Climate Change Photosynthesis and Advanced Biofuels The Role of Biotechnology in The Production of Value Added Plant Bio Products Ashwani Kumar
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Ashwani Kumar
Yuan-Yeu Yau
Shinjiro Ogita
Renate Scheibe Editors
Climate Change,
Photosynthesis
and Advanced
Biofuels
The Role of Biotechnology in
the Production of Value-added Plant
Bio-products
Climate Change, Photosynthesis
and Advanced Biofuels
Ashwani Kumar • Yuan-Yeu Yau •
Shinjiro Ogita • Renate Scheibe
Editors
Climate Change,
Photosynthesis
and Advanced Biofuels
The Role of Biotechnology in the
Production of Value-added Plant
Bio-products
Editors
Ashwani Kumar Yuan-Yeu Yau
Department of Botany Department of Natural Sciences
and P.G. School of Biotechnology Northeastern State University
University of Rajasthan Broken Arrow, OK, USA
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Dedication
A 2019 photograph of Govindjee. Source: College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign
Since 2019, Govindjee (who had always used one name only) began to use
“Govindjee Govindjee” in order to be able to travel with ease around the world.
He was born on October 24, 1932, at Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India; he married
Rajni Varma on October 24, 1957, at Urbana, Illinois, USA; they have two children:
Anita and Sanjay; he was naturalized to be a citizen of the USA in 1972. On the
academic side, he has been Professor Emeritus of Plant Biology, Biophysics, and
Biochemistry, at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) since 1999.
Going back in time, he was Professor of Biophysics and Plant Biology for 30 years
(1969–1999), Associate Professor of Botany and Biophysics (1965–1969), and
Assistant Professor of Botany (1961–1965), all at UIUC. During 1960–1961, he
served as United States Public Health (USPH) Service Biophysics Post-Doctoral
Fellow, and during his PhD days, 1956–1960, he held a UIUC Graduate Fellowship
in Physico-Chemical Biology (Biophysics), as well a research assistantship in
Botany earlier, i.e., during 1954–1956, he taught Plant Physiology in the Department
of Botany at Allahabad University. He was trained first, during his MSc (1952–
1954), in Plant Physiology, by Shri Ranjan, who was a student of Frederick Frost
v
vi Dedication
Climate change threatens human welfare at a global scale. Depending on the degree
of temperature rise, it must be expected that weather extremes in the future become
even more frequent and more extreme than recently experienced. Drought resulting
in forest fires, soil salinity, and desertification on the one hand and flooding on the
other hand are two sides of the coin. The cause in both cases is an increase of thermal
energy in the atmosphere due to the greenhouse effect. Among other greenhouse
gases such as methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide plays a prominent
role, contributing about 50% to the global temperature increase. Since the beginning
of industrialization and the increasing combustion of fossil fuels, atmospheric
carbon dioxide concentration has increased from 0.028% to more than 0.04%. In
preindustrial times, the carbon dioxide concentration was in equilibrium, governed
by four major processes: respiration and diffusion of carbon dioxide out of oceans
releasing about 210 gigatons of carbon per year, whereas diffusion of carbon dioxide
into oceans and photosynthesis balanced carbon dioxide release. Human activities
increasingly caused higher carbon dioxide release, mainly due to the burning of
fossil fuels and deforestation. Although part of the estimated 10 gigatons additional
liberation of carbon dioxide is compensated by photosynthesis and diffusion into
oceans, there is a net excess of roughly 5 gigatons carbon annually released into the
atmosphere.
The net diffusion of carbon dioxide into oceans provokes another problem; the
dissolution of carbon dioxide in water forms carbonic acid that decreases pH of the
seawater. This in turn may harm sensitive marine life particularly in coral reefs.
Thus, photosynthesis is the only significant process that contributes to a sustainable
reduction of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Presently, 123 gigatons
of carbon are annually consumed by photosynthesis. An increase of global photo-
synthesis by 5% would more than compensate the additional anthropogenic carbon
dioxide release. Besides abandoning the consumption of fossil fuels, (re)forestation
and the use of renewable resources are key measures to limit further net release of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Large areas worldwide are available for sus-
tainable plant production on hitherto barren land.
