as “play types'’, similar to ratio and form factor infer that the basin catchment is
4 A. K. Shandilya et al.

elongated and is showing low peak flows of greater intervals. sensitivity of earth. It would be beneficial to researchers,
The circulatory ratio and ruggedness number indicate that planners, graduate and post-graduate students at the global
the youth stage was dominant in the basin and the terrain is level.
showing moderate slope and slight morphology. We are extremely thankful to the Department of Geology,
B.B. Ghute and S. Md. Babar have attempted the mor- Bundelkhand University, Jhansi for providing facilities to
photectonic and morphometric analysis of the Kayadhu river complete the editorial work of this book. We express our
basin in Washim-Hingoli-Nanded districts, Maharashtra. gratitude to Mr. Mukul Saklani for providing the bio-data of
They inferred that the geomorphic indices of the river show his father late Prof. P.S. Saklani. We are highly grateful to
a positive marker of the tectonic inscription on the drainage Prof. Prosun Bhattacharya for helping us in correcting the
network. According to them, the moderate hypsometric relevant part of the ‘Dedication’ of this volume. We grate-
integral value indicates that the basin is still under a mature fully acknowledge Mr. Aninda Bose and Ms. Silky Abhay
stage of erosion. The presence of Knick points implies that Sinha of Springer Nature for their immense help and support
southwestward tilting of the drainage basins with asymmetry during several stages of editing of the book. We extend our
exhibits the lineament control on smaller tributaries and the sincere thanks to all the authors for their scientific contribu-
area is inherently influenced by tectonics. tion to this volume. We are deeply grateful and extend our
In the last chapter of this dedicated volume, Negi et al. thanks to all the following reviewers for giving their con-
have carried out landslide investigations between the structive and fruitful reviews on the manuscripts within the
Nandprayag and Gopeshwar corridor in the Chamoli district timelines for this dedicated book: Alper Baba, Victor Bala-
of Uttarakhand, India. They studied six landslides along this gansky, Suresh C. Bhatt, Tapas K. Biswal, A.K. Biyani,
corridor for a detailed study and found that the rainfall, Ramon Carbonell, Gautam K. Dinkar, M.L. Dora, Syed Hilal
slope, lithology, geological structures, drainage, cutting of Farooq, Adam A. Garde, Bhagwan Ghute, Dinesh Gupta,
mountain slope for road widening, toe cutting by river play Varun Joshi, J.R. Kayal, Niteshkumar N. Khonde, Alok
an important role in increasing landslides in this region. Kumar, Niraj Kumar, Rajinder Kumar, Manoj Limaye,
Therefore, it is essential to identify the safe and unsafe zones Jyotirmoy Mallik, Vivek P. Malviya, S.N. Mohapatra, Wal-
and the geological and geotechnical investigations are con- ter D. Mooney, R.C. Patel, B.C. Prabhakar, Divya Prakash,
sidered important factors to be studied before carrying out Ritesh Purohit, Abhishek K. Rai, D.S. Rao, D.V. Subba Rao,
any major construction in such a vulnerable hilly terrain. Jyotisankar Ray, Ajit K. Sahoo, Uma Shankar, Dhruv Sen
This book has wide perspectives of understanding the Singh, Sandeep Singh, Padum K. Singh (departed), A.I.
geodynamic, tectonic and petrogenetic history of mineral- Slabunov, Vaibhava Srivastava, Sergei Svetov, Joseline
ized domains of earth’s crust and geoenvironmental Soledad Tapia, Sanjeet K. Verma and K.S. Vignesh.
Geological Processes
 A Composite Structure of the Bashkir
Anticlinorium: Insights from Detrital Zircons
Search in Ordovician Sandstones
of the Uraltau Uplift, Southern Urals

N. B. Kuznetsov , T. V. Romanyuk , and E. A. Belousova

Abstract Precambrian strata of the Bashkir Uplift and Kazakhstan

have revealed that the Upper Ordovician sandstones of
The Bashkir anticlinorium is an extensive outcrop of
the northern part of the Uraltau Uplift contain dZr “alien”
Precambrian rocks within the Southern Urals, located
to crystalline complexes of Volga-Uralia, Kazakhstan,
near the south-eastern edge of the East European Platform
and Late Precambrian strata of the Bashkir Uplift. The
(EEP). The Bashkir anticlinorium is subdivided by the
sources of these “alien” dZr were other crustal blocks.
Zyuratkul fault into two parts: the Bashkir (western part)
A very high similarity of the age spectra of dZr from the
and Uraltau (eastern part) Uplifts. The Late Precambrian
Upper Ordovician sandstones, which overlain the Late
strata of the Bashkir Uplift were formed at a passive
Precambrian rocks units of the Uraltau and Bashkir
margin of the Volga-Uralian part of Baltica. In contrast,
Uplifts allows concluding that the spatial conjunction of
the Late Precambrian strata of the Uraltau Uplift were
the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts had occurred before the
formed far from its present-day location. Later, the
Late Ordovician time. Post-Upper Ordovician sedimen-
Uraltau Uplift block moved along the Zyuratkul fault to
tary complexes of the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts were
its present-day position with a large-amplitude displace-
sourced from identical feeding provinces in the same
ment. This study presents the first results of the integrated
sedimentary basin, sealing its composite pre-Upper
(U-Pb age, Hf-isotope and trace-elements contents) study
Ordorvician heterogeneous basement.
of detrital zircons (dZr) from the Upper Ordovician
sandstones of the northern part of the Uraltau Uplift. The
Keywords

integrated characteristics of the studied dZr provide new

constraints for their primary sources. A comparison of Southern Urals Bashkir anticlinorium Bashkir and

obtained data with rock types, U-Pb and Hf model ages of Uraltau Uplifts Ordovician Detrital zircons U-Pb
the crystalline complexes of the of Volga-Uralia base- age Hf systematic Trace-elements Provenance
ment, as well as characteristics of dZr from Late Sources

N. B. Kuznetsov
Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pygevsky 7,
Moscow, 119017, Russian Federation
1 Introduction and Geological Settings
N. B. Kuznetsov (&)
Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy
of Sciences, Lermontova St. 128, Irkutsk, 664033, Russian The Bashkir anticlinorium (BA) is located in the west of the
Federation Southern Urals (Fig. 1a). The BA is an extensive outcrop of
N. B. Kuznetsov
E. A. Belousova Precambrian rocks, traditionally interpreted as a relic of a
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Core to Late Precambrian passive margin of Baltica (Precambrian
Crust Fluid Systems/GEMOC, Macquarie University, Sydney, basement of the East European Platform) and its Early
NSW 2019, Australia Precambrian basement (Puchkov 2010), or a relic of an
N. B. Kuznetsov inland rift-like basin, transformed at the beginning of the
Рeoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 6 Paleozoic into a passive margin of Baltica (Ivanov 1998).
Miklukho-Maklaya St, Moscow, 117198, Russian Federation
The BA is divided into two parts by the Zyuratkul fault:
T. V. Romanyuk Bashkir Uplift and the northern Uraltau Uplift (Figs. 1b, c).
Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of
Science, B. Gruzinskaya 10, Moscow, 123242, Russian Federation

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 7
A. K. Shandilya et al. (eds.), Geological and Geo-Environmental Processes on Earth, Springer Natural Hazards,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4122-0_2
8 N. B. Kuznetsov et al.

