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HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

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HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Hazardous waste materials and practices of their management are of prime importance to the
society(Akpan & Olukanni, 2020). Since last few decades, it has been noted that the generation of
hazardous waste increases with increasing population, industrialization and
urbanization(Kanagamani et al., 2020). Proper attention is required during handling and storage of
hazardous wastes to reduce the risk of exposure as they pose substantial or potential threat to public
health as well as to environment(Kanagamani et al., 2020) Waste management implies the total
framework of identification, storage, transportation, treatment, recycling and disposal of hazardous
wastes(Nur Mohammad, 2020). Therefore, this chapter represents an insight of hazardous waste
management with focus on the definition and identification of hazardous wastes, their regulations,
handling and storage.
Definition and identification of hazardous wastes - sources and characteristics
Hazardous wastes are generated from various sources ranging from household to industrial
processes(Nur Mohammad, 2020) and are, because of their quantity, concentration, chemical or
infectious characteristics, capable of (a) causing or significantly contributing to an increase in
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness; and/or (b) posing
substantial or potential hazard to human health or environment when treated, stored, transported,
disposed of or otherwise managed(EPA, 2014).
Proper identification of hazardous waste can be a difficult and confusing task, but according to
(EPA, 2005), a waste can be identified hazardous if it meets any of the following criteria;

1. The waste contains any of the chemicals listed by EPA:

• The F List (non-specific source wastes)
• The K List (source-specific wastes)
• The P list and U list (discarded commercial chemical products)
2. The waste exhibits any of the four characteristics of-
• Flammability/ignitability
• Corrosivity
• Reactivity
• Toxicity

Identification of hazardous wastes based on sources/ hazardous waste listings

Hazardous waste listings are a narrative description of a specific type of waste from various
industrial processes, specific sectors of industry, or wastes with specific chemical
formulations/contents(EPA, 2005). They are four lists; the F list, K list, P list and the U
list. Hazardous waste listing involves comprehensive studies over concerned waste streams and
associated potential threats to public health and living environment(Nur Mohammad, 2020). Based
on significant threats posed by the waste, it is included in the hazardous waste list with precise
description of a waste code consisting of the letter associated with the list followed by three
numbers, for example F001, F002, and so on. Then any waste, fitting the list description, is
considered as hazardous, regardless of its chemical composition or other possible variations(EPA,
2005). The wastes listed on the F list and the K list are divided further into subgroups.

The F List
This designates particular solid wastes, from certain common industrial or manufacturing
processes, as hazardous. F List wastes are known as wastes from non-specific sources because the
processes producing these wastes can occur in different sectors of industry. Wastes consist of
chemicals that have been used for their intended purpose in an industrial process.

The F list has 7 divisions/subgroups depending on the industrial operation that creates them;

• Spent solvent wastes(F001-F005)

From use of common organic solvents used for degreasing or cleaning in mechanical repair, dry
cleaning, electronic manufacturing.

• Wastes from electroplating and other metal finishing operations (F006-F012, F019)
Jewelry manufacturing, automobile production to enhance appearance and stronger resistance to
corrosion. F006-F009 only apply to electroplating operations, F010-F012 to metal heat treating
operations, and F019 to chemical conversion coating of aluminum.

• Dioxin-bearing wastes (F020-F023 and F026-F028)

Production of specific pesticides or chemicals used in the production of pesticides.

• Wastes from production of certain chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (F024&F025)

Wastes from a very narrow industrial sector.

• Wood preserving wastes (F032, F034&F035)

Wood preserving operations such as chemical treatment to slow down deterioration, pressure
treatment of lumber with creosote or preservatives containing arsenic or chromium.

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 • Petroleum wastewater treatment sludges (F037&F038)
Contaminated waste water from oil refining process discarded into river containing oil, solid
material and chemical pollutants

• Multi source leachate (F039)

Liquid material that accumulates at the bottom of a hazardous waste landfill due to leaching, a
natural phenomenon through which liquids filter through solid or buried materials, that is, waste
placed in a landfill.

The K List
Designates particular solid wastes from certain specific industries as hazardous. They are known
as wastes from specific sources. The K list wastes are subdivided into 13 subgroups;

• Wood preservation (K001)

• Inorganic pigment manufacturing (K002-K008)
• Organic chemicals manufacturing (K009-K011, K013-K030, K083-K085, K093-K096,
K103-K105, K107-K118, K136, K149-K151, K156-K159, K161, K174, K175, AND
K181)
• Inorganic chemicals manufacturing (K071, K073, K106, and K176-K178)
• Pesticides manufacturing (K031-K043, K097-K099, K123-K126, and K131)
• Explosives manufacturing (K044-K047)
• Petroleum refining (K048-K052, and K169-K172)
• Iron and steel production (K061 and K062)
• Primary aluminium production (K088)
• Secondary lead processing (K069 and K100)
• Veterinary pharmaceuticals manufacturing (K084, K101, and K102)
• Ink formulation (K086)
• Coking of coal to produce iron and steel (K060, K141-K145, and K147-K148)

The P list and the U list

They are similar in that both list pure or commercial grade formulations of certain specific unused
chemicals as hazardous. They are discarded or intended to be discarded commercial chemical

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products having generic names listed, off-specification species, container residues, and spill
residues. Chemicals on the P list are identified as acute hazardous wastes while those on the U list
are toxic wastes.

