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EMPLOYEES’ EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE, MOTIVATION
& PRODUCTIVITY, AND
ORGANIZATIONAL EXCELLENCE
A Future Trend in HRD
Gagari Chakrabarti
Tapas Chatterjea
Employees’ Emotional Intelligence, Motivation
& Productivity, and Organizational Excellence
Gagari Chakrabarti · Tapas Chatterjea
Employees’
Emotional
Intelligence,
Motivation &
Productivity, and
Organizational
Excellence
A Future Trend in HRD
Gagari Chakrabarti Tapas Chatterjea
Department of Economics Cardio-vascular, Geriatric, Internal
Presidency University and Critical Care Medicine; Diabetology
Kolkata and Thyroidology, Mental Health-Stress
West Bengal, India and Institutional Management
Kolkata
West Bengal, India
ISBN 978-981-10-5758-8 ISBN 978-981-10-5759-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947723
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Cover illustration: © John Rawsterne/patternhead.com
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The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword
The study of Emotional Intelligence could be traced back to the era

of Charles Darwin when the crucial role of emotional expression was
emphasized for survival. While ancient Greek literature prioritised cog-
nitive skills, the European Sentimentalist Movement and the Emotional
Movement emphasized the ‘emotional expression of arts’ and recog-
nized the presence and relevance of intrinsic, emotional knowledge.
Gradually, scientists came to accept the inadequate role of standard
cognitive intelligence to be used as a tool to account for individual
behaviour, to analyze their success, and to predict their failures. Rather,
they tend to emphasize more on a combination of skills that allow a
person to recognize, comprehend and to control personal emotions; to
appreciate the emotions of fellow beings and to use this competence to
promote positivity that would make a system better functioning by nur-
turing the success of all those who are part of it. Passion and intellect
hence are not indeed antithetical. Rather than being ‘a state of complete
loss of rational or analytical control’, emotions are taken to allow peo-
ple to thrive in a complex world through successful dealing with people
and the environment. These are deemed to have strengthened cerebral
control and facilitated analytical thinking and dealing with real-life
v
vi Foreword
situations are being claimed to require a perfect blending of reasoning

with emotions. Such a mélange of emotion and intellect coins a novel
term: Emotional Intelligence. The initial quail on treating emotional
intelligence as intelligence in its true sense was subsequently defeated
by the development of models those treated it as hot intelligence: a mem-
ber of the class of intelligence that include the social, practical, and per-
sonal intelligences. Recent literature considers emotional intelligence as
a separate branch of intelligence that may be acquired rather than being
innate.
Ever since its inception, the theory of emotional intelligence has
come to emerge as a theory of superior on-the-job performances and
abilities to lead an effective life. It has been an empirically proven fact
that while increasing emotional intelligence makes individuals more
efficient, productive, and successful; organizations can become more
productive by hiring emotionally efficient people and by offering oppor-
tunities to enhance these skills in the workplace.
This study is an exploration in this area in the context of an emerging
economy like India in recent time. The study kicks off from the under-
lying note that organizations desire to ensure a working environment
that is vibrant with positive thoughts and interactions; in an attempt
to dent unconstructive or disruptive factors and to ensure improved
performances over time. Such environment must be characterized by
rational and value-based decisions taken by those who are part of it and
this is ensured by effective teamwork achieved through cooperation,
cohesion and sense of integrity among the fellow members. However,
while ensuring positivity is vital, the question remains: how? Better
work-environment results from effective social interaction between the
employer and the employee and, more crucially, among the employees
themselves. Thus, ensuring positivity essentially requires choosing indi-
viduals who would be skilled to rationalize and control personal emo-
tions; with an ability to recognize, appreciate and respect the emotions
of the fellow beings. Such expertise is likely to mould the system in a
positive way to ensure better productivity in future. In this backdrop,
the book explores whether people with cognitive skills coming from dif-
ferent social and demographic strata possess enough excellence in non-
cognitive competences so as to help the organization, to which they
Foreword vii
belong, to attain certain specific goals. Do emotional intelligence skills

in employees indeed translate into superior on-the-job performances in
a country like India? An affirmative answer would emphasize the need
for an organization to look for such skills in potential employees and
the inevitability to nurture such skill in existing employees. Further,
it has attempted to inquire if hiring people on the basis of emotional
intelligence could help an organization avoid the problem of moral haz-
ards where hidden-actions on part of the employees, who are otherwise
skilled, might adversely affect the organization’s valuation of the transac-
tions in which they would be involved. Such exploration help explain
the urge of any success-oriented organization to look for the non-cog-
nitive skills (along with the pure cognitive efficiencies) in a potential
employee and the need to design incentive mechanism and/or to frame
policies to help existing employees develop such skills.
Kolkata, India Amitava Sarkar

May 2017 Professor and Director,
Indian Institute of Social Welfare
and Business Management and
former Vice Chancellor (Acting),
WB University of Technology
Preface
This book is an attempt to recognize the relevance and significance of

combining non-cognitive skills along with the cognitive ones to help
explain one’s ability to lead an effective and successful life. Based on
a primary survey that approached the academicians, administrators,
professionals and other service-holders from India, the book applies
technical and quantitative methods to analyze employees’ emotional
intelligence, its determinants and variation across gender, age, income,
education and occupation structures. It seeks to explore whether and
how a combination of cognitive and non-cognitive skills could motivate
individuals to improve their productivity that would ultimately lead to
organizational excellence without introducing the much knotty prob-
lem of workplace moral hazard. To improve the flow of the book, the
study has been organized in four chapters. While Chap. 2 is devoted
to portray the conceptual development of Emotional Intelligence as
a distinct branch of intelligence, Chaps. 3 and 4 involve use of a fair
amount of appropriate qualitative data analysis techniques to answer
the questions raised by the study. It indeed finds the theory of EI, not
only as a theory of superior performances, but also as means to reduce
possibilities of work-place moral hazard.
ix
x Preface
While the book is an attempt to quench the thirst of the researchers,

students and analysts who are interested in this field of study, the find-
ings bear significant implications for designing of effective hiring
and staff development strategies on part of the corporate personnel.
Selecting a group of people who can recognize, comprehend and respect
others’ emotions and can nurture effective teamwork through coopera-
tion and cohesion is found to be essential for achieving organizational
excellence. The organizations can benefit further by offering opportu-
nities to enhance these skills in the workplace. Further, attempts must
be initiated by the organization to foster better work environment with
suitable incentive schemes; to provide employees with a motivating
peer group that is vibrant with positive thoughts; and to develop effec-
tive support systems so as to free the employees from their social and
family responsibilities to an extent that is feasible. While an EI based
valuation is vital at all stages of the life of an organization, the book in
its final note exclaims the necessity to target the incumbents at a much
earlier stage in their life; possibly by making value based education pro-
grammes a part of the curriculum.
We take this opportunity to express our appreciation to those who
have influenced this work. The number of respondents who have will-
fully taken their part in the survey; and that of the students and col-
leagues whose cooperation has helped us build on our ideas is too large
to allow us to thank them individually. However, a sincere word of
appreciation goes to Dr. Sarmita Guha Roy for helping us immensely
in data collection. We owe a lot to Prof. Amitava Sarkar, IISWBM,
Kolkata: Prof. Anjan Chakrabarti, University of Calcutta; Prof. Bivas
Chaudhury, All India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health; and Prof.
Gaurav Manohar Marathe, IIM Ranchi. While it is our pleasure to
appreciate the suggestions of the anonymous referees, the usual dis-
claimer remains.
Kolkata, India Dr. Gagari Chakrabarti