Fig. 1 Scheme of the geological

structure of the northern part of
the Western-Uralian megazone of
the Southern Urals (the Bashkir
anticlinorium) and the positions
of the samples discussed in the
text (B). Compiled using data
from V.I. Kozlov (small-scale
geological map, Ufa sheet), as
well as authors’ own materials.
Faults: ZF = Zyuratkul,
MUF = Main Uralian. Insert in
the upper left corner: stratigraphic
charts of the Bashkir and Uraltau
Uplifts for Lower and Middle
Riphean (C). A Index scheme

To the west of the Zyuratkul fault within the Bashkir metamorphosed and experienced Pre-Ordovician deforma-
Uplift, the Upper Precambrian Formations occur and did not tions (Golionko and Artemova 2016; Puchkov 2010) are
experience Pre-Ordovician deformations and metamorphism widespread eastward the Zyuratkul fault within the northern
(Puchkov 2010). Their lower part is composed of predomi- Uraltau Uplift (Uraltau Uplift hereafter). Middle Riphean
nantly sedimentary (including the bottom level of the Early volcanic and intrusive rocks (Mashak, Shatak, and Kuvash
Riphean) non-metamorphosed rocks interpreted as a Formations) are widely represented here (Ivanov 1998;
strato-typical Riphean section (Stratotype 1983; Ivanov Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010).
1998; Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010). The upper part is In the western and south-western Bashkir Uplift, the
composed of terrigenous formations of the Upper Vendian Upper Precambrian Formations are covered by the Paleozoic
Asha Group (Maslov 2004; Puchkov 2010) or Upper strata, the section of which begins with low-thickness Upper
Vendian-Cambrian in age (Kuznetsov and Shazillo 2011). Emsian quartzous sandstones (Takaty Formation) (Kuznet-
Late Precambrian Formations that are unevenly sov et al. 2014a, b; Puchkov 2010). At the same time, in the
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights … 9

southern Bashkir Uplift and within the Uraltau Uplift, the approach makes it more reliable to identify the source rocks
Paleozoic section begins with a thin-thickness of Upper of detrital zircons and to reconstruct the evolution of the
Ordovician quartzous sandstones (Kuznetsov et al. 2016; supplying provinces than can be done based on U-Pb ages of
Puchkov 2010). The oldest sedimentary units overlying the detrital zircons only (Veevers et al. 2005, 2006; Belousova
Asha Group are Lower Devonian in age (Takaty Formation) et al. 2015; Romanyuk et al. 2018; Kuznetsov et al. 2018,
in the western part of the Bashkir Uplift and Middle 2019). The study of dZr was carried out using LA-ICP-MS
Ordovician age in the southern one. The most striking dif- technique, a description of which and detailed methodology
ference between the Paleozoic Formations that overlay the are given in previous publications (Griffin et al. 2000;
Upper Precambrian complexes within the Bashkir and Ural- Jackson et al. 2004).
tau Uplifts is the nature of parallel and angular unconformi- U-Pb ages with discordance D: 10% > D > −5% are
ties between these rocks and the underlying formations. used to plot the histograms and probability density plots
Differences in the structure of the Precambrian Forma- (PDP) of the ages (Ludwig 2012; Vermeesch 2012, 2018).
tions of the western and eastern parts of the BA (see Fig. 1C) For zircons with age over 1 Ga, the used age is calculated
made it possible to suggest its composite structure (Kuz- based on 206Pb/207Pb ratio, for zircons with age younger than
netsov 2009). In accordance with this, the Bashkir Uplift is a 1 Ga, 206Pb/238U ratio was used.
relic of a Late Precambrian passive margin of Baltica Attempts to determine such characteristics of individual
(Kuznetsov et al. 2013; Romanyuk et al. 2013), and the zircon grains as indicators of magmatic, metamorphic or
Uraltau Uplift is a relic of an alien structure in relation to the hydrothermal (sometimes called «metasomatic») nature of a
contiguous part of Baltica. The Uraltau Uplift block moved crystal (or even separate its core/rim), a forecast of the type of
along the Zyuratkul fault to its present-day position with a parental rocks of zircon, assessment of crystallization tem-
large-amplitude dextral displacement (Kuznetsov 2009). peratures, zoning, etc., by the morphology of the crystal and
To develop and to test the idea of a composite structure of metamict zones features in it, optical, CL-and BSE-images,
the BA (i.e. to unravel the ultimate origin and nature of the contents of trace and REE for zircon, the composition of
Uraltau Uplift block and details of its evolution, as well as to gas/fluid and inherited inclusions and other data, have a very
constrain the time of conjugation of the Bashkir and Uraltau long history (Heaman et al. 1990; Hoskin et al. 2000; Hoskin
Uplifts), we have studied detrital zircons (dZr) from different and Ireland 2000; Griffin et al. 2000, 2004; Liu et al. 2001;
stratigraphic units of the Bashkir and Uraltau Uplifts Belousova et al. 2002, 2006, 2010, 2015; Corfu et al. 2003;
(Romanyuk et al. 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019a, b, 2000; Hoskin and Schaltegger 2003; Liu and Xu 2004; Watson
Kuznetsov et al. 2012, 2013, 2014a, b, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018). et al. 2006; Hawkesworth and Kemp 2006; Harrison et al.
This paper deals with the first results of the integrated detrital 2007; Grimes et al. 2007, 2015; Ferry and Watson 2007;
zircons study of the Upper Ordovician sandstones (sample Fedotova et al. 2008; Fu et al. 2008; Skublov et al. 2012;
K12-006), which overlap unevenly metamorphosed Late Fornelli et al. 2014; Chapman et al. 2016 and many others).
Precambrian rocks of the Uraltau Uplift with an angular But unlike the study of U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotopic systems of
unconformity. The integrated characteristics of individual zircons, where there have been developed common adopted
detrital zircon grains aim to better identify the provenance of technologies, the interpretation of concentrations of trace and
dZr and to try to reveal relationships of affinity or alien rela- REE elements in zircons has not been yet developed up to a
tionships between studied strata and those of Volga-Uralia, generally accepted technology.
Kazakhstan and the Western Urals. This paper focuses on a There were many attempts to develop some criteria to
comparison of age spectra of dZr from Ordovician sandstones distinguish magmatic, metamorphic and hydrothermal zir-
of the Uraltau Uplift (sample K12-006) and age spectra of dZr cons (e.g. Rubin et al. 1989, 1993; Corfu and Davis 1991;
from Ordovician sandstones of the Bashkir Uplift (sample Claoue-Long et al. 1990; Kerrich and King 1993; Ramezani
K12-025), which overlap non-metamorphosed Late Precam- et al. 2000; Hu et al. 2004; Hoskin 2005; Schaltegger et al.
brian rocks with a parallel unconformity. 2005; Pettke et al. 2005; Kebede et al. 2007; Pelleter et al.
2007; Fu et al. 2009; Rubatto 2017 and many others). For
example, Hoskin and Schaltegger (2003) had tried to sum-
2 Methodology marize textural and compositional characteristics of
hydrothermal zircons, but they had to conclude that the
The study was carried out using the TerraneChron®, ana- characteristics are not definitive. The hydrothermal zircons
lytical approach (Griffin et al. 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007; may be zoned or unzoned on cathodoluminescence images
Belousova et al. 2002, 2006) developed at the (CLI); spongy in texture; anhedral or faceted in morphology;
CCSF/GEMOC Center (Macquarie University, Sydney). and either high or low in common-Pb. By now, there are no
The methodology integrates in situ U-Pb age, trace-element doubtless criteria to distinguish between metamorphic and
and Lu-Hf-isotope analyses on zircons. Such an integrated magmatic zircons.
10 N. B. Kuznetsov et al.