In the present book “Climate change, photosynthesis, and advanced biofuels:
Role of biotechnology in production of value-added plant products,” scientists from
all over the world report their research results how photosynthesis may better
ix
x Foreword
contribute to the withdrawal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The plant
endeavor to collect carbon dioxide from a very low concentration and divert it to
the various products is an extremely efficient process that has been genetically
optimized during millions of years of evolution. However, with the development
of crop plants, it has also become apparent that survival and propagation are not the
main goals when plants are cultivated for food, feed, fiber, and fuel. Research on
resistance against abiotic stresses, resource efficiency, as well as source-sink
relationships has revealed that plants usually do not conduct photosynthesis at
maximum intensity but with a downregulated rate. This helps to avoid the accumu-
lation of metabolites that may compromise metabolism. At least five processes help
to compensate excess photosynthesis relative to assimilate consumption in order to
avoid the formation of reactive oxygen species that may impair nucleic acids and
membranes:
Prof. Dr. Sven Schubert studied agricultural sciences at Justus Liebig University
Giessen, Germany. In 1985, he got his Ph.D. in agriculture with a thesis on proton
exudation by plant roots under the guidance of Prof. Dr. Drs. h.c. Konrad Mengel.
After a postdoc year at the University of California in Davis, USA, with Prof. Dr. Dr.
h.c. André Läuchli, Prof. Schubert finalized his habilitation on mechanisms of salt
resistance in maize plants in 1991. Following a call to the University of Hohenheim,
Germany, in 1992, he spent 5 years as Professor for Plant Nutrition in Stuttgart
before he was appointed Chair of the Institute of Plant Nutrition at Justus Liebig
University Giessen in 1997. His main research areas are nutrient acquisition of
plants, salt and acidity stress, and membrane biochemistry. Besides more than
120 refereed publications and 100 further publications, Prof. Schubert is author of
the two German textbooks Pflanzenernährung (Plant Nutrition) and Biochemie
(Biochemistry).
Selected Publications:
Hütsch BW, Schubert S (2017) Maize harvest index and water use efficiency can be
improved by inhibition of gibberellin biosynthesis. J Agron Crop Sci 1–10
Qadir M, Schubert S, Oster JD, Sposito G, Minhas PS, Cheragji SAM, Murtaza G,
Mirzabaev A, Saqib M (2018) High-magnesium waters and soils: Emerging
environmental and food security constraints. Sci Total Environ 642:1108–1117
Hütsch BW, Jahn D, Schubert S (2019) Grain yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
under long-term heat stress is sink-limited with stronger inhibition of kernel
setting than grain filling. J Agron Crop Sci 205:22–32
Preface
During the Fifteenth session of Conference of the Parties (COP15), December 2009,
almost 190 countries worldwide signed an agreement to keep a global temperature
rise below 2 C in this century. This agreement has a focus on temperature changes
due to greenhouse gas emission with a preferable goal of remaining within 1.5 C
above preindustrial level (https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agree
ment/what-is-the-paris-agreement). During COP25 (December 2019), deliberations
regarding implementation of policy ended with goals to be achieved by individual
nations. Attendees agreed, it is not “climate change”; it is “climate emergency.” With
increasing global surface temperatures, the possibility of more heat waves, droughts,
and increased powerful storms will likely occur (www.usgs.gov). Recent natural
disasters such as droughts in California (USA) and South Africa fire in Australia, and
vanishing islands in the oceans cannot be ignored. Worldwide increases in sea levels
and acidification of seawater are causing loss of flora and fauna. All this negatively
influences human health, food supply, and potentially promotes hunger and misery.
However, an increasing human population, industrialization, and affluence all drive
up the demand for energy. Currently, fossil fuels meet 88% of the demand, resulting
in rising carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon dioxide
levels are increasing at alarming rates. The past 40 years have tracked an enormous
rise in recorded temperature correlated with increasing carbon dioxide levels. Forests
act as carbon sinks, but they are diminished worldwide with some vanishing in the
Amazonian area with unprecedented loss of biodiversity.
It is common to hear people say, “I believe in the environment. I need clean water
and clean air.” The problem is energy sources for growth and development, which
largely come from fossil fuels. Can we shift to green energy without negatively
affecting economic growth? How quickly can we shift to green energy? How to find
solutions to create a bright and sustainable future is important and urgent.