Dr. Tapas Chatterjea
Contents
1 Prologue 1
2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional

Intelligence: Theories and Evidence in Global Context 11
3 Indicators of Emotional Intelligence: Determinants

and Interconnections 51
4 Benefit to an Organization: Intrinsic Skills

and (Or?) Psycho-social Factors 221
Author Index 291
Subject Index 295
xi
List of Graphs
Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender 62

Graph 3.2 Classification of respondents according
to monthly income 63
Graph 3.3 Classification of respondents according to age in years 64
Graph 3.4 Classification of respondents according to occupation 64
Graph 3.5 Classification of respondents according to education 65
Graph 3.6 percentage of respondents excelling in terms
of EI indicators 75
Graph 3.7 Predicted probability of having above average
self regulation 90
Graph 3.8 Predicted probability of having above-average
skills in terms of self regulation with change
in efficiency in emotional intelligence dimension 92
Graph 3.9 Predicted probability of showing high trustworthiness
(across age, income, gender, occupation and education) 95
Graph 3.10 Predicted probabilities of having high
trustworthiness for levels of other EI items (across EQ) 96
Graph 3.11 Predicted probabilities of having high trustworthiness
for different levels of age, gender, income,
occupation and education 97
xiii
xiv List of Graphs

trustworthiness against EQ 98
Graph 3.13 Trustworthiness, service-orientation, and predicted
probability of having high conscientiousness
at different levels of EQ 100
Graph 3.14 Trustworthiness, service-orientation and predicted
probability of having high conscientiousness
(across age, income, gender, occupation and education) 101
Graph 3.15 Predicted probabilities of having high
conscientiousness for different levels of age,
gender, income, occupation and education 102
Graph 3.16 Predicted probability of having high
conscientiousness at different values of EQ 103
Graph 3.17 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict
management and high self control (across EQ) 104
Graph 3.18 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict
management and high self control
(across age, gender, income, occupation, education) 105
Graph 3.19 Predicted probability of attaining above-average self
control (across age, gender, income, occupation,
education) 106
Graph 3.20 Probability of obtaining above average self control
across EQ 106
adaptability given ability to act as change catalyst
(across EQ) 108
Graph 3.22 Predicted probability of showing high
adaptability with enhanced skills as change catalyst 108
Graph 3.23 Predicted probability of attaining above-average
adaptability (across age, gender, income,
occupation, education) 110
Graph 3.24 Predicted probability of having high adaptability
across EQ 110
Graph 3.25 Predicted probability of having high innovativeness
at all levels of EQ for different levels of selected EI items 112
Graph 3.26 Marginal effects on predicted probability of showing
above-average innovativeness (across age, income,
gender, occupation and education) 113
List of Graphs xv

innovativeness (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.28 Probability of having above-average innovativeness
across EQ 114
self awareness against EQ 120
Graph 3.30 Predicted probability of showing high self awareness
with improvement in self regulation and EQ 120
Graph 3.31 Marginal effect of other EI items on predicted
probability of showing high self awareness 122
Graph 3.32 Predicted probabilities of having high emotional
awareness (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education) 123
Graph 3.33 Predicted probability of having strong emotional
awareness against EQ 124
Graph 3.34 Marginal effects on predicted probability
of above-average accurate self assessment
(across gender, age, income, education and occupation) 125
of high accurate self assessment (across EQ) 125
accurate self assessment (across age, gender,
income, occupation, education) 126
accurate self assessment against EQ 127
of above-average self confidence (across gender,
age, income, education and occupation) 128
of above-average self confidence (across EQ) 128
self confidence (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.41 Predicted probability of showing high
self confidence against EQ 130
self motivation 135
xvi List of Graphs
Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

strong self motivation with change in EQ 137
Graph 3.44 Innovativeness, commitment, EQ and probability
of high achievement drive (across gender, age,
income, occupation and education) 139
Graph 3.45 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement
drive for different levels of other EI items (across EQ) 140
Graph 3.46 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement
drive for different levels of age, gender, income,
achievement drive against EQ 141
Graph 3.48 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted probability
of having high commitment at different levels of EQ 143
Graph 3.49 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted
probability of having high commitment (across
age, income, ender, occupation and education) 144
Graph 3.50 Predicted probabilities of having high commitment
(across age, gender, income, occupation and education) 144
Graph 3.51 Predicted probability of having high commitment
across EQ 145
Graph 3.52 Optimism, commitment and high initiative (across EQ) 147
Graph 3.53 Optimism, commitment and high initiative
Graph 3.54 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average initiative
Graph 3.55 Probability of showing strong initiative (across EQ) 149
Graph 3.56 Initiative, empathy and predicted probability
of showing high optimism (across EQ) 150
Graph 3.57 Predicted probability of high optimism with
enhanced skills in empathy and initiative
(across age, gender, occupation, education, income) 150
Graph 3.58 Predicted probability of showing above-average
optimism (across age, gender, income,
optimism across EQ 152
social awareness 157
List of Graphs xvii
Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

above-average social awareness with change in EQ 159
Graph 3.62 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation
and high empathy (across EQ) 162
Graph 3.63 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation
and high empathy (across age, gender, income,
occupation and education) 163
Graph 3.64 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average empathy
Graph 3.65 Probability of obtaining above average empathy
across EQ 164
Graph 3.66 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness,
empathy, developing others and high service orientation
(across EQ) 166
Graph 3.67 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness,
empathy, developing others and high service orientation
Graph 3.68 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average
service orientation (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.69 Probability of showing strong service orientation
across EQ 168
Graph 3.70 Relevant EI competences affecting skills
of developing others (across EQ) 170
Graph 3.71 Relevant EI competences and skills in developing
others (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education 170
Graph 3.72 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong skills
in developing others (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.73 Probability of demonstrating skills in developing
others across EQ 172
Graph 3.74 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leveraging
diversity (across EQ) 173
Graph 3.75 Relevant EI competences and skills in leveraging
diversity (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education) 174
xviii List of Graphs
Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

in leveraging diversity (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.77 Probability of demonstrating skills in leveraging
diversity across EQ 175
Graph 3.78 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in political
awareness (across EQ) 177
Graph 3.79 Relevant EI competences and skills in political awareness
in political awareness (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.81 Probability of demonstrating skills in political
awareness across EQ 178
Graph 3.82 Predicted probability of having above average social skill 184
Graph 3.83 Improvement in predicted probability
of showing strong social skill with change in EQ 186
in influencing others (across EQ) 190
Graph 3.85 Relevant EI competences and skills
in influencing others (across age, gender, income,
in influencing others (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.87 Probability of demonstrating skills in influencing
others across EQ 192
in communication (across EQ) 193
Graph 3.89 Leadership and skills in communication (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education) 194
in communication (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.91 Probability of demonstrating skills in communication
across EQ 195
List of Graphs xix
Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