Nevertheless, it has been reliably established that certain fractionation of their parent magmas and reflect the trends in
statistical trends and appreciable differences in the their composition in the direction from the primitive crust
trace-elements contents are recorded in zircons from certain towards a more enriched crust. The diagrams «U/Yb versus
types of rocks and different origins (Hoskin and Ireland Hf» and «U/Yb versus Nb/Yb» are most statistically effec-
2000; Hoskin 2005; Belousova et al. 2002, 2006, 2015; tive for distinguishing between zircons from oceanic basalts
Schulz et al. 2006; Fedotova et al. 2008; Kaczmarek et al. and zircons from the continental crust (Grimes et al. 2015).
2008; Kostitsyn et al. 2015; Fershtater et al. 2012; Grimes Important information on zircons is carried by the REE
et al. 2015, and others). Thus, in general, Rare Earth Ele- spectra, which are represented in the form of values nor-
ments (REE) contents in zircons increase from basic rocks malized to chondrite (we use the values for CI-chondrite
(gabbroids and basaltoids), in which the total content of REE from (McDonough and Sun 1995)). A monotonic increase in
is (5–10)  100 ppm up to (1–2)  1000 ppm, to felsic the content of elements from light to heavy is typical for the
rocks (granitoids and their effusive analogs), in which the normalized REE spectra of zircons, which is complicated by
total content of REE is (2–5)  1000 ppm. Furthermore, the two anomalies: positive Ce and negative Eu.
REE contents in zircons from pegmatites and nepheline The REE spectra of zircons from granitoids are highly
syenites can reach even 1–3 mass %. For such rocks as ordered for the heavy REEs: in the interval from Dy to Lu,
kimberlites, the typical total content of REE in zircons is the slope of the zircon spider diagrams is rather stable. Its
usually less than 50 ppm. In zircons from carbonatites and value is characterized by the Lu/Dy (sometimes Yb/Sm or
lamproites the total REE content is larger and can increase Lu/Gd) ratio, and the contents of the heaviest REEs (Yb and
up to 500 ppm (Belousova et al. 2002, 2015), but its average Lu) are used as a marker for classifications. Statistically, the
value is 100–250 ppm (Hoskin and Ireland, 2000). zircon that is crystallized in the igneous rock has a steeper
An important indicator is the Th/U ratio (see the review slope for heavy REEs (larger Yb/Sm values) than the crystal
by Kirkland et al. 2015; Rubatto 2017), which varies from formed in rocks of high degrees of metamorphism (Rubatto
0.1 to 1 in most zircons. Low Th/U ratios are statistically and Hermann 2007; Rubatto 2017).
considered to be characteristic of zircon crystals of meta- For zircons of high-temperature metamorphic origin,
morphic origin, unlike zircons of magmatic origin. However, which are crystallized in the presence of garnet, the lower
there is still no consensus on the threshold Th/U value: in heavy REE and Y are described (Rubatto 2002; Rubatto and
different works, values Th/U from 0.5 to 0.1 are established. Hermann 2007; Fedotova et al. 2008; Skublov et al. 2012;
Thus, value 0.5 in (Kirkland et al. 2015), 0.2 in (Hoskin and Fornelli et al. 2014), because the garnet competes with zir-
Schaltegger 2003), 0.1 in (Teipel et al. 2004). In general, the con on these items. For eclogites, also a low Th concentra-
accumulated data (see Rubatto 2017) indicate that Th/U tion (no higher than 3 ppm on average) and a significant
values from 0.5 to 0.1 are fixed in zircons of both magmatic decrease in the concentrations of all REE (to 22 ppm) and
and metamorphic origin. For example, zircon rims from the particularly LREE (<2 ppm), and relatively low concentra-
Sulu UHP mafic and felsic rocks show higher values of Th/U tions of Y (34 ppm), U (100 ppm), and P (41 ppm) at an
up to 0.4 (Zhang et al. 2009). On the other hand, zircons elevated Hf concentration (11 400 ppm on average) have
crystallized in granites at low temperatures are characterized been revealed (Skublov et al. 2012).
by higher U contents and lower Th, which, as a result, leads The discriminative «(Sm/La)N versus La» and «Ce/Ce*
to lower Th/U values in low-temperature crystals (Harrison versus (Sm/La)N» diagrams based on distinct REE patterns
et al. 2007). Therefore, in the diagrams, we mark the interval from magmatic and hydrothermal zircons were presented in
Th/U from 0.5 to 0.1 as «Zircons magmatic or metamorphic (Hoskin 2005). Further researches revealed that not all data
origin» and believe that only zircons with a ratio Th/U < 0.1 points reported for zircons which are thought to be
can have a metamorphic origin with a high degree of hydrothermal ones fill in the «hydrothermal» area in this
probability. discriminate diagram (Fu et al. 2009). However, the pro-
High ratios of Th/U > 1.5, together with other charac- posed in (Hoskin, 2005) signs of «uplifted» LREEs spectra
teristics, are statistically inherent in zircons from mafic rocks (a higher content of La (La > * 2 ppm) and a lower
(Heaman et al. 1990; Kaczmarek et al. 2008; Linnemann (Sm/La)N ((Sm/La)N < 10))) and weak Ce/Ce* anomaly
et al. 2011). It can’t be ignored that in the zircons with high (Ce/Ce* < 10) are the effective indicators to suppose if not a
Th/U are sometimes formed in environments of high degrees pure hydrothermal origin of zircon, but at least a
of metamorphism (Wanless et al. 2011). hydrothermal imprint on the zircon. Metamictic zircons also
Very low U/Yb ratios are recorded for zircons from often show «uplifted» LREE spectra.
oceanic basalts NMORB (U/Yb < 0.1) (Grimes et al. 2015). The above information was summarized in the scheme of
Higher values U/Yb are not unique and can be inherent in a classification shown in Fig. 2 to distinguish between a
wide range of rocks. However, in general, an increase in the magmatic/metamorphic/hydrothermal origin of zircon. For
ratio of U/Yb and the Hf content in zircons indicate the zircons whose magmatic origin is supposed, the CART
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights … 11

zircon is classified as «?syenite/monzonite» and is addi-

tionally checked in other classification diagrams (Summary
REE versus Ti and REE spectra). The reliability of this
approach and the percentage of misclassification are dis-
cussed in Belousova et al. (2002).

3 Sampling Rocks; Separation, Imaging,

Morphology and Analytical Results
of Detrital Zircons Study

3.1 Sampling Rocks, Imaging and Morphology

Zircons, Measurements, Standards

Sample K12-006 (*1.5 kg) was collected from the

light-yellow fine-middle-grained quartzous sandstones in the
basal level of the Paleozoic section (see sample location in
Fig. 1) on the south-western slope of the Yuryuzan syncline
(53°36′21.15″ N and 58°46′57.30″ E) on the left side of the
Tyulyuk spring (a right tributary of the Yuryuzan River).
Approximately 300 zircon grains were separated from the
sample (technology is described in Romanyuk et al. 2018),
of which 202 randomly selected grains were mounted into an
epoxy disk.
Fig. 2 The scheme of classification of detrital zircons (dZr) from
Zircons were studied with a microscope and in cathode
sample K12-006 based on the CART algorithm (Belousova et al. 2002);
a number of dZr of each type in studied samples are marked by green rays and backscattered electrons (BSE). All grains are
bold italic letters rounded, mostly small (<100 µm). Almost all dZr contain
inherited inclusions, metamict zones, and in some cases are
algorithm (Belousova et al. 2002) was applied to predict a broken by cracks. These are indications that zircons partic-
type of parental zircon rocks. The main purpose of using the ipated in magmatic/metamorphic processing (Corfu et al.
CART algorithm is the primary separation of zircons, the 2003). For dating, we selected grains in which we managed
parental rocks for which there could be rare rock complexes to map out areas (Ø  40 µm) using CLI without obvious
(«specific» zircons), from zircons from granitoids and their metamictization, violations, inclusions and cracks.
effusive material analogues, which are the main sources of At the first stage, the simultaneous measurement of the
zircon. The latter, as a result of the classification, are subdi- U-Pb-isotope system and trace-elements contents of dZr was
vided by the percentage of SiO2 in the rock into three groups executed, at the second stage, a separated study of the
—rocks with reduced (SiO2 < 65%), normal (SiO2 = 65– Lu-Hf-isotope system of the selected dZr were executed.
75%) and increased (SiO2 > 75%) SiO2 contents. For the Measurements of the parameters of the U-Pb-isotope system
sake of brevity, these groups are called, respectively, «dior- in zircons were carried out with the Red-JG-1 zircon stan-
ite», «granite» and «leucogranite» and corresponding zircons dard for calibration (Jackson et al. 2004; Elhlou et al. 2006),
as «dioritic», «granitic», «leucogranitic». and Mud-Tank and 91,500 as measured zircons for moni-
Unlike zircons from «granites» or «diorites», which form toring. During the measurements, the mean ages were
large groups, are determined and interpreted statistically, the Mud-Tank = 737 ± 5 Ma (n = 7) and 91,500 = 1059 ± 8
identification of «specific» zircons requires «manual» testing Ma (n = 7), which agrees with the ages of these standards
and debugging, checking the occurrence of measured (Wienedbeck et al. 1995, 2004; Jackson et al. 2004; Black
trace-elements concentrations at boundary marker values for et al. 2004; Yuan et al. 2008; Horstwood et al. 2016).
the concentrations of the elements the CART algorithm Measurements of the Lu–Hf-isotope system were moni-
operates on. For example, a content of Y = 4433 ppm is the tored by Mud-Tank and Temora II zircon standards. During
marker to distinguish between «granite» and the measurements, the average ratio of 176Hf/177Hf was
«syenite/monzonite». If content Y in zircon is a little bit less 0.282551 ± 0.0000086 (n = 4) for Mud-Tank and
than 4433 ppm, for example, Y = 4400 ppm, then this 0.282619 ± 0.000025 (n = 4) for Temora II, which is in
12 N. B. Kuznetsov et al.

agreement with the values for these zircon standards (Jack-

son et al. 2004; Yuan et al. 2008). Measurement of the
content of trace elements in dZr was carried out for 22
elements, the NIST standard was used for external control.
Data processing was performed using the commercial pro-
gram “GLITTER” (Griffin et al. 2008) and the programs
(Ludwig 2012; Vermeesch 2012, 2018) available in the
public free access.