The following criteria must be met for a waste to qualify to be on the P list and U list

• Must contain one of the chemicals listed in the P and U lists;

• Chemical in the waste must be unused;
• Chemical in the waste must be in the form of a commercial chemical product as defined by
EPA.
Identification based on hazardous waste characteristics
A hazardous waste characteristic is a property which indicates that a waste poses a sufficient threat
to deserve regulation as hazardous and should be detectable by using a standardized test method
or by applying general knowledge of the waste’s properties. Characteristics provide a screening
mechanism that waste handlers must apply to all wastes from all industries to identify hazardous
wastes. The four characteristics are; ignitability/flammability; corrosivity; reactivity; and
toxicity(EPA, 2014).

Ignitability
This characteristic helps to identify ignitable wastes which can easily catch fire and sustain
combination. The flush point test determines the lowest temperature at which a chemical ignited
when exposed to a flame. Non liquid waste is only hazardous due to ignitability if it can
spontaneously catch fire under normal handling conditions and can burn so vigorously that it
creates a hazard(EPA, 2005). Examples include oxidizing wastes, which are certain compressed
gases and chemicals, that may yield oxygen, causing or contributing to the combustion of other
materials; and volatile liquids which are solvents having vapors ignited at lower temperatures of
60o C or less.

Corrosivity
This characteristic identifies acidic or alkaline (or basic) wastes which can readily dissolve flesh,
metal (under specific conditions), or other materials causing severe acute damage when in contact
with them, or in the case of leakage may destroy other goods or the means of transport, such as
sulphuric acid from automotive batteries. On a pH test, aqueous wastes with pH of 2.0 or lower or
12.5 or higher are corrosive(EPA, 2005).

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Reactivity
This identifies wastes that readily explode or undergo violent reactions or react to release toxic
gases or fumes. Common examples are discarded munitions and explosives. According to(The
National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, S.I. No 52/1999., 1999), an explosive
substance is one which in itself is capable by chemical reaction at such a temperature and pressure
at such a speed as to cause damage to the surrounding.

A waste is considered reactive if it can;

• explode or violently react when exposed to water, when heated, or under normal handling,
• create toxic fumes or gases when exposed to water under normal handling conditions, or
• generate toxic levels of sulfide or cyanide gas when exposed to a pH range of 2 through
12.5.
Toxicity
Leaching of toxic compounds or elements from chemicals, found in industrial wastes disposed of
in landfills, into ground water, drinking supplies is the most common way hazardous wastes can
be ingested by the general population. According to(EPA, 2014), Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure (TCLP), a lab procedure used on a waste sample, is used to determine
whether a waste contains any of the 39 different toxic chemicals with concentration levels above
specified regulatory levels or the threshold. In determining whether a sample exhibits the toxicity
characteristic, two principal steps are involved: (a) creating a leachate sample using TCLP; and
(b) evaluating the concentration of 39 chemicals in that sample against regulatory levels.

Examples include toxic substances which can cause delayed or immediate effects to human health
when swallowed or ingested, ecotoxic substances which may present immediate or delayed
adverse effects to the environment by means of bio accumulation upon biotic systems, and
substances which are capable, after disposal, to yield another material, for example leachate which
possesses any hazardous characteristics.

Hazardous Wastes Regulations - Minimization of Hazardous waste

Waste minimization is the reduction, to the extent feasible of waste that is generated or
consequently treated, stored, or disposed of. Minimization of hazardous wastes includes any source
reduction or recycling activity undertaken by a facility operator or generator which intends to result
in either (i)the reduction of total volume of hazardous wastes, or (ii)the reduction of hazardous

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waste characteristics of toxicity, flammability, reactivity, corrosiveness with a goal of minimizing
present and future threats to both human health and the environment.

The likelihood of finding a cost-effective minimization method or technique is directly related to

understanding the links between your operations, characteristics of the hazardous substances used
and the quantity of wastes accumulated(Freeman, 1988).

Size and type of facility will influence the amount of effort, in terms of management costs, needed
to inject in the minimization techniques adopted.

Hazardous waste minimization techniques

Minimizing the generation of hazardous wastes can be achieved in many ways. Inventory and
management and operations; modification of production processes and equipment; changing
process chemistry; recycling and reclamation of potential waste streams within a manufacturing
process or back into the process; changes in raw materials(feedstocks) and changes in the end
products from manufacturing operations can, in some instances, be made so as to affect the
quantities and types of hazardous wastes emitted(Khor et al., 2007).