In our previous book, “Biofuels: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Global
Warming—Next Generation Biofuels and Role of Biotechnology,” it was pointed
out that a small increase in global mean temperature results in a profound change in
climate. Even a small increase leads to frequent floods, cyclones, droughts, and other
natural calamities. Negative impacts of climate change are increasing in frequency
and intensity. Much of the world has seen a steep rise in temperature during the last
15 years, including North America and Europe. Additionally, we are also witnessing
xiii
xiv Preface
unprecedented snowfall and cold. Changing weather patterns are reflective of cli-
mate change, according to the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC).
Global concerns regarding the use and benefit of biofuel can be addressed appropri-
ately through proper species choice of plant, algae, and bacteria to improve biomass
productivity.
The world’s leading research groups have contributed valuable articles to current
book from a variety of perspectives. Their insights include photosynthesis, source-
sink relationships, stress resistance, productivity, nutrient uptake, and recycling. In
addition, the role of biotechnology in developing next-generation biofuels and
bio-products, and improving biofuels and new alternatives to meet global energy
and food demands is also discussed. This book has three major parts. Each highlights
one important approach to generating new biofuels/bio-products using plants, algae,
or bacteria. Readers will learn about background physiology of plants and algae used
as renewable energy sources. Optimally, attempts can be made without impacting
food production by competing with agriculture. This can only be achieved by
improving grain yield and primary productivity of specially designed crops capable
of growing under stress conditions.
Part 1: Photosynthesis and Biomass Production under Changing Conditions
This section describes the present situation and role of new biofuels in a world
experiencing dramatic climate change. The basic principles of photosynthetic pro-
cesses, namely light reactions for energy capture and conversion, fixation and
assimilation of oxidized carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur for the synthesis of all organic
matter are described. In addition, all related pathways such as photorespiration and
respiration, nutrient uptake and recycling, source-sink relationships, and stress
resistance influencing productivity are included in this section. Regulatory principles
allowing plants to maintain homeostasis under changing conditions are also
discussed, which need to be understood for genetically modifying or inserting new
pathways in plants to produce technically useful compounds. This section is most
relevant for the successful setup of new approaches.
Part 2: Microalgae and Engineered Crops for Production of Biofuels and High-
Value Products
Algal cultures are useful options for hydrogen production, and synthetically
designed pathways for technologically useful products. An overview of
bioproduction based on microalgae species is given. Specifically, the taxonomic
distribution of major microalgae species used in industry is described. This section
highlights the utility and many recent algae advance.
Part 3: Genetic Resources and Engineering Methods to Improve Crop Plants
Contemporary biotechnology options and potential improvements are presented.
Improvements in biofuel production complement an array of value-added products
to improve economic viability. Basic principles of the suggested methodologies,
with physiological, genetic, and molecular information required for the production
of functionally superior plant resources, are explained. Hybrid vigor (heterosis) is
economically important for plant breeding. It plays a role in increasing fertility,
growth rate, yield, and stress resistance in hybrids. In this regard, heterosis can be
Preface xv
exploited to increase biomass production for biofuel crops. In this section, heterosis
is discussed by an expert team.
The book provides plentiful resources for biofuel researchers and is designed to
provide both general and specific information for students, teachers, academic
researchers, industrial teams, as well as laymen who are interested in new
developments for the production of biofuels containing value-added properties.
We are thankful to Professor Dr. Sven Schubert of Justus Liebig University in
Gießen, Germany, for writing the foreword for our book. We heartily thank all of our
coauthors and colleagues who have contributed to this book. We dedicate our book
to Professor Dr. Govindjee of the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign (USA)
on his 88th birthday. Dr. Govindjee has contributed immensely to the basic under-
standing of photosynthesis and is commonly called Mr. Photosynthesis. His detailed
biodata is enclosed.
We acknowledge source material from UNFCC, IPCC, COP, and other agencies of
UN quoted in this book. Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Fellowship to one of
the editors (AK) and constant encouragement received from Professor Dr. Sven
Schubert from Institute for Plant Nutrition, Justus Liebig Universität, Gießen,
Germany, Professor Dr. Raghavendra from Hyderabad, Professor Dr. Govindjee
from USA, Professor Dr. Jack Widholm from USA, and Dr P.V. Sane from Pune.