(across EQ) 197
Graph 3.93 Leadership and relevant EI dimensions (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education) 197
in leadership (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.95 Probability of demonstrating skills in leadership
across EQ 198
in building bonds (across EQ) 200
Graph 3.97 Skills in building bonds and relevant EI dimensions
in building bonds (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.99 Probability of demonstrating skills in building
bonds across EQ 202
Graph 3.100 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in cooperation
(across EQ) 203
Graph 3.101 Skills in cooperation and relevant EI dimensions
in cooperation (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.103 Probability of demonstrating skills in cooperation
across EQ 205
in conflict management (across EQ) 207
Graph 3.105 Skills in conflict management and relevant
EI dimensions (across age, gender, income,
in conflict management (across age, gender,
income, occupation, education) 208
Graph 3.107 Probability of demonstrating skills in conflict
management across EQ 208
xx List of Graphs
Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

(across EQ) 210
Graph 3.109 Skills in team capabilities and relevant EI dimensions
Graph 3.110 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong team
capabilities (across age, gender, income, occupation,
education) 211
Graph 3.111 Probability of demonstrating skills in team
capabilities across EQ 211
to act as change catalyst (across EQ) 213
Graph 3.113 Skills in acting as change catalyst and relevant
EI dimensions (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.114 Predicted probability of acting as change catalyst
Graph 3.115 Probability of demonstrating skills in acting
as change catalyst across EQ 214
Graph 4.1 Bidirectional relationship among skills in terms
of EI indicators 225
Graph 4.2 Unidirectional relationship among skills in terms
of EI indicators 226
Graph 4.3 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators
(across Education Category) 227
(across income brackets) 228
(across age groups) 229
(across occupation types) 230
(across gender) 231
Graph 4.8 Increase in predicted probability of showing improved
performance with an improvement in intrinsic skill
(across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 249
Graph 4.9 Increase in predicted probability of showing improved
performance with an improvement in EQ 250
List of Graphs xxi
Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

improved performance with an improvement in EQ
Graph 4.11 Increase in predicted probability of showing ability
to manage situation with an improvement in intrinsic
skill (across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 253
improved performance with an improvement in EQ 254
Graph 4.13 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills
in managing situation with an improvement in EQ
in teamwork with an improvement in intrinsic skill
in teamwork with an improvement in psycho-social
skill (across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 257
Graph 4.16 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher
teamwork with an improvement in EQ 258
in teamwork with an improvement in EQ
in leadership with an improvement in Intrinsic Skills
in leadership with an improvement in Psycho-social
Skills (across age, gender, income, education,
occupation) 261
higher quality leadership with an improvement in EQ 261
in leadership with an improvement in EQ
skills in shaping the future with an improvement
in Intrinsic Skills (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation) 264
xxii List of Graphs

in shaping the future with an improvement in
Psycho-social Skills (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation) 264
Graph 4.24 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher
leadership with an improvement in EQ 265
in shaping the future with an improvement in EQ
Graph 4.26 External factors and predicted probabilities
of exhibiting strong commitment and stronger ethics
given commitment 276
Graph 4.27 Predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong commitment
and stronger ethics given commitment (across age,
gender, income, education, occupation) 277
Graph 4.28 External factors and % improvement in predicted
probabilities of exhibiting strong commitment
(across age) 278
probabilities of exhibiting better ethics given strong
commitment (across age) 278
(across income) 279
commitment (across income) 279
(across gender, occupation, education) 280
commitment (across gender, occupation, education) 280
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure 65

Table 3.2 Cross tabulation involving age and gender 66
Table 3.3 Cross tabulation involving gender and income 67
Table 3.4 Cross tabulation involving gender and occupation 67
Table 3.5 Cross tabulation of data involving gender and education 68
Table 3.6 Cross tabulation of data involving income and age-group 68
Table 3.7 Cross tabulation of data involving income
and education levels 69
Table 3.8 Cross tabulation of data involving income
and occupation structure 69
Table 3.9 Cross tabulation of data involving age
Table 3.10 Cross tabulation of data involving education
Table 3.11 Cross tabulation of data involving age and education 70
Table 3.12 Reliability analysis for EI items and scale 73
Table 3.13 Percentage of respondents excelling in terms
of EI indicators (in details) 76
Table 3.14 Spearman’s rank correlation among variables
in the original data set 79
xxiii
xxiv List of Tables
Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

EI dimensions and EQ index 80
Table 3.16 Proficiency in terms of self regulation
Table 3.17 Cross tabulation among self regulation,
other EI dimensions and the EQ index 83
Table 3.18 Rank correlation among self regulation,
its constituents and other EI dimensions 84
Table 3.19 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: self regulation
and EI items under it 93
Table 3.20 Predicted probability of showing above-average
conscientiousness with improvement in chosen EI items 99
conscientiousness with improvement in chosen EI items 104
adaptability with improvement in chosen EI items 107
innovativeness with improvement in chosen EI items 111
Table 3.24 Self-awareness across age, income, gender,
Table 3.25 Cross tabulation among self-awareness,
Table 3.26 Rank correlation among self awareness,
Table 3.27 Predicted probability of showing strong
self assessment with improvement in chosen EI items 124
Table 3.28 Predicted probability of showing strong self
confidence with improvement in chosen EI items 127
Table 3.29 Self Motivation across age, income, gender,
Table 3.30 Cross tabulation among self motivation,
Table 3.31 Rank correlation among self motivation,
Table 3.32 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient:
self motivation and EI items under it 138
achievement drive with improvement in relevant EI items 139
List of Tables xxv

commitment with improvement in chosen EI items 142
initiative with improvement in chosen EI items 146
optimism with improvement in chosen EI items 149
Table 3.37 Social awareness across age, income, gender,
Table 3.38 Cross tabulation among social awareness,
Table 3.39 Rank correlation among social awareness,
Table 3.40 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient:
social awareness and EI items under it 160
Table 3.41 Predicted probability of showing strong empathy
with improvement in chosen EI items 161
service orientation with improvement in chosen EI items 165
skills in developing others with improvement
in chosen EI items 169
skills in leveraging diversity with improvement
skills in political awareness with improvement
Table 3.46 Social skill across age, income, gender, occupation
and education 181
Table 3.47 Cross tabulation among social skill,
Table 3.48 Rank correlation among social skill,
Table 3.49 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: social awareness
and EI items under it 188
skills of influencing others with improvement
xxvi List of Tables
Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

of communication with improvement in chosen EI items 193
of leadership with improvement in chosen EI items 196
in building bonds with improvement in chosen EI items 199
in cooperation with improvement in chosen EI items 202
n managing conflict with improvement in chosen
EI items 206
in team capabilities with improvement in chosen EI items 209
Table 3.57 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills to
act as change catalyst with improvement in chosen
EI items 212
Table 4.1 Reliability analysis for the constructed indexes 243
Table 4.2 Tetrachoric correlation coefficients obtained
for outcome indexes 244
Table 4.3 Improvement in predicted probability of showing skills
in outcome index following improvement in skills
in terms of others 245
Table 4.4 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related
to improved performance index 247
to situation management index 251
to index of teamwork 255
to index of leadership 259
to index of shaping the future 263
Table 4.9 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill,
psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes 267
Table 4.10 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill,
psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education groups) 268
List of Tables xxvii
Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

in outcome indexes following change in combination
of intrinsic and psycho-social skill 270
Table 4.12 External factors affecting commitment
(responses by all respondents) 275
1
Prologue
“Life is indeed colourful. We can feel in the pink one day, with our bank balances
comfortably in the black, and the grass seemingly no greener on the other side of the
fence. Then out of the blue, something tiresome happens that makes us see red, turn
ashen white, even purple with rage. Maybe controlling our varying emotions is just
‘colour managemen’ by another name.”
—Alex Morritt, Impromptu Scribe
Abstract As a preamble to the issue of employees’ emotional

intelligence and its manifestation and significance for organiza-

tional benefits and productivity, this chapter introduces the concept
of Emotional Intelligence, as it has been conceived since the days in
ancient Greece. It segregates Emotional Intelligence from pure cogni-
tive intelligence or from disruptive emotions and introduces the term
as a perfect blend between cognitive and non-cognitive excellences. It
initiates a portrayal of the journey of Emotional Intelligence from being
described as a highly obfuscated term to gain appreciation as a member
of the class of intelligences including the social, practical, and personal
intelligences. The chapter then depicts the trajectory of the study by
introducing the research questions.
© The Author(s) 2018 1