3.2 U–Pb Age Results

A total of 70 analyses were performed. For 12 grains, a large

analytical error (>50 Ma, #51) or strongly discordant anal-
yses (#17, 24, 51, 77 and 41) have been obtained (Fig. 3).
These analyses were excluded from consideration. The
remaining 58 analyses were used to plot the age histogram
and the PDP (Fig. 4a). The youngest age is 530 ± 4 Ma
(D = 6.8%, #30) and the oldest is 2885 ± 31 Ma
(D = −0.3%, #50).
Fig. 4 Histograms and the Probability Density Plot (PDP) of U-Pb
ages («conditioned» analyses only) (A) and Th/U values (B) of detrital
zircons from sample K12-006. PDP (green line) for sample K12-025
3.3 Zircon Trace-Element Content and Parental (Ordovician, Bashkir Uplift, Kuznetsov et al. 2016) is added in (A)
Rock Type Classification

When studying the trace-elements content (Figs. 4b, 5, 6, 7, grains # 19, 28, 43, 44, 45, 46, 56, 84, 95 and 101 (the
8, 9, 10, 11 and 12), the La content was not determined for content is below the detection limit). Further, for calculating
Ce anomalies, the La content for these zircons was adopted
at 0.01 ppm. Five grains have yielded anomaly high P and Y
contents (Table 1), which may suggest an apatite inclusion in
the LA crater. They also show very high contents of total
REE and Ti (Fig. 7). They are marked as «apatite» in
Table 1.
Zircon #101 showed very low Th/U = 0.03 (Fig. 4b) and
it was classified as «metamorphic». It also differs from other
zircons in a high content of Hf (Fig. 9) and steep REE
spectra in heavy REE (Figs. 6 and 8).
Seven zircons (#14, 30, 34, 41, 49, 62 and 65) showed
elevated La content of more than 2 ppm and weak Ce/Ce*
anomalies less than 10. Their data points on discriminant
diagrams in Fig. 5 fall in a field far besides «Magmatic
zircons fields», so they were classified as «non-magmatic»
zircons. Two zircons (#30 and 49) from «non-magmatic»
zircons fit well to fields of «Hydrothermal zircons» in dis-
criminant diagrams of Fig. 5 and were classified as
«Hydrothermal zircons». The rest «non-magmatic» zircons
Fig. 3 Results of the U-Pb dating of detrital zircons from the K12-006 are marked as «Metamictic». There were revealed no zircons
sample. A—Concordia and ellipses (some with analysis numbers), with flat REE spectra in heavy REE (Figs. 6 and 8) that
showing a 68.3% confidence interval for measurements. B, C and D (at
the grey background)—the enlarged fragments of Concordia. Classi-
would suggest their «HTM-Gr» origin, neither zircons with
fication of the zircons (see Table 1 and Fig. 2): “SM” = «syenite/mon- the signature of NMORB (Fig. 12).
zonite», “?SM” = «granite», but probably «syenite/monzonite», For the 58 detrital zircons having the most probable
“Carb” = «carbonatite», “Metamict” = metamictic zircon, “Hydroth” = magmatic origin, the CART classification (Fig. 2) indicates
hydrothermal zircon, “Apatite” = apatite inclusion in the LA sam-
pling, “Metam” = metamorphic zircon
that the parental rocks were most likely «granites» (24) and
Table 1 Some characteristics of the studied zircons with specific trace-element contents and results of their classification
# Analysis Th/U P Y La Yb Lu U Total LuCI Hf U–Pb D% eHf TDMC Classification
# (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) REE /DyCI % Age ± 1S (Epsilon (Ga)
(ppm) (Ma) Hf)
1 1 0.43 1826 4353 0.38 1245 219 464 2835 5.42 2.13 1968 ± 18 2.7 −4.2 ± 0.7 2.9 ?SM
2 10 0.52 525 5249 0.28 1344 227 672 3260 4.25 1.47 1230 ± 17 0.8 5.5 ± 0.7 1.7 SM
3 12 0.42 1820 4334 0.16 1336 239 367 2837 6.60 2.09 1937 ± 15 −2.0 0.4 ± 0.6 2.6 ?SM
4 14 0.89 165 1930 2.66 446 89 154 1063 3.27 1.36 1969 ± 19 −8.8 Metc
5 15 0.55 12,698 28,252 47.88 1721 230 1184 11,035 7.52 1.05 2651 ± 22 45.2 Apatite
6 19 0.741 271 429 <0.008 116 20.5 98 287 4.82 1.90 2703 ± 17 −0.8 −2.5 ± 0.5 3.3 Carbon
7 24 0.465 20,163 36,674 9.23 5851 798 1018 20,244 1.66 2.11 *1842 ± 83 35.7 Apatite
8 30 0.784 3080 1768 68.32 587 107 685 1626 6.72 1.71 530 ± 4 6.8 7.3 ± 0.5 1.1 Hydroth
9 34 0.497 789 1647 2 431 77 576 1212 3.53 1.90 1941 ± 47 11.0 Metc
10 41 0.65 1349 4202 2.48 636 105 741 2701 1.44 1.96 *2556 ± 22 19.1 Metc
11 49 0.546 3302 4402 45.52 1153 196 230 3127 4.13 1.60 1269 ± 31 4.6 Hydroth
12 51 0.372 12,081 16,806 74.72 3322 509 3106 10,750 2.50 1.56 435 ± 4 −2.4 Apatite
13 52 0.35 537 5058 0.26 1317 219 785 3194 4.33 1.89 2027 ± 26 0.03 4.2 ± 0.6 2.4 SM
A Composite Structure of the Bashkir Anticlinorium: Insights …