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Figure 1 Waste minimization techniques. Source: (Freeman, 1988)
Inventory management and operations through -
• Improvement in material purchasing, receiving, storage and handling practices, which
minimizes or eliminates duplication of purchased materials or materials that are not needed.
• In addition, material or chemical purchasing can be centralized through one individual to
avoid duplication of purchases at the facility.
• Installation of right equipment and maintaining strict preventive maintenance programs to
avoid leaks, spills, or accidental releases on the facility.
• Carefully label each chemical storage container with a full chemical name along with
potential hazards associated or contents as this will reduce unknown chemical waste.
• Effective and efficient production scheduling by reducing the number of production
changes as this will reduce equipment cleaning and minimize the wastes generated from
the production transitions.
Modification of processing/production equipment through -
• Installation of equipment that produces less waste.

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 • Incorporating environmental concerns in the design of processing equipment.
• Redesigning of production equipment to produce less wastes and enhance recovery or
recycling options.
• Improvement in operating efficiency of the equipment.
• Eliminating sources of leaks and spills.
Source reduction or modification of production process / product by -
• Using process changes that optimize reactions and raw materials to reduce waste releases.
• Imputing material changes: material purification and substitution that allow a change in the
process to reduce a hazardous constituent in the production during the manufacturing
phase.
• Additional automation to increase reliability of operations and to reduce occurrence of off-
specification products and process upsets.
• Eliminating the use of toxic raw materials hence a reduction in toxic emissions and wastes.
Recycling and reclamation through -
• Participation in waste exchanges and installation of closed loop systems for in-process
recycling.
• Recycling on-site at other process units or offsite for reuse.
• Finding new uses of previously unwanted byproducts.
• Segregation of wastes by type to allow for recovery.
• Reclamation: processing of wastes for resource recovery.
Monitoring production cycle from start to finish by -
• Identifying and eliminating potential negative impacts of product.
• Enabling the recovery and reuse of product where possible.
Handling and storage of hazardous waste- collection and transportation
According to regulations 11 and 16 of (The National Environment (Waste Management)
Regulations, S.I. No 52/1999., 1999), every container or package used in the storage of hazardous
waste should be labeled and handled in the manner prescribed below;

• Each storage container should have attached to it a label, in easily legible characters,
written in English any other relevant local languages.
• The label should, at a minimum, contain the following;
• Identity of hazardous waste

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 • Name and address of generator of hazardous waste
• Net contents
• Normal storage stability and methods of safe storage
• Name and percentage by weight of active ingredients, or other ingredients or half-life
of radioactive material
• Warning or caution statements which may include one or more of the following;
• Warning or caution
• Danger! Keep away from unauthorized persons
• Poison (market in red)
• Pictogram or skull and crossbones
• Direction of first aid measures, and antidote
• Adequate directions for handling of waste, safety precautions in transporting, storage
and disposal, and measures for cleaning equipment used
• Directions for disposal of container
• A vehicle or other conveyance carrying hazardous wastes should be labeled and should not
contain any warranties, guarantees or liability exclusion clauses inconsistent with the
statute.
• Means of conveyance should follow the approved scheduled routes from the point of
collection to the disposal site or plant.
• The collection and transportation of hazardous wastes should be conducted in a manner
that does not cause scattering of the wastes.
• The vehicles, pipelines and equipment for the transportation of hazardous wastes should
be in a state as not to cause the scattering of, or emitting of noxious smells from the wastes.
• The personnel involved in the collection, transportation or storage of wastes should be
provided with-
• Adequate protective and safety clothing
• Adequate appropriate equipment or facilities for loading the waste
• Safe and secure sitting facilities in the vehicles used for transporting waste
• Proper training and information
• The personnel involved in the collection, transportation or storage of wastes should be
medically checked up and present a medical report of fitness

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 • The container or packaging material should-
• Not be reactive to the waste to be stored.
• Be free from the possibility of leakage.
• Not cause harm to persons involved in handling the waste, the neighborhood and the
environment in general.
• It’s an offensive act to sell off or offer for sale a container which has been used for the
storage of a hazardous waste to be used for a purpose other than storage of the waste.

References
Akpan, V. E., & Olukanni, D. O. (2020). Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview.
Recycling, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030015
EPA. (2005, September). Introduction to United States Environmental Protection Agency
Hazardous Waste Identification (40 CFR Parts 261). Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(5305W). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/hwid05.pdf
EPA. (2014, October). Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Orientation Manual 2014.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/rom.pdf
Freeman, H. M. (1988). Hazardous Waste Minimization. JAPCA, 38(1).
https://doi.org/10.1080/08940630.1988.10466355
Kanagamani, K., Geethamani, P., & Narmatha, M. (2020). Hazardous Waste Management. In
Environmental Change and Sustainability [Working Title]. IntechOpen.
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94080
Khor, C. S., Madhuranthakam, C. M. R., & Elkamel, A. (2007). WASTE REDUCTION FOR
CHEMICAL PLANT OPERATIONS. In Environmentally Conscious Materials and
Chemicals Processing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470168219.ch4
Nur Mohammad, S. (2020). Hazardous Waste Management -Reuse, Recycling and Reclamation.
Hazardous Waste Management -Reuse, Recycling and Reclamation, 1–10.
The National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, S.I. No 52/1999., Pub. L. No. 52, 1
(1999). https://www.kcca.go.ug/uDocs/waste_management_regulations.pdf

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