G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea, Employees’ Emotional Intelligence, Motivation &
Productivity, and Organizational Excellence, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5_1
2 G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea
Keywords Emotional intelligence · Cognitive and Non-cognitive

excellence · Hot intelligences · Affect · Motivation
The 1997 classic paper by J.D. Mayer and P. Salovey on “What is

Emotional Intelligence” started by recapitulating the real-world story
of a little boy in his fourth grade who was found quivering in the
school playground, by his teacher. Realizing that the poor boy could
not actually afford to grant himself any warmer garment to combat
the chilly winter, his teacher and the school-nurse decided to offer him
one. Accordingly, they dropped in his place and the delighted mother
outfitted the boy next morning for his school. Incidentally, two of
his classmates, finding the boy in his new attire accused him of steal-
ing it with such malevolence that no other child dared to defend the
boy. Intervention by the concerned teacher and the nurse did not help
much; one of the two boys abused the nurse and she retaliated equally
harshly. Thus, the story of the kid that started with the goodness of a
caring teacher did not end up with that tenderness. The class teacher
was dumbfound to find her boys misbehaving; the school-nurse was
penitent that she had retaliated; and the concerned teacher was upset
to find her affection for the poor boy to have caused such agony to him.
As pointed out by Mayer and Salovey (1997), reasoning about such sit-
uations and taking measures to restrict those to crop-up further, require
a deliberate interaction between the heart and the brain. The school
administrators might put a ban on teachers to give gifts to their students
but such a ‘feeling-blind’ response would rule out emotions from deci-
sions, discourage being tender, and would embarrass those who receive
affection. Dealing with such situations must involve a perfect blending
of reasoning with emotions: the heart must have its brain and the brain
should have a heart. Such a blend between emotion and intellect coins a
novel term: Emotional Intelligence.
In ancient world of thinking, while Greece put reasoning on top of
emotions, European Sentimentalist Movement recognized and empha-
sized the presence of intrinsic, emotional knowledge. The Emotional
Movement emphasized the ‘emotional expression of arts’. The definition
of intelligence in fact differs across nations and some of them refuse to
1 Prologue
3
accept the notion of intelligence as all about the speed of mental pro-
cessing (Berry 1984; Sternberg and Kaufman 1998; Sternberg et al.
1981). Even the Western theorists, who took intelligence to be strongly
cognitive, could not deny the importance of depth along with the speed
of mental processing in making the learning process complete and effec-
tive (Craik and Lockhart 1972). The oriental conception of intelligence
added non-cognitive flavours to the concept of intelligence ever since
the days of Confucius (Yang and Sternberg 1997a). Unlike traditional
western conception of the notion, they emphasized freedom from con-
ventional line of thinking and a complete understanding of true self and
surroundings as integral part of one’s learning process: a notion simi-
lar to what later came to be known as Emotional Intelligence. Even the
present-day Taiwanese philosophy of intelligence encompasses inter
and intrapersonal intelligences, intellectual self assertion and self efface-
ment along with the traditional notion of cognitive intelligence (Yang
and Sternberg 1997b). Chen and Chen (1988) found similar results
for the Chinese economy. The Buddhist and the Hindu philosophers
have always blended emotional aspects with the traditional concepts of
intellect (Das 1994). A large body of literature has grown to converse
about the notion of intelligence in the African countries where intel-
ligence includes the ability to foster congruent inter and intra-group
relationships (Ruzgis and Grigorenko 1994). In countries like Zambia,
Zimbabwe and Kenya intellect is conceived to include social respon-
sibility and other favourable humane and positive emotional traits
(Serpell 1974; Super and Harkness 1986; Dasen 1984). Despite of the
presence of some degree of dissimilarity across the tribes, their notion
of intelligence incorporates some social aspects in one sense or other
(Wober 1974; Harkness and Super 1983; Putnam and Kilbride 1980;
Durojaiye 1993).
Ever since the eighteenth century, psychologists considered three
separate segments of human mind (Hilgard 1980). The first sphere of
cognitive excellence is concerned with the human-intellect; that is, with
the skills to recognize, distinguish, memorize, analyze and to think logi-
cally. The second sphere considers affect that includes emotions, moods,
humane feelings and considerations. The third aspect or motivation
refers to the natural or acquired human desire to pursue a definite goal.
In traditional line of thinking passions and reckoning were considered

to be antithetical. Waves of emotions were apprehended to lead to mud-
dled ideas, confused thoughts and irrational reactions. Traditional psy-
chology textbooks used to describe emotions as ‘disorganized responses’,
‘sheer disturbances’ or ‘a state of complete loss of rational or analytical
control’. Recent literature however deems emotions to have strength-
ened cerebral control and facilitated analytical thinking. This is specifi-
cally the area where the concept of Emotional Intelligence intervenes to
act as a bridge between the cognitive and the non-cognitive aspect of
human behaviour. A readily comprehensible definition of Emotional
Intelligence may be found in Mayer and Salovey (1997) who describe it
as the “ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so
as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge,
and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and
intellectual growth”.
With the opening up of new avenues, few considered the term
Emotional Intelligence to be a highly obfuscated one and alleged it to
have a tendency to overestimate the role of some human traits that
may be appreciable but is far from to be qualified as ‘intelligence’.
Matthew et al. (2002) considered Emotional Intelligence to be ‘more
myth than science’ while Hedlund and Sternberg (2000) raised doubt
about the possibility of having more than one type of intelligence.
Mayer and Salovey (1997) however opposed by emphasizing the pres-
ence of a mental skill that could be distinguished from ‘preferred ways
of behaving’ or ‘humane traits’ and may indeed be termed as ‘intelli-
gence’. They, along with Mayer and Mitchell (1998) viewed Emotional
Intelligence “as a member of class of intelligences including the social,
practical, and personal intelligences that we have come to call the hot
intelligences”.
This line of thought was subsequently enriched by the development
of models to establish Emotional Intelligence as a separate branch
of intelligence that may be acquired rather than being innate; and to
quantify it. The majority of such models, in their attempts to describe,
define and conceptualize Emotional Intelligence have incorporated
components such as the capability to recognize, comprehend and artic-
ulate emotions; the ability to appreciate and respect others’ feelings; the
1 Prologue
5
proficiency in dealing with, specially disruptive, emotions; the skills in