14 54 0.474 1568 4207 0.95 972 163 806 2800 3.27 1.90 1292 ± 52 6.4 ?SM
15 57 0.221 2567 5241 0.84 2365 439 499 4384 11.27 2.21 1692 ± 18 2.9 -1.1 ± 1.0 2.5 SM
16 62 0.555 261 1725 2.08 401 69 112 1127 3.39 1.44 1208 ± 30 0.1 5.5 ± 0.4 1.7 Metc
17 65 0.44 600 3245 2.97 840 145 414 2050 4.53 1.96 1185 ± 29 −0.1 Metc
18 71 0.48 302 3940 0.15 1064 163 483 2559 3.93 1.65 1593 ± 44 1.4 ?SM
19 77 0.124 6947 15,024 7.46 2220 368 2659 8302 1.67 2.70 *1850 ± 50 3.0 Apatite
20 86 2.034 10,818 14,468 111.37 3082 520 2537 11,678 2.39 1.31 549 ± 71 71.7 Apatite
21 96 0.81 611 8632 0.20 2323 394 926 5392 4.87 1.53 1506 ± 24 0.9 3.2 ± 0.5 2.1 SM
22 101 0.022 145 1151 <0.012 668 159 700 1140 22.95 2.82 978 ± 7 7.0 19.6 ± 0.7 0.5 Metamor
Notes D = 100% *(age(206Pb/238U)/age(207Pb/206Pb) – 1). Correction for non-radiogenic lead was executed in according to (Andersen 2002). The model ages of the TDM mantle and the crustal
substrate TDMC (two-stage model) were estimated. TDMC assumes that zircon parental magma originated from an average continental crust (176Lu/177Hf for the averaged crust = 0.015) that was
produced from the depleted mantle (Griffin et al., 2000, 2004, 2006; Belousova et al., 2006, 2010; Liu et al. 2013). The decay-constant k for 176Lu was adopted as k176Lu 1.867  10–11 yr−1
(Scherer et al. 2001). The current ratios in chondrite (176Hf/177Hf)CH = 0.282785 ± 0.000011 and (176Lu/177Hf)CH = 0.0336 ± 0.0001 were taken from (Bouvier et al. 2008), in the depleted
mantle (176Hf/177Hf)DM = 0.28325 and (176Lu/177Hf)DM = 0.0384 from (Griffin et al. 2000)
TDM = 1/k  ln{1 + ((176Hf/177Hf)Z – (176Hf/177Hf)DM)/((176Lu/177Hf)Z-(176Lu/177Hf)DM)}, TDMC = TDM-(TDM-t)  ((FC – FZ)/(FC – FDM)), FC,Z,DM = {((176Lu/177Hf)C,Z,DM)/((176Lu/177Hf)CH)
– 1}
Classification: SM = «syenite/monzonite», ?SM = «granite», but probably «syenite/monzonite», because a small deviation down from CART-criteria (Y = 4433 ppm); Carbon = «Carbonatite»;
Metamor = metamorphic zircon (Th/U < 0.1); “Hydroth” = probable hydrothermal origin, “Metc” = probable metamictic alteration of zircon; Apatite = probable apatite inclusion in the studied
zircon due to high P (>6500 ppm) and Y (>14,000 ppm); * near U-Pb Age—correction of age for common-Pb is > 20 Ma
13
Another random document with
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shackled. But after some time, through the Commander, West, I
received authentic reports and testimony of witnesses, with
photographs, which definitely convinced me that numerous men of
the Todt Organization, fathers of families, unarmed, old people, who
were wearing an arm band with a swastika—that was their badge—
had been shackled with a loop around their necks and the end of the
rope fastened around their bent-back legs in such a way that they
had strangled themselves.
I may add that I kept these photographs from the Führer, and I
did not tell him of these aggravating incidents which to me had been
proved. I concealed them from the German people and from the
Propaganda Ministry. Then came the English radio report denying
emphatically that any German soldier had been shackled at Dieppe.
Some time later, a Commando troop made an attack on the
island of Saercq. Again we received official reports that German
prisoners had been shackled.
Finally we captured the so-called British order for close combat.
That was the last straw for the Führer; I also studied it very carefully.
These close-combat instructions showed by pictures how men could
be shackled in such a way that they would strangle themselves
through the shackling, and it was stated exactly within what time
death would occur.
DR. EXNER: Therefore, the reasons which Hitler gave for his
Order 498 were actually based on reliably reported facts. I remark
that Hitler referred to prisoners who had been shackled, prisoners
who had been killed, and that criminals, as Commandos...
THE PRESIDENT: You are paraphrasing the evidence in a way
that is inaccurate, because the defendant has just said that he kept
these things from Hitler. You are now saying that Hitler knew about
them. That is not what the witness said.
DR. EXNER: Then, I must ask you whether the facts upon which
this order is based were reported to you.
JODL: I believe the Tribunal has Document 498-PS. In it the
Führer first makes the general statement that for some time our
opponents in their conduct of the war have been using methods
which violate the international Geneva Convention. I must support
this statement as true on the basis of reports which, regrettably, we
had been receiving since the summer of 1941. I do not wish to go
into individual cases. There was an outrageous incident with a British
U-boat in the Aegean Sea. There was the order in North Africa that
German prisoners of war should not be given water before they were
interrogated. There were a large number of such reports.
THE PRESIDENT: Defendant, the Tribunal thinks that it is very
difficult to go into individual incidents which occurred long before this
order was drafted, and you have told us what you said the order was
drafted in respect of, namely the shackling; and you are now
referring to other things which you allege happened long before that.
It does not seem that it is possible for the Tribunal to investigate all
those matters which happened long before.
JODL: And I do not want to speak about these matters any
longer. I only want to point out, as I think I must, that generally
speaking the reasons given by the Führer for this order did not
spring from a diseased imagination but were based on actual proof
in his and in our possession. For it is certainly very different whether
I, in my own mind, had to admit there was some justification for this
order or whether I considered the whole order an open scandal. That
is a vital point for my own conduct. But I shall try to be very brief. The
fact that many previously convicted persons and criminals were
included in the Commandos, who were of course reckless people,
was proved by the testimony of prisoners; and the fact that prisoners
were shackled was obvious from captured orders and the testimony
of witnesses.
THE PRESIDENT: You have told us that already. We have
heard that more than once—that you had evidence before you that
prisoners were shackled and that you had the Canadian orders
before you.
DR. EXNER: Perhaps you can just say a few words on the
subject of killing prisoners.
JODL: In conclusion, I want to say that I did not see any order,
any captured order, which decreed death for German prisoners of
war, though this was also contained as a reason in the Führer Order.
But I must explain that the British Ministry of War advised us—I
cannot recall exactly whether it was via Geneva or through the radio
—that situations might very well arise in which prisoners of war
would have to be killed—no, rather, in which prisoners of war would
have to be shackled because otherwise one would be forced to kill
them. And so, if at the end here the Führer says orders have been
found according to which the Commandos were on principle to kill
prisoners, then I think he is referring to the British close-combat
instructions which described a method of shackling which would
cause death.
DR. EXNER: And that was your own part in this Commando
Order?
JODL: My part consisted only in distributing this order, or having
it distributed, in accordance with express instructions.
DR. EXNER: The Prosecution said once that you also signed
this order—one of these two orders, I do not know which one. That is
not correct?
JODL: No, I signed only a general decree to have one of the
orders kept secret.
DR. EXNER: Yes, we will deal with that in a moment. Could you
have refused to transmit this order?
JODL: No, if I had refused to transmit an order of the Führer, I
would have been arrested immediately; and I must say, with
justification. But as I said, I was not at all sure whether this decree,
either in its entirety or in part, actually violated the law; and I still do
not know that today. I am convinced that if one were to convene here
a conference of experts on international law, each one of them would
probably have a different opinion on the subject.
DR. EXNER: General, you can speak a little faster.
Could you have made counterproposals?
JODL: At any other time, probably yes. At that time, however—a
time of conflict with the Führer—it was not possible for me to speak
to him personally at all. To broach the subject during the general
conference on the situation was quite out of the question. Therefore I
intended in the execution of this order to adopt a very magnanimous
attitude, and I was certain that the commanders-in-chief would do
the same.
 DR. EXNER: And what do you mean by magnanimous? Could
this order have been interpreted in different ways?
JODL: Yes. The order offered two ways of avoiding the
treatment of really decent soldiers like criminals. If a Commando
troop, mostly encountered in fights at night, was not wiped out but
captured, as was the rule in almost all cases, that was already
certain proof that our troops did not consider these men as bandits. It
was then the task of the commanders-in-chief to make an
investigation. If it was purely a reconnaissance operation, the entire
action did not fall within the sphere of the Commando Order at all
and would not be reported as a Commando raid. However, if the
operation was really carried out by a sabotage and demolition unit,
its equipment had to be examined. It had to be investigated whether
the men were wearing civilian clothing under their uniforms; whether
they were carrying the famous armpit guns, which go off
automatically when the arms are lifted in the act of surrender; or
whether they used other despicable methods during the fighting. The
commanders-in-chief could then act in accordance with the outcome
of such an investigation. I believe that in that way it was quite
possible—and in fact it happened many times, I might almost say in
the bulk of cases—that the shooting of brave, decent soldiers was
avoided.
DR. EXNER: Could you yourself exert any influence on the
practices followed by the troops?
JODL: I tried to exert my influence on various occasions. When
it was reported to me that a Commando unit had been captured—
which according to the Führer decree was not allowed—then I raised
no questions or objections. I made no report at all to the Führer on
Commando operations which met with only minor success. And
finally, I often dissuaded him from taking too drastic views, as in the
Pescara case, which Field Marshal Kesselring has already described
here, when I succeeded in convincing the Führer that only a
reconnaissance unit was involved.
DR. EXNER: Were many units actually wiped out?
JODL: Commando operations decreased considerably as a
result of the public announcements in the Wehrmacht communiqué. I
believe that not more than 8 or 10 cases occurred in all.
For a time, during the months of July and August 1944,
increasingly large numbers of terrorists were reported killed in the
Wehrmacht communiqué; these, however, were not Commando
troops, but insurgents who were killed in the fighting in France. That
may be proved if the Tribunal will read Document 551-PS, Figure 4.
There the order is given—it is USA-551, on Page 117.
MR. ROBERTS: My Lord, it is Page 70 of Book 7.
JODL: Or Page 117 of our Volume II. There it is ordered...
DR. EXNER: What is ordered? I should like to deal now with
another document, Document 532-PS.
THE PRESIDENT: It is time to break off.
[A recess was taken.]