We also thank and acknowledge 46 chapter contributors from 8 countries: Yagut
Allahverdiyeva (Turku, Finland); Most Tanziman Ara (Hiroshima, Japan);
Wagner L. Araújo (Viçosa, Brazil); Willian Batista-Silva (Viçosa, Brazil);
James A. Birchler (Columbia, USA)); Lindsey Brennan (Broken Arrow, USA);
Marina Cvetkovska (Ottawa, Canada); Paula Da Fonseca-Pereira (Viçosa,
Brazil); Avishek Dey (Guwahati, India); Mona Esterling (Tulsa, USA); Norman
P.A. Hüner (London, Canada); Birgit W. Hütsch (Gießen, Germany); Alexander
G. Ivanov (Sofia, Bulgaria); Osamu Iwata (Kanagawa, Japan); Martina Jokel
(Turku, Finland); Stephan Jung (Cologne, Germany); Johannes Knuesting
(Osnabrück, Germany); Sergey Kosourov (Turku, Finland); Ashwani Kumar
(Jaipur, India); Sanjeev Kumar (Guwahati, India); Keiichi Mochida (Kanagawa,
Japan); Chakravarthi Mohan (Gainesville, USA); Sujatha Mulpuri (Hyderabad,
India); Ashwin Narayan (Coimbatore, India); Misaki Nishibe (Hiroshima, Japan);
Srinivasan Nithiyanantham (Hyderabad, India); Greta Nölke (Aachen,
Germany); Adriano Nunes-Nesi (Viçosa, Brazil); Shinjiro Ogita (Hiroshima,
Japan); Paul Porter (London, Canada); Jyoti Porwal (Dehradun, India); Suheel
Porwal (Dehradun, India); Marc Possmayer (Ottawa, Canada); Nurhidayah
Syahira Muhammad Radzi (Hiroshima, Japan); Lingaraj Sahoo (Guwahati,
India); Renate Scheibe (Osnabrück, Germany); Stefan Schillberg (Aachen,
Germany); Sven Schubert (Gießen, Germany); Jennifer Selinski (Bielefeld,
Germany); Kuldeep Singh (Mullana, India); Raman Singh (Mullana, India);
Marleen Steinbach (Gießen, Germany); Beth Szyszka-Mroz (London, Canada);
Lam-Son Phan Tran (Kanagawa, Japan); Yuan-Yeu Yau (Broken Arrow, USA);
Agustin Zsögön (Viçosa, Brazil).
We also acknowledge figures reproduced from papers listed below: Espaux, L.,
Mendez-Perez, D., Li, R. and Keasling, J. D. (2015) Synthetic biology for microbial
production of lipid-based biofuels. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 29:58–65.
xvii
xviii Acknowledgments
Figure was reproduced under license no. 4652791194061 (Figs. 2.1 and 2.4); Zhang,
Y. P. (2015) Production of biofuels and biochemicals by in vitro synthetic
biosystems: Opportunities and challenges. Biotechnology Advances 33(7):1467–
1483. Figure was reproduced under license no. 4652950482642 (Fig. 2.2); Albers,
S. C., Berklund, A. M., and Graff, G. D. (2016) The rise and fall of innovation in
biofuels. Nature Biotechnology 34(8):814–821. Figure was reproduced under
license number 4642520128912 (Fig. 2.3a–d); Nielsen, J. and Keasling, J. D.
(2016) Engineering Cellular Metabolism. Cell 164(6):1185–1197. Figure was
reproduced under license no. 4666911059117 (Fig. 2.5); Jagadevan, S., Banerjee,
A., Banerjee, C., Guria, C., Tiwari, R. and Baweja, M. (2018) Biotechnology for
Biofuels: Recent developments in synthetic biology and metabolic engineering in
microalgae towards biofuel production. Biotechnology for Biofuels 11:1–21. Used
under Creative Commons license (Fig. 2.6); Liao, J. C., Mi, L., Pontrelli, S. and Luo,
S. (2016). Fuelling the future: microbial engineering for the production of sustain-
able biofuels. Nature Review Microbiology 14(5):288–304. Figure was reproduced
under license no. 4645730007098 from Rights Link (Fig. 2.7); Alper, H. and
Stephanopoulos, G. (2009) Engineering for biofuels: exploiting innate microbial
capacity or importing biosynthetic potential, Nature Reviews Microbiology 7:715–
723. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro. Figure was reproduced under
license no. 46456400840514 (Figs. 2.8 and 11.1); Peralta-Yahya P.P. et al. (2012)
Microbial engineering for the production of advanced biofuels. Nature 488:320–
328. Reproduced under license no. 4643340791481 (Figs. 2.9 and 2.10); Su, H., Lin,
J. and Wang, G. (2016) Metabolic engineering of Corynebacterium crenatium for
enhancing the production of higher alcohols. Scientific Reports 6:39543. Open
Access. Used under Creative Commons license (Fig. 2.11); Zhang, Y. P. (2015)
Production of biofuels and biochemicals by in vitro synthetic biosystems:
Opportunities and challenges. Biotechnology Advances 33(7):1467–1483.