adapting to changing situations and needs; or the ability to generate an
environment vibrant with positive thoughts and cohesive interaction.
Ever since its inception, the theory of Emotional Intelligence has come
to emerge as a theory of superior on-the-job performances and abilities
to lead an effective life. It has been an empirically proven fact that while
increasing emotional intelligence makes individuals more efficient, pro-
ductive, and successful; organizations can become more productive by
hiring emotionally efficient people and by offering opportunities to
enhance these skills in the workplace.
The theory of Emotional Intelligence, however, brought in its train a
number of criticisms just like a silver lining hides a cloud behind it. The
critics often blame the concept of Emotional Intelligence to be far from
being a science in a true sense. Measurement of Emotional Intelligence
is indicted further to be based on unstable, time-varying and psycho-
metrically flawed instruments that failed to pass to relevant discriminant
and predictive validity tests. Subsequent studies, however, rescued the
concept to be consequently developed as separate branch of intelligence.
The present study is an exploration in this area in the context of an
emerging economy like India in recent time. The study initiates from
the underpinning note that organizations cherish to ensure a work-
ing environment, vibrant with positive thoughts and interactions, to
undermine all sorts of unconstructive or disruptive factors and reper-
cussions so that outstanding performances might be ensured over time.
Such an effervescent environment must be characterized by rational and
value-based decisions taken by those who are part of it. This may be
ensured by effective teamwork achieved through cooperation, cohesion
and sense of mutual respect and integrity among the fellow members.
Ensuring such positivity is likely to remove stumbling blocks and get
transformed into higher productivity and focussed service orientation.
However, while ensuring positivity is essential, the question remains:
how? Better work-environment is nothing but a manifestation of effec-
tive social interaction between the employer and the employee and,
more importantly, among the employees themselves as team-members.
Hence, the question of ensuring positivity essentially boils down to a
choice of hiring personnel who will be able to understand, rationalize
and control personal emotions; would recognize, appreciate and respect

the emotions of the fellow beings and would, through this expertise,
develop an environment where the system would function better by
nurturing success of all those who are part of it. It thus becomes crucial
to explore whether people, coming with cognitive skills from different
social and demographic strata possess enough excellence in non-cogni-
tive competences so as to help the organization, to which they belong,
to attain certain specific goals. With this at the back of our mind, the
study, based on a primary survey conducted during March 2016 to
September 2016 in Indian job market, seeks to answer the following set
of questions:
1. How competent a group of individuals, coming from different socio-

economic and demographic strata, is in term of their Emotional
Intelligence?
2. What are the factors determining such skills?
3. Do emotional intelligence competences of employees in certain areas
indeed translate into superior on-the-job performances in a country
like India? An affirmative answer would emphasize the need for an
organization to look for such skills in potential employees and the
inevitability to nurture such skill in existing employees.
4. Does hiring people on the basis of such non-cognitive skills help
an organization avoid the problem of moral hazards where hidden-
actions on part of the employees, who are otherwise skilled, might
adversely affect the organization’s valuation of the transactions in
which they would be involved?
Such an analysis would help explain the urge of any organization, aspir-
ant of success, to look for the non-cognitive skills (along with the pure
cognitive efficiencies) in potential employee and the need to design
incentive mechanism and/or to frame policies to help existing employ-
ees develop such skills.
Accordingly, after this introductory chapter the study is divided into
three more.
Chapter 2 describes the evolution of the theories of Emotional
Intelligence starting from that of Darwin. It recapitulates different
1 Prologue
7
models that are available in literature for analysing, measuring and

gauging the impact of Emotional Intelligence with their limitations.
Chapter 3 considers different broad Emotional Intelligence dimen-
sions, the Emotional Intelligence indicators under those, their deter-
minants and the possible interaction among them in Indian context. It
then seeks to explore whether and how people coming from different
socio-economic and demographic strata behave in terms of Emotional
Intelligence indicators.
Chapter 4 considers the organizational benefits of Emotional
Intelligence and seeks to establish the theory of Emotional Intelligence
as a theory of superior on-the-job performance in the context of Indian
job market. Specifically, it explores whether proficiencies in some
selected intrinsic skills translate into above-average proficiencies in
terms of some of the outcome parameters in which a firm aspiring for
success may be interested. The study delves deeper to explore whether
such proficiencies are specific to gender, age, income, occupation or
education structures. This would have significant bearing on the hir-
ing strategies and for designing suitable employee development activi-
ties. Further, realizing the difficulty in working with the unobservable
intrinsic skills, the study seeks to find out some ‘observable’, particularly
psycho-social factors that could proxy for such imponderable intrinsic
skills. The presence of such factor would imply boiling down of hir-
ing strategy to developing a suitable framework to hire people with soft
skills. In its final note, the study intervenes to explore whether hiring
people on the basis of non-cognitive, rather than cognitive competences
could ensure higher outcomes desired by the organizations without
introducing problem of moral hazard. In such cases cost of hiring and
managing personnel would not involve the costs for monitoring to con-
trol moral hazard.
The study thus, may be said to have acquired its motivation from the
writing of C.S. Lewis1: “Good philosophy must exist, if for no other
reason, because bad philosophy needs to be answered. The cool intellect
must work not only against cool intellect on the other side, but against
the muddy heathen mysticisms which deny intellect altogether.”
Note
1 Excerpt from the essay ‘Learning in War-Time’ from the book, The
Weight of Glory.
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2
Intelligence? … Emotions? … or,
the Emotional Intelligence: Theories
and Evidence in Global Context
Emotions can get in the way or get you on the way.

—Mavis Mazhura
Abstract This chapter portrays the conceptual development of

Emotional Intelligence as a distinct branch of intelligence. The growing
branch of relevant literature has gradually shifted its focus from pure
cognitive abilities to concede the presence of non-cognitive skills allow-
ing one to comprehend and control personal emotions; to recognize and
appreciate that of others’ and to use such skills to make a system better
functioning by fostering success of those who belong to it. The chap-
ter reviews the attempts made to relate two apparently unrelated terms
namely, Emotions and Intelligence to explain the abilities to lead an effec-
tive life. It reviews the basic tenets of the Bar-On model, the Mayer-
Salovey model; Goleman’s Mixed model, and the Big-five and other
trait-based models with their applications in global context.
Keywords Emotional intelligence · Bar-On model · Ability based

model of Mayer and Salovey · Mixed model of Goleman · Big-five
model · Trait based models
© The Author(s) 2018 11
G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea, Employees’ Emotional Intelligence, Motivation &
Productivity, and Organizational Excellence, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5_2
2.1 Introduction
The study of Emotional Intelligence dates back to the era of Charles
Darwin when he portrayed emotional expression to be essential for sur-
vival. With the passage of time, different schools of scientists came to
believe that standard cognitive intelligence does not always suffice as a
tool for explaining human behaviour, to analyze their success, and to
predict their failures. Rather, what should be emphasized more is a com-
bination of competencies that allows a person to be cognisant of, to
comprehend and to be able to control personal emotions; to recognize
and appreciate the emotions of fellow beings and use this acumen to
develop an environment that would make a system better functioning
by fostering success of all those who are part of it. Such competencies
that allow people to make their own way in a complex world by success-
fully dealing with people and the environment have come to be referred
to as Emotional Intelligence.
Historically, the analysis of intelligence was centred around person-
ality traits and particularly, on cognitive intelligence that led to the
development of Intelligence Quotient. Inclusion of emotional intel-
ligence in such analyses seemed to be difficult although the psycholo-
gists of the day recognized the theoretical presence of social intelligence
along with two other types of intelligence, namely, the verbal-proposi-
tional intelligence that includes stock of vocabulary, verbal communica-
tion skills, logical thinking and the proficiency in identifying similarities
or otherwise among objects; and the spatial performance intelligence or
the ability to assemble objects, and the skill to comprehend and con-
struct patterns. However, the social intelligence was perceived to be so
strongly associated with the two others that psychologists never felt the
urge to treat and analyse it as a special or even separate form of intel-
ligence. Hence, while analysing individual success stories and explain-
ing efficiencies in solving problems, scientists focused much on the
intellectual, logical, analytical, and rational abilities of the incumbents.
Success stories thus were all about how well one can acquire, organize
and implement new knowledge. Gradually, scientists came to concede
the presence of non-cognitive intelligence, or, precisely emotion, which
2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional …
13
may be described as an unconscious state which is distinct from cogni-