DR. EXNER: With reference to the Commando Order, I want to

mention Document 532-PS, Exhibit Number RF-368, which is in our
Document Book 2, Page 113.
This document was offered on a previous occasion, and I
objected to it because it was not signed, or rather because it was
crossed out.
Will you explain why you crossed out the draft order which is
contained in this document?
JODL: Immediately before this draft order was written, the
Commander, West requested that now, after the invasion, the
Commando Order should be rescinded altogether. I approved that
proposal. A draft was submitted to me here which rescinded the
order only partially, namely in regard to the immediate area of the
beachhead and that part of Brittany, a little further from the
beachhead, where landings by parachutists were taking place daily
at that time.
THE PRESIDENT: At the time of your objection was this
document not rejected? You told us that you objected to the
document. What I am asking you is, what did the Tribunal do upon
your objection? Did they maintain it, or did they deny it?
 DR. EXNER: The objection was allowed, and I think the
document was struck off. I do not think that I am mistaken.
THE PRESIDENT: Well, why are you putting it in now?
DR. EXNER: I did not ask at the time to have the document
struck off. I merely raised the objection that no mention was made of
the facts that the draft order in the document was crossed out, and
that it clearly bore a handwritten marginal note by Jodl rejecting it.
THE PRESIDENT: Just a minute. Either the document was
offered in evidence or it was not; and either it has got an exhibit
number or it has not; and, as I understand, your objection was
rejected.
MR. ROBERTS: It was in fact objected to by Dr. Exner, after
having been given the French Exhibit Number RF-368; and after
discussing it, it was then stricken from the record, the English
shorthand note reference being Page 3631 (Volume VI, Page 360).
My Lord, I think in fact both the Prosecution and the Defense agreed
it has Jodl’s writing upon it; and, therefore, I feel certain that there
can be no question as to its admissibility, either on behalf of the
Prosecution or the Defense. My Lord, I certainly intend, with the
permission of the Tribunal, to cross-examine him about it; and I have
not the slightest objection to my friend Dr. Exner putting it in.
THE PRESIDENT: Very well. It may, therefore, be left in as RF-
368.
DR. EXNER: Will you continue?
JODL: At that time it was my intention to get rid of the
Commando Order entirely. For that reason I wrote, next to the
sentence under Figure 4: “That is just what they should not”—the
entire first page. That was of no use, however, because on that very
day the Führer made a different decision with regard to the request
of the Commander, West, and his decision is contained in Document
551-PS.
DR. EXNER: 551-PS, Exhibit Number USA-551. That is
contained in the second volume on Page 115; it is an order on the
treatment of men belonging to Commandos. This order contains the
following handwritten remark of yours: “Similar action should be
taken in the Italian theater of war.” This is on Page 117.
 Will you briefly explain the contents of that order and the reason
for your remark.
JODL: That can be quickly explained. In that order territorial
limits were set restricting the use of the Commando Order, which
henceforth was to apply only to enemy operations behind the corps
command posts but not to the battle area of the beachhead. These
were territorial limitations which had not so far been fixed or ordered;
and I immediately accepted this order for the Italian theater of war,
because in Italy also there existed a fighting front on land. If this
order were put into practice in Italy, it would mean that no
Commando operation which began with a landing on the coast need
be regarded as a Commando operation, because all these landings
took place in front of the lines of the corps command posts.
Therefore I was very anxious to have the same lighter conditions
applied to the whole Italian theater of war.
DR. EXNER: I just want to read one paragraph on Page 116. It
is the second paragraph under Number 1. In the first paragraph it
says: “...the order remains in force....” But the second paragraph
reads:
“Excepted are enemy soldiers in uniform in the immediate
battle area of the beachhead—that is in the area of the
divisions fighting in the front line—as well as reserve troops
up to and including corps commands, in accordance with
Figure 5 of the basic order....”
The word “Generalkommando” means “corps command,” and it
has not been quite correctly translated into English and French. This
limitation of the order to certain areas was, on the basis of Jodi’s
comment, also to apply to the Italian theater.
Now finally—but before that I have another important question...
THE PRESIDENT: What is it you are saying about this
translation?
DR. EXNER: Yes; the word “Generalkommando” has been
translated into the French, Région Militaire. Région Militaire is not
quite clear.
THE PRESIDENT: Is that in the English?
 DR. EXNER: And in the English it says, “corps command.” That
is correct. The English is correct: “corps command.” That is the same
as “Generalkommando.”
THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Exner, the Tribunal would prefer that you
should draw the attention of the Tribunal to anything which you say
is a mistranslation, rather than stating that it is a mistranslation. I call
it a question of opinion whether it is a mistranslation or not. It is not
for you to tell us that it is a mistranslation. You may draw our
attention to it and say that you submit it as a mistranslation. But now,
will you tell us this also: In one copy of this Document 551-PS, it
appears to be signed by, or initialed by Warlimont. In the other, in
your version of the translation, it appears to be signed by the
Defendant Keitel. What is the explanation of that?
MR. ROBERTS: My Lord, might I make a suggestion? I think the
Court should get the original from the Exhibit Room. 551-PS in fact
consists of three documents. The first is a draft altered in pencil; and
the second is a draft initialed “W”—that is Warlimont, with Jodi’s
penciled note at the end extending it to Italy; and the third is the final
order in which the penciled note of Jodl and the alteration of
distribution to Italy is incorporated. So, there are really three
documents, and the last is a mimeographed document with the
mimeographed signature of Keitel. That appears from the original
draft.
THE PRESIDENT: Go on, Dr. Exner.
DR. EXNER: [Turning to the defendant.] The Prosecution has
been emphasizing that you gave strict instructions to have this order
kept secret, and that you ordered its distribution only down to the
level of commanding officers to avoid its falling into enemy hands at
all costs. You gave these instructions for the second order, the
explanatory order, 503-PS. Will you explain why you ordered such
strict secrecy?
JODL: These instructions for secrecy refer actually only to
Document 503-PS.
DR. EXNER: That, I may add, is in the second volume of my
document book, on Page 102. That is the order for secrecy, signed
by Jodl.
 [Turning to the defendant.] Will you continue?
JODL: Particular secrecy for this order was quite inevitable. First
of all, it was directed only to the commanders. Secondly, the order
contained in great detail information on the considerable damage
which the German Wehrmacht had already suffered through these
Commando operations, and the damage which might still be caused
under certain circumstances. If the order were to fall into enemy
hands, it would certainly be an incentive for the enemy to continue
that particular type of warfare in increased measure. Thirdly, the
order, 498-PS, could be considered as a reprisal. But the last
sentence in Document 503-PS, a sentence which can easily be
recognized as a later addition—as the order seems to end before it
—that sentence, I must say, made me indignant and was one of the
reasons why I insisted on such particularly strict secrecy for this
order.
THE PRESIDENT: Which sentence are you referring to?
JODL: I refer to the last sentence of document 503-PS, which
says:
“If it should serve some useful purpose to save one or two
men temporarily to interrogate them, they are to be shot
immediately after interrogation.”
I cannot prove it...
THE PRESIDENT: That is not in 503, is it?
DR. EXNER: 503-PS.
THE PRESIDENT: You have not printed the whole of 503 in your
document book. Is that it?
DR. EXNER: Unfortunately, 503-PS is not in it, but only the
secrecy order, Page 102. I expressly requested, however, that it
should be submitted to the Tribunal.
JODL: May I add that this sentence became the source of all
trouble. The troops made use of that sentence and on principle, or
as a rule, did not kill Commandos but took them prisoner.
DR. EXNER: You said this last sentence made you indignant.
Were you also convinced that it was against international law?
 JODL: One might have doubts in that respect too. But I found it
distasteful from a human point of view, for if one does shoot a man, I
think it is base to extort all information out of him first.
DR. EXNER: I want to ask one more question concerning what
you mentioned before the recess. You said that you did not report
everything to the Führer; you did not report all Commando raids to
him. That is quite clear. But you said you also did not report
information which you obtained from the enemy—killings, and so on.
What did you mean by that?
JODL: I reported the results of Dieppe and, should we say, the
violations of international law which we considered had been
committed there—the shackling of German prisoners, and so on.
There was only one thing which I did not report, namely, the
shackling of some men belonging to the Todt Organization in such a
manner that they strangled themselves. I did not report that, and it
did not appear in any order or Wehrmacht communiqué.
THE PRESIDENT: The defendant has already told us about this,
so why you should ask him again I don’t know.
DR. EXNER: I thought it was not quite clear.
[Turning to the defendant.] We now pass to another subject, the
order regarding Leningrad and Moscow. How did Hitler’s order about
the fate of Leningrad and Moscow come into being? It is C-123,
second volume, Page 145 of my document book; it was submitted
under the number USSR-114. This is the order stating that surrender
was not to be accepted. How did this order come into being?