Reproduced under license no. 4652950482642 (Fig. 2.12); Liao, J. C., Mi, L.,
Pontrelli, S. and Luo, S. (2016) Fuelling the future: microbial engineering for the
production of sustainable biofuels. Nature Review Microbiology 14(5):288–304.
Reproduced under license no. 4645730007098 (Fig. 11.2); Martien J.I. and
Amador-Noguez D. (2017) Recent applications of metabolomics to advance micro-
bial biofuel production. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 43:118–126. Reproduced
under license no. 4666750205840 (Fig. 11.3); Jones, J.A., Ö. Duhan Toparlak and
Mattheos AG Koffas (2015) Metabolic pathway balancing and its role in the
production of biofuels and chemicals. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 33:52–
59. Reproduced with permission no. 4671031226483 (Fig. 11.4); Peralta-Yahya,
P. P., Ouellet, M., Chan, R., Mukhopadhyay, A., Keasling, J. D. and Lee, T. S.
(2011) Identification and microbial production of a terpene-based advanced biofuel.
Nature Communications 2:483–488. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited (Figs. 11.5 and 11.6); Ma, T., Shi, B., Ye, Z., Li, X., Liu, M., Chen, Y. and
Nielsen, J. (2019) Lipid engineering combined with systematic metabolic engineer-
ing of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for high-yield production of lycopene. Metabolic
Acknowledgments xix
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ashwani Kumar, Yuan-Yeu Yau, Shinjiro Ogita, and Renate Scheibe
xxi
xxii Contents
Yuan-Yeu Yau (aka Frank Yau) received his B.Sc. in Botany from National
Taiwan University (NTU) in Taiwan, and received his Master and Ph.D. from the
University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA. He subsequently worked at the University
of California Berkeley and the Plant Gene Expression Center (USDA-ARS) in
Albany (California, USA); the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Full Professor); and
Northeastern State University (Oklahoma, USA). His work focuses on developing
clean-gene technologies using microbial site-specific recombination (SSR). He has
also worked on cotton transformation and the production of anti-stroke drugs using
molecular farming. He is an active member of Research Gate, a professional network
for scientists and researchers.
Shinjiro Ogita has over two decades of experience in the field of plant biotechnol-
ogy. In 1992, he began his research career as a master student at the Graduate School
of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Japan. In
1997, he received his Ph.D. in Agriculture from the United Graduate School of
Agriculture, TUAT, Japan. He is an expert on cell and tissue cultures, and on
transformation technologies for higher plants. He is currently a full professor and
director of the Field Sciences Center, Prefectural University of Hiroshima (PUH),
Japan.
xxiii
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Alpine notes
and the climbing foot
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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Language: English
Alpine Notes
&
The Climbing Foot
By
George Wherry
MA., M.C.Cantab., F.R.C.S.
Surgeon to Addenbrooke’s Hospital,
Cambridge; University Lecturer in
Surgery; Member of the Alpine Club
An Alpine Letter
1895
Training at Kandersteg—Climbing the south face of the Birrenhorn—The viper’s
cast—The larches replacing the pines—The ascent of the Doldenhorn—The
Petersgrat—The ascent of the Bietschhorn—An interesting anniversary ascent
—Ascent of Monte Rosa by the Lys Pass—Cold feet on the glacier—The
Furggen Joch—Accident to a guide—Traverse of the Matterhorn—Naked feet
of guides photographed in climbing position—The Traverse of the Charmoz—
Farewell to Melchior—Lines to my lantern.