tion, volition or motivation. It was perhaps since early eighteenth cen-
tury that psychologists were trying to effectively isolate three aspects of
human behaviour, namely, Cognition or thought, Affect or Emotion
and Motivation. And there has been a gradual shift in focus from pure
cognitive abilities to a combination of cognitive and non-cognitive
excellence in an attempt to relate two apparently non-related terms that
is Emotions and Intelligence to explain the abilities to lead an effective
life.
E.L. Thorndike (1920) perhaps was among the first few to recognize
the existence of a special type of social, rather than cognitive intelligence
that involves appreciation and management of emotions of one’s fellow
members. David Wechsler (1940, 1958) further emphasized the neces-
sity to incorporate non-cognitive aspects of intelligence along with the
traditional cognitive ones in defining intelligence properly. In his semi-
nal paper, Gardner (1983) argued that people often seem to have cer-
tain types of intelligence that standard cognitive tests, such as IQ tests,
fail to recognize. He thus introduced the concepts of intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence as ability to comprehend one’s own emotions
and the emotions of others respectively. Such non-cognitive, additional
types of intelligence were described as essential in explaining and pre-
dicting the performance and accomplishment of individuals. Gardner,
however, did not christen this non-cognitive intelligence as Emotional
Intelligence. The term was introduced, perhaps for the first time in 1985
in the doctoral thesis of Wayne Payne, who developed the concept in
his study of emotions.
All the literature that developed subsequently in the field emphasized
the need to assess Emotional Intelligence for different individuals at
different stratum of their behaviour and interaction. Such assessments
are absolutely essential in order to explore one’s ability to cope with
his immediate world, his emotional and social skills and to identify his
strengths and weaknesses to flourish as an individual, a team member or
an effective leader. It is now being widely believed that while enhanced
emotional intelligence makes individuals more efficient, productive, and
successful; organizations can become more productive by hiring people
with higher emotional and social skills and by offering opportunities to

enhance these skills in the workplace.
However, while defining Emotional Intelligence, one must keep
in consideration the fact that “Not everything that connects cogni-
tion to emotion, is Emotional Intelligence” (Mayer and Salovey 1997).
Over the past few years, a number of studies have been conducted in
the area where cognition is related to affect. As pointed out by Mayer
and Salovey (1997), emotions might alter thoughts in many different
manners, but not necessarily in a way to make one emotionally intel-
ligent. While Wechsler (1940, 1958) tried to relate intelligence not
only to cognition but the ability to adapt as well, Salovey et al. (1995)
emphasized that while ability to adapt is a part of intelligence, adap-
tation does not characterize intelligence. As pointed out by them,
many organisms that could hardly be described as intelligent adapt
themselves perfectly to changing environment. Another example may
be that of “mood-biasing effect” or “mood-congruent judgement”.
As pointed out by Mayer et al. (1990), the mood biasing effect takes
place when an “effective match between a person’s moods and ideas
increases the judged merit, broadly defined, of those ideas”. However,
the increased interaction between mood and cognition in mood-con-
gruent judgement has nothing to do with increased smartness. Some
studies prefer to incorporate emotional self control in the analysis of
Emotional Intelligence. Mayer and Salovey (1997), however, assert
that there are cases where emotional outburst, rather than self-control
would be more effective. Accordingly, they argue, a proper definition of
Emotional Intelligence must combine “the ideas that emotion makes
thinking more intelligent and that one thinks intelligently about emo-
tions.” Once, the term is defined, means are to be introduced for quan-
tifying and assessing it properly with further methodologies to explore
its independence or otherwise from cognitive intelligence. Moreover,
any such theory of Emotional Intelligence must be able to account for
real life phenomena.
Building up of a workable concept of Emotional Intelligence thus needs to
relate the term to the studies of intelligence and emotions. Traditionally, emo-
tions were taken to be irrational, erratic, idiosyncratic and unsettling behav-
iour: an adversary to intelligence (Schaffer et al. 1940; Young 1936, 1943).
15
Studies conducted later on (Mandler 1984; Mayer and Salovey 1997) recog-
nized emotions as “potentially contributing to thought rather than disturbing
it … they prioritize cognition”. The basic point to start from is then to rec-
ognize that emotions provide information about the relationship with one’s
surroundings.
2.2 Models for Analysing Emotional