JODL: At the beginning of the second paragraph appears the
sentence: “The moral justification for this measure is clear to the
whole world.” I shall now explain that. The first reason was a report
from Field Marshal Von Leeb, the Commander of Army Group North
at Leningrad. He reported that the population of Leningrad had
already begun to flock out toward his lines in the south and west. He
pointed out that it would be absolutely impossible for him to keep
these millions of Leningrad people fed and supplied if they were to
fall into his hands, because the supply situation of the army group
was deplorable at that time. That was the first reason. But shortly
beforehand Kiev had been abandoned by the Russian armies, and
hardly had we occupied the city when tremendous explosions
occurred one after another. The major part of the inner city was
destroyed by fire; 50,000 people were made homeless; German
soldiers were used to fight the flames and suffered considerable
losses, because further large masses of explosives went off during
the fire. At first the local commander at Kiev thought that it was
sabotage on the part of the population, until we found a demolition
chart, listing 50 or 60 objectives in Kiev which had already been
prepared for destruction some time before; and this chart was in fact
correct, as investigation by engineers proved at once. At least 40
more objectives were ready to be blown up, and for most of them a
remote-control was to set off the explosion by means of wireless
waves. I myself had the original of this demolition chart in my hands.
That proved...
THE PRESIDENT: I don’t think we need go into the details of
Kiev. This deals with Leningrad. The defendant might briefly state in
substance what he says happened at Kiev; but we cannot
investigate details of it.
DR. EXNER: Mr. President, the defendant wanted to show that it
was feared these happenings in Kiev might repeat themselves in
Leningrad.
THE PRESIDENT: I quite understand that; but if he said that he
had plans of the blowing up of Leningrad, it would be a different
matter, and he could give that in more detail. But what I am saying is
we cannot go into the details about Kiev.
DR. EXNER: No. I only want to refer without quoting to my
Exhibit AJ-15 (Document Jodl-50), on Page 149 of my second
volume. That is a report on these explosions in Kiev. We will not
delay over this matter any more now. I just wanted to bring it to the
notice of the Tribunal.
[Turning to the defendant.] Please continue.
JODL: Then I only need to say in conclusion that the Führer
always expected that what had happened in Kiev, in Kharkov, and in
Odessa would happen also in Leningrad, and possibly in Moscow.
That was the decisive reason why this order, which already had been
put into writing, was given by him orally to the High Command of the
Army. And the order was given added weight because the Russian
radio reported that Leningrad had been undermined and would be
defended to the last man.
The purpose of the order was exclusively that of protecting
German troops against such catastrophes as had already occurred;
for entire staffs had been blown into the air in Kharkov and Kiev. For
this reason the Führer issued this order, which I in turn, at his
express request, put into writing. Therefore the order began with the
words, “The Führer has again decided”—that means “once more,”
“for the second time.”
DR. EXNER: What was the reason for the order to leave
openings to the east in the encirclement of Leningrad and Moscow?
JODL: We did not want these masses of the population. We had
had our experiences in Paris. There it had even been necessary to
use the transport space of four divisions and the whole relief train
“Bavaria,” which could supply tens of thousands of people, to save
the population from starvation. In Leningrad that would have been
quite impossible, because in the first place the railways had been
destroyed; the rails had not yet been adjusted to our gauge, and the
supply situation was very difficult. It would have been impossible to
help these millions of people in any way; there would have been a
real catastrophe. Hence the idea of pressing them back to the east,
into the Russian areas; an idea, incidentally, not in conformity with
the assertion which has been made here that we wanted to
exterminate the Slavs.
DR. EXNER: I now come to another subject. The French
prosecutor has accused you of ordering in Document UK-56—which
is Exhibit RF-335 in my document book, the second volume, Page
153—of ordering the deportation of Jews, thereby giving, as chief of
a military staff, a political order.
Will you explain how this order came into being?
THE PRESIDENT: I think the translation must have come
through wrong. You said—at least, I took it down—Page 153.
DR. EXNER: Page 155. I beg your pardon, it is on Page 155 of
the second volume of my document book. The actual order is on
Page 156.
 [Turning to the defendant.] Please reply.
JODL: I must explain in connection with this document that the
deportation of Jews from Denmark was discussed during a
conference at which I did not participate. Himmler suggested it to the
Führer; and the Führer approved or ordered it. I was informed of it
either through General Schmundt or Ambassador Hewel.
Then on instructions conveyed to me by Schmundt, I transmitted
to the military commander in Denmark the details of this order. The
heading, or rather, the address of this teleprint message shows that
it was directed to two offices, namely to the Foreign Office and to the
commander of the German troops in Denmark. These are the two
principal offices for which it was destined. The Reichsführer SS
received the letter only for information purposes, as is noted on it in
accordance with our office practice. He did not have to act upon it; it
was not an order for him, but it was merely for information. He
already knew the Führer’s decision.
I did not in any way order the deportation of the Jews, but I
wrote, “The deportation of Jews will be carried out by the
Reichsführer SS...”
DR. EXNER: That is under Figure 2?
JODL: Figure 2. Had this been an order, it would have had to be
addressed to the Reichsführer SS; and it would have had to be
worded like this: “Reichsführer SS is to deport Jews from Denmark.”
But it is exactly the other way about. This Figure 2 informs General
Von Hannecken in Denmark that he has nothing to do with this affair,
but that it is being handled by the Reichsführer SS. But General Von
Hannecken had to be told of this, because at that time a state of
military emergency existed. He had executive power in Denmark,
and if anything like that had been done without his knowledge he
might immediately have objected to it and forbidden it.
The matter appeared to me so urgent that, in order to avoid
incidents, I informed the military commander in Denmark about it
over the telephone, quite openly and without regard to its secrecy.
The French Prosecution mentioned an indiscretion which enabled
most Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden; presumably it was
this telephone call which made that possible.
 Finally, therefore, I repeat that I was far from ordering the
deportation of Jews; I merely informed the military commander in
question that he was to have nothing to do with the matter. Besides,
as I heard afterwards on making inquiries, these Jews were taken to
Theresienstadt, where they were cared for and visited by the Red
Cross; and even the Danish minister declared himself satisfied with
their treatment.
DR. EXNER: May I draw the attention of the Tribunal to what I
consider is an inadequate translation into English and French. Under
Figure 1 on Page 156 of the second volume the word “volunteers”
does not appear in the translation. It says here, “The Reichsführer
SS has permission to recruit volunteers from the former members of
the Danish forces who are to be released...” The word “volunteers” is
missing in the English translation; the French, merely says hommes
—“men.”
[Turning to the defendant.] You actually had no dealings with
matters in occupied territories; they were outside your jurisdiction.
How then did you come to sign this order?
JODL: Actually this affair did not concern me at all. I signed the
order because Field Marshal Keitel was away on that day.
DR. EXNER: As we are just talking of the Jews, will you tell the
Court what you knew about the extermination of Jews? I remind you
that you are under oath.
JODL: I know just how improbable these explanations sound,
but very often the improbable is true and the probable untrue. I can
only say, fully conscious of my responsibility, that I never heard,
either by hint or by written or spoken word, of an extermination of
Jews. On one single occasion I had doubts, and that was when
Himmler spoke about the revolt in the Jewish Ghetto. I did not quite
believe in this heroic fight; but Himmler immediately supplied
photographs showing the concrete dugouts which had been built
there, and he said, “Not only the Jews but also Polish Nationalists
have taken refuge there and they are offering bitter resistance.” And
with that he removed my suspicions.
THE PRESIDENT: Are you speaking of Warsaw?
 JODL: I am speaking of the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto of
which I heard through a personal report from Himmler given in our
presence, in the presence of soldiers at the Führer’s headquarters.
Himmler spoke only of an uprising and of bitter fighting. As far as the
activities of the Police are concerned, of the so-called action groups,
Einsatzgruppen and Einsatzkommandos—a conception, incidentally,
of which I first heard here in detail—there was never any explanation
through the Führer himself other than that these police units were
necessary to quell uprisings, rebellions, and partisan actions before
they grew into a menace. This was not a task for the Armed Forces,
but for the Police, and for that reason the Police had to enter the
operational areas of the Army. I have never had any private
information on the extermination of the Jews; and on my word, as
sure as I am sitting here, I heard all these things for the first time
after the end of the war.
DR. EXNER: What did you know about concentration camps...
THE PRESIDENT: I don’t think it is necessary to point out to you
that you cannot speak about there having been no explanation to the
Führer; you can only speak about there having been no explanation
to yourself. The translation I heard was, as to these Einsatzgruppen,
that there had been no explanation to the Führer.