Intelligence
The early attempts to define Emotional Intelligence and to relate it to
cognitive intelligence involved drawing in of the correlation method.
Under the method, two types of intelligences are treated as similar, or
even identical, if they are correlated or correspond to each other for a
chosen individual. The intensity and extent of such association must be
more than what could be explained by chance factors. However, psy-
chologists of those days felt that while presence of a high correlation
between cognitive and non-cognitive intelligence would render the
two types of intelligence non-distinguishable, incidence of a zero cor-
relation between them might make one too sceptical to label the newly
introduced emotional intelligence as “intelligence” in true sense: “The
new intelligence is so different that it is not intelligence at all”. Hence
the presence of a low to moderate correlation between the two types of
intelligences was thought to be ideal. Some studies worked on this asso-
ciation further. Spearman (1927) opined that such intelligences move
in tandem because these draw on a common mental resource which he
preferred to term as general common resource or general intelligence (g).
The possession of such resource in plenty explains the success stories of
an individual. Relevant literature offers alternative mathematical mod-
els for estimating g at individual level. There are studies, however, that
bypassed the correlation approach and adhered to theoretical analy-
sis to establish the presence of Emotional Intelligence. Guilford and
Hoepfner (1971) asserted the presence of near about 120 intelligences
based on combinations of basic human mental process. The model,
however found very little appreciation as the number of intelligence to
be tracked was too high and it failed to lend itself to correlation method
for empirical verification. Gardner (1983, 1995), in his thoery of mul-
tiple intelligence, too avoided the correlational approach and intended
to explain presence of muliple intelligences with cultural differences and
human brain structure. In empirical verification of the model, he found
all intelligences to be significantly interrelated. However, although the
theory is intuitively appealing and still has some acceptance among
the researchers, theorists including Gardner himself remained sceptical
about the empirical findings (Detterman 1982; Sternberg 1994). Apart
from such exceptions, the Emotional Intelligence models developed in
the twentieth century relied predominantly on the correlation method.
According to the Encyclopaedia of Applied Psychology (Spielberger
2004) there are currently three foremost approaches towards analy-
sis of Emotional Intelligence, namely, the Bar-On Model (1997), the
Goleman Model (1995) and the Mayer-Salovey Model (1997). This
study while focussing on these three would like to go for an academic
discussion of the trait based model of Emotional Intelligence intro-
duced by Konstantin Vasily Petrides in 2001.
The term Emotional Intelligence gained immense popularity after
Daniel Goleman came to publish his book Emotional Intelligence in
1995 where he posited emotional intelligence to be equally important
as IQ to explain one’s success in academic, professional, social, and
interpersonal aspects of life. According to him, emotional intelligence
is an array of skills and characteristics that can be taught and cultivated.
Goleman’s original model has now come to be considered as a mixed
model that combines what have subsequently been modelled sepa-
rately as ability EI and trait EI. The trait model “encompasses behav-
ioural dispositions and self perceived abilities and is measured through
self report” (Konstantin and Furnham 2001). The ability model as
developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 1997 focuses on the
individual’s ability to process emotional information and to use it to
navigate the social environment. Bar-On, on the other hand, offered a
model based within the context of personality theory, emphasizing the
co-dependence of the ability aspects of emotional intelligence with per-
sonality traits and their application to personal well-being. This is in
contrast to the Goleman’s model, developed in terms of performance,
17
where individual abilities and traits are integrated to gauge their impact
in each sphere of life (Goleman 2001).
2.2.1 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Intelligence
The Bar-On model (1997) starts from a very basic premise by raising
a very basic question, namely, why do some people with a high IQ strug-
gle in life, while others with a moderate IQ succeed? With its emphasis
on non-cognitive intelligence, it has introduced a scientific and one of
the best normed measures of Emotional Intelligence that is adminis-
tered to over 42,000 individuals in thirty-six countries. This multifac-
eted measure with its multicultural applicability examines almost all the
aspects of emotional and social intelligence. While defining Emotional
Intelligence, the theory does not confuse it with IQ, aptitude, academic
achievement, vocational interest or personality. Rather, it has been
taken as the emotional, social, communicative, and relational abili-
ties of individuals to grasp their own as well as others’ wants and needs
so as to be able to cope with environmental demands and pressures.
As pointed out by Goleman, the most significant contribution of this
approach to the literature has been the effort to develop an Emotional
Quotient scale.
The Bar-On model involves 133 brief items answered on a five-point
scale from “Not true of me” to “True of me”. The EQ-i is suitable for
individuals who have attained an age of seventeen years of more and
it takes approximately 40 minutes to complete. The test involves few
scales namely, total EQ, five EQ Composite scales, fifteen EQ Content
Scales and four Validity scales. The model identifies the following com-
posite EQ scales with the associated content scales:
(i) Intra-Personal scale includes Emotional Self-Awareness,

Assertiveness, Self-Regard, Self-Actualization, and Independence as
content scale.
Among these content scales, Emotional Self-Awareness is described
as the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s diversified and
distinct emotions, along with the capability to identify the factors
causing those. Assertiveness is portrayed as the ability to put across

and defend one’s emotions, viewpoints, and opinions and rights in
a non-destructive way. Self regard is defined as the ability to rec-
ognize, accept and respect one’s own emotion; recognizing and
accepting one’s positive and negative aspects as well as one’s limita-
tions and possibilities. Independence is described as self-reliance and
the ability to self-direct one’s thinking and actions without any sig-
nificant emotional dependency on their fellow members. Further,
self-actualization is epitomized as the capacity to realize one’s poten-
tial and the endeavour to pursue one’s longing.
Such factors are responsible for development of better attitude
towards work, consistent behaviour and improved interaction with
fellow members. It is likely to help people to think and act on their
own and yet still incorporate others’ ideas whenever appropriate.
Ability for successful conflict resolution, to work in cohesion and to
share ideas effectively comes naturally with strengthening of intra-
personal factors leading ultimately to optimization of individual as
well as team performances.
(ii) Inter-Personal scale includes Interpersonal Relationship, Empathy,
and Social Responsibility as content scale.
Developing Interpersonal Relationship refers to one’s ability to estab-
lish and maintain mutually beneficial and gratifying relationships
with the fellow members. Empathy is recognized as the capability
to comprehend and appreciate the feelings of others. Further, Social
responsibility is defined as the ability to present oneself as a coopera-
tive, contributing, and constructive member of one’s social group.
Inter-Personal factors thus help in developing effective communica-
tion and cohesive functioning that facilitate action as team member
and leads ultimately to significant contribution to society as a whole.
(iii) Adaptability is the third EQ factor that includes Problem Solving,
Flexibility, and Reality Testing as content scale. The problem-solving
ability is defined as one’s proficiency in identifying problems and
to render and implement effective solutions. Flexibility refers to
the skill to adjust one’s emotions and their manifestation to shift-
ing situations and conditions. Finally, Reality Testing is portrayed
as the ability to recognize and analyse the association between the
19
perception and the reality. Alternatively, it relates the subjective