THE INTERPRETER: From the Führer.
THE PRESIDENT: From the Führer?
THE INTERPRETER: Yes, My Lord.
JODL: I said that the Führer had never given us any other
reason for the presence of police forces than his statement that
police measures were necessary.
THE PRESIDENT: I misheard the translation.
DR. EXNER: Did you know anything about concentration
camps, or what did you know about them? Please be brief.
JODL: I can briefly say that I knew there were concentration
camps at Dachau and Oranienburg. Some divisional officers visited
Oranienburg once in 1937 and gave me very enthusiastic accounts
of it. I heard the name of Buchenwald for the first time in the spring
of 1945. When the name was mentioned, I thought it was a new
troop training camp; and I made inquiries. The inmates were always
described as German habitual criminals and certain inveterate
political opponents, who however, like Schuschnigg or Niemöller,
were held there in a kind of honorable detention. I never heard a
single word about tortures, deported persons, or prisoners of war,
crematoriums or gas vans, torments reminiscent of the Inquisition,
and medical experiments. I can only say that, even if I had heard of
these things, I would not have believed them until I had seen them
with my own eyes.
DR. EXNER: The French prosecutor read a statement by the
German Police General Panke, according to which you were present
at a conference with Hitler on 30 December 1942, when terror and
counterterror and so on, and reprisal murders in Denmark were said
to have been discussed. What do you say to that?
JODL: I think it was on 30 December 1943.
DR. EXNER: Was it?
JODL: In some points that statement is correct; in others it is
incorrect. During that conference, at least as long as I was present,
the word “murder” was never mentioned. The Führer said:
“I want to fight the terror of sabotage and attacks, now
beginning in Norway, with exactly the same weapons. That
is to say, if a Danish factory working for Germany is blown
up, which has happened, then a factory working solely for
the Danes will be blown up also. If some of our strong
points are attacked by terrorists, which has also happened,
these terrorists will be hunted, surrounded, and wiped out in
fighting; and I do not want courts martial, which only create
martyrs.”
He did not say or suggest, however, that innocent Danes should
now be murdered as a reprisal. I can only say that, in my presence
and in the presence of Field Marshal Keitel, that and nothing else
was said. Again, it is a very debatable question from the point of
view of international law whether an army is not entitled to adopt the
fighting methods of its opponents in its countermeasures, particularly
in such franc-tireur warfare and in rebellions like these. It seems to
me a very moot point.
 DR. EXNER: You just said, “as long as I was present.” Were you
not present during the entire conference? Can you remember?
JODL: I do not think that even in my absence any other
statements were made. Once during the conference I went out to
telephone and was away for a short time, perhaps 15 minutes.
DR. EXNER: We now come to the partisan fighting. Partisan
fighting and partisans have been mentioned frequently here. Can
you say briefly what these partisans were?
JODL: It is not easy to define that clearly, considering all the
types of fighting adopted in this world war; but there are five
characteristics:
1) A partisan group is a fighting unit formed behind one’s own
front; 2) it is not or is only partly in uniform; 3) it is not an organic part
of the Armed Forces even though it receives its orders from them; 4)
it must be in a position, or it generally is in a position to...
THE PRESIDENT: We don’t require a lecture about this matter.
DR. EXNER: Well, then we know approximately what partisans
are. I now want to ask you about the fighting against partisan groups.
First of all I must read what we have heard here about partisans,
Document L-180, USA-276, which is contained in the second volume
of my document book, Page 121. That is a complete report of an
Einsatzgruppe in action against partisans; it is Appendix Number 9.
What is found on Page 122 is, I think, of importance. First of all
under Roman Numeral I, Figure 5, I quote:
“In the larger cities, especially those with industrial works,
so-called istrebitelni battalions (i. e. destruction battalions)
were formed by the Soviets before the entry of the German
troops....”
Then, under Roman Numeral III:
“...the tasks and fighting methods of the various partisan
groups have become known ... partly from the captured
combat directives of the partisans themselves. This
statement of a captured partisan ... is significant: ‘A partisan
must destroy everything that he can reach...’ ”
 And then, in one of the “Combat Directives for Partisan Groups”
received by us from the commander of the army, rear area North, we
find stated:
“Unbearable conditions are to be created for the enemy and
his allies in territories occupied by him. All the measures of
the enemy are to be opposed.”
And then instructions are given to blow up bridges, to destroy
roads, et cetera. I shall not read it all. In the last paragraph, which I
have on Page 123, it expressly states that partisans are to disguise
themselves cleverly; that they will sometimes appear as farmers or
will work in the fields as soon as German forces appear in the
vicinity. The witness Von dem Bach-Zelewski stated here that the
fight against partisans was carried out in a chaotic manner. He
meant by that that it was not directed from higher quarters. You must
be informed about that. Is that correct?
JODL: No, that is not correct. This expert on partisan fighting
obviously has a bad memory. I draw attention to Document F-665, in
Document Book 2, Page 126. Here the first page is given of a
directive for partisan warfare. It is called “Instructions for Partisan
Warfare,” and was signed by me personally on 6 May 1944. The
Tribunal will see that in the second sentence it says that...
DR. EXNER: Page 126.
JODL: ...the instructional pamphlet number so-and-so,
“Instructions for Partisan Warfare in the East,” issued by the OKW,
Armed Forces Operations Staff, dated 11 November 1942, is
canceled. That proves that at least since 11 November 1942, the
troops had in their possession instructions issued by the Armed
Forces Operations Staff as to how the battle against partisans
should be conducted.
DR. EXNER: May I now draw attention to my Document AJ-1,
Page 133. It is an affidavit of a Pastor Wettberg; I do not want to
read it. Pastor Wettberg contacted me because he himself had been
engaged in the warfare against partisans, and he confirmed that the
fighting was perfectly well directed even before the new instructions
were issued, that is, from 1942 onwards. In 1944 you issued this
new directive without Hitler’s permission; is that correct?
 JODL: Yes.
DR. EXNER: What made you do that? Was it not an unusual
step?
JODL: I want to state that I did not submit this directive either to
Field Marshal Keitel or to the Führer, because it was a contradiction
of all existing orders. I shall prove in detail later that it gives
instructions for all so-called partisans in France and Yugoslavia—
partisan areas in Russia were now in front of our lines—to be treated
immediately as regular fighting troops, and thus as prisoners of war.
I took this unusual step because I became convinced, after the
shooting of the English Air Force officers at Sagan, that the Führer
no longer concerned himself with the idea of human rights; and also
because after 1 May 1944 I myself felt responsible for questions of
international law, as the “Canaris” department had been dissolved on
that day and the foreign section, together with the international law
department, had come under my command. I was resolved not to
tolerate and not to participate in any such violations of international
law on our part, and I acted accordingly from that day up to the end
of the war.
In this order I declared all partisans and those supporting them,
and even those wearing civilian clothes, to be regular troops and
prisoners of war, long before Eisenhower—on 7 July 1944 only—
demanded that terrorists in France should be given that status.
DR. EXNER: The Prosecution asserts that the fight against
partisans was only a code name under which Jews and Slavs were
killed; is that true?
JODL: The fight against partisans was a horrible reality. In July
1943, to quote some figures, 1,560 instances of railway sabotage
occurred in Russia. There were 2,600 in September; that is 90 per
day. A book by Ponomarenko was published from which an
American paper quoted 500,000 Germans as having been killed by
the partisans. If a nought is crossed off from that figure, it is still quite
a considerable achievement for a peaceful Soviet population. But the
book is also said to have stated that the population became
increasingly hostile; that murder and terror became more frequent;
and that the peaceful Quisling mayors were being killed. At any rate
it was a tremendous fight which was taking place in the East.
DR. EXNER: In this connection, I would like to draw the
Tribunal’s attention to an entry in Jodl’s Diary, Document 1807-PS. It
is on Page 119 of the second volume of my document book. Under
25 May it says, “Colonel General Halder draws the attention of the
Führer to increasing partisan activity...”
THE PRESIDENT: Wait a minute. The defendant stated, I think,
that in this directive of his on the 6th of May 1944 there was an order
that guerrillas should be treated as prisoners of war. Will you refer us
to the passage?
DR. EXNER: Will you name the passage, Defendant?
JODL: It is under Figure 163, on Page 131.
DR. EXNER: Page 131 of the second volume.
JODL: May I read it?
DR. EXNER: Yes.
JODL: “All partisans captured in enemy uniform or civilian
clothing or surrendering during combat are to be treated in
principle as prisoners of war. The same applies to all
persons encountered in the immediate fighting area who
may be considered as supporting the partisans, even when
no combat action can be proved against them. Partisans in
German uniform, or in the uniform of an allied army, are to
be shot after careful interrogation if captured in combat.
Deserters, no matter how they are dressed”—and, may I
add, even if dressed in German uniform—“are, on principle,
to be well treated. The partisans must hear of this.”
THE PRESIDENT: Just a minute. Well, perhaps—it is 1 o’clock
—we might break off now.
[The Tribunal recessed until 1400 hours.]