aspects with the objective ones.
Individuals high on adaptability are expected to cope with challeng-
ing and dynamic situations effectively with an ability to come out
with realistic and viable solutions to emerging issues.
(iv) The fourth EQ factor, namely, Stress Management includes Stress
Tolerance, and Impulse Control as content scale.
Among these content scales, stress tolerance is defined as the compe-
tence and confidence to handle and react in stressed situation effec-
tively. Impulse Control is explicated as the ability to control, or even
delay or resist, the manifestation of one’s emotions.
An individual with better ability to manage stress can meet the tar-
get and manage the workload without making much mistake..
(v) The fifth EQ scale or the General Mood involves Optimism and
Happiness as content scale.
Out of these content scales, Optimism is taken as the proficiency to
look at the brighter side of any event, even under adversity whereas
Happiness is described as the skill to remain satisfied with one’s
life under any circumstances. Such factors often create a positive
atmosphere that lifts spirit and improves the overall performance.
Using these factors, the Bar-On model calculates the EQ (EQ-i) for
each respondent and judges their ability to cope with the environmen-
tal demands. Assuming a normal distribution for the scores, with mean
100 and standard deviation of 15, any score in the range of 85–115 is
considered to be the average score. Any score greater (less) than 115
(85) is considered to be a high (low) score. Any respondent scoring in
the average range for a particular factor is considered to be functioning
efficiently in handling situations related to that factor. An above-average
score indicates the efficiency of the person in terms of the factor con-
cerned, while a low score identifies skills that necessitate improvement
for better functioning and higher probabilities of success. The Bar-On
test finds wide application in a variety of field including corporate, edu-
cational institutions, clinical, medical, and academics.
The model was estimated for near about four thousand respond-
ents from the United States and Canada. Seventy-nine percent of the
respondents were white and under the age of 30 years, with equal rep-
resentation of males and females (Bar-On 1997, 2002). Testing the
impact of age, gender and ethnicity revealed that the older groups
scored significantly higher than the younger groups on most of the
EQ-i scales; and respondents in their late 40s obtained the high-
est mean scores. An increase in emotional-social intelligence with age
is also observed in children (Bar-On and Parker 2000). While statisti-
cally significant gender differences exist for some of the factors meas-
ured by the EQ-i, there is hardly any gender bias on EQ-i as a whole.
Specifically, for the North American sample (Bar-On 1997), females
tend to have stronger interpersonal skills whereas the males outper-
form them in terms of intrapersonal capacity, managing emotions and
adaptability. Women are found to be more socially responsible and bet-
ter aware of emotions, demonstrating more empathy and relating better
interpersonally than men. On the other hand, men score better in terms
of possession of self-regard and self-reliance, coping with stress, flex-
ibility, problem solving capacity and optimism. Similar gender patterns
are observable in almost all studies that use EQ-i (American Psychiatric
Association, 1994). The test, however, did not reveal significant differ-
ences in Emotional Intelligence between the various ethnic groups that
were compared (Bar-On 1997, 2000, 2004; Bar-On and Parker 2000).
The finding is indeed significant as studies over the past years found
significant differences in cognitive intelligence between various ethnic
groups (Suzuki and Valencia 1997).
Stability estimates of the test were reported to be quite high. For
seven population samples, the value of Cronbach’s alpha measuring the
internal consistency ranged from 0.69 to 0.86 for the fifteen subscales
with an overall average internal consistency of 0.76 (Bar-On 2002).
Content validity is reported to be adequate and structural validity was
established through factor analysis to test the hierarchical structure of
the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence (Bar-On 2002). Construct
validity was established through measures of convergent and divergent
validity. Although the correlations were not so significant between the
EQ-i and the other available measures of standard intelligence (Bar-On
2002; Brackett and Mayer 2003), it was distinctly higher for some
measures of psychological and subjective well-being (r takes the value
21
of 0.54 and 0.35 respectively) and for the Big Five personality factors
(Brackett and Mayer 2003). Studies (Van Rooy and Viswesvaran 2004;
Van Rooy et al. 2005) suggest that no more than 4% of the variance
of the EQ-i can be explained by cognitive intelligence. Further, the
degree of overlap between the EQ-i and personality tests is found to be
no more than 15% based on eight studies in which more than 1700
individuals participated. This finding establishes the fact that EQ-i
measures something else other than personality traits. And, this must
be true because the skills that EQ-i attempts to measure are much dif-
ferent from the simple personality traits which unlike these skills do
not enhance continuously from childhood to adulthood and cannot be
improved upon through individual endeavour (Bar-On 2004). These
findings, along with the fact that EQ-i is fairly significantly correlated
with other measures of emotional social intelligence (ESI) establish
EQ-i to possess substantial construct validity. That is, the tool measures
exactly what it was designed to measure. Tests of incremental validity
of the Bar-On model assert that with personality and intelligence (IQ)
held constant, emotional intelligence as measured by the EQ-i can still
predict some of the human behaviour, particularly addictions, pretty
well (Brackett and Mayer 2003).
Further study results suggest that emotional intelligence as meas-
ured with the Bar-On model could accurately predict success in life
particularly in business and industry settings. It could also differenti-
ate between achievers and wash-outs in social interactions, military
schools, air force, work places and academia in different countries
(Bar-On 2002; Handley 1997; Swart 1996). It is pretty good in pre-
dicting impact of Emotional Intelligence on physical and psychological
health, self-actualization and subjective well-being (Bar-On 1997, 2004;
Bar-On et al. 2005; Krivoy et al. 2000).
2.2.2 The Ability-Based Model: Mayer and Salovey
Much of the development in the area of Emotional Intelligence was

done by Mayer and Salovey (1997) where they defined Emotional
Intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotion, to access and generate
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CHAPTER XXVI.
THE END.
MRS. DEBORAH'S letters contained a detailed account of the catastrophe.
"Wilson, who has been here since the fire, says that her lady was like
a distracted woman when she missed her step-daughter and discovered
that she was nowhere concealed in the house. No one could imagine
how she had escaped, as there was no door left unfastened to Amabel's
room. Even when they discovered the door of communication with the
haunted room, they had no thought of her escaping in that way, as both
it and that leading to the secret stairs were fastened on the other side
and could hardly be broken open.
"The servants did not scruple to declare that their young lady had
been spirited away, and they so threatened the French waiting-woman
that she was glad to take refuge in her mistress' apartment. There had
been a terrible scene between Lord Bulmer and Lady Leighton when it
was at last made certain that Amabel was neither at Highbeck nor at the
Little House. He accused Lady Leighton of playing him false and
conniving at the young lady's escape, and she wept and declared her
innocence and begged him to have pity on her; but he at last, flung
away from her, leaving her grovelling on the ground, mounted his horse,
and followed by his servants, rode away to Newcastle."
This was Wilson's account. How she gained her knowledge I don't know, but she was not
likely to lack any which could be got by eavesdropping or peeping through key-holes.
"My lady was very ill for two or three days, and Wilson waited on her,
the other woman not daring to come in the way of her fellow servants.
At last Lady Leighton received a letter which seemed to calm her spirits
a little, and she told Wilson in the evening to go to bed and leave her, as
she felt like having a quiet night. At about two o'clock, Wilson was
awakened by the smoke and heat, and hurrying down found her lady's
room wrapped in flames. She searched it at the risk of her life, and at
the expense of some terrible burns, but could find nothing of her
mistress. The servants and such men as were left about the place
worked like heroes, and Mr. Lethbridge specially distinguished himself by
his coolness and daring, but a high wind was blowing and the flames
defied all their efforts. The servants all escaped except the French
woman, who, like her mistress, could not be found. No bodies had been
discovered, but the east wing had fallen in, and they might be buried
under the ruins."
"I cannot help thinking there may be another solution of the matter,"
Mrs. Deborah wrote in a private note to me; "but I have never hinted at
such a thing to my brother in the letters I have sent him, nor have I
mentioned it to Wilson, who, poor creature, is about distracted with grief
for her mistress, for whom she risked her life. She rushed into the
building again and again, and Mr. Lethbridge hardly rescued her just
before the walls fell in. The silver, the family paper-chest, and some few
other things, were saved by Richard and the other men. A part of the
west wing is all that is left of Highbeck."
There was no more talk of returning to Edinburgh. Sir Julius at once took horse for
Northumberland, accompanied, at Amabel's own desire, by Mr. Cheriton. She was now out
of all danger, and gaining every day. Sir Julius thought of nothing but that his wife had
indeed perished, and no one was so cruel as to suggest any thing else to him, especially
as, the ruins being explored, the charred remains of a skeleton were indeed found beneath
them. Mr. Cheriton, who was not quite so certain, made inquiries of his own, but could
learn nothing beyond the fact that Lord Bulmer had gone abroad, intending, it was said, to
remain some years, and taking no one with him but a young French servant whom he had
hired in London.
Sir Julius put his family into the deepest mourning, and buried this poor remains with
every solemnity. Then, putting all his business into Mr. Thirlwall's hands, he also went over
to Holland, thinking, I imagine, that he was best out of the way till the matter of his little
journey north was forgotten.
Amabel recovered rapidly, and by the time the snowdrops were in blossom, she was able
to return with her husband to Newcastle. They were very earnest to have me take up my
abode with them, and I consented to make them a visit; though I had no mind it should be
a very long one. I think young married people are best left to themselves to shake down
together. But I could not refuse to help her settle in her new home.
We found every thing in the best of order—thanks to the old housekeeper and Mrs. Thorpe
—and the house was over-running with the gifts brought in by Mr. Cheriton's parishioners.
Mrs. Thorpe was the same, and yet not the same. There was an odd sort of consciousness
and shyness about her, especially when she told me that she had thoughts of giving up her
shop.
"You see I can live well enough without it," said she, "and I am tired of being at every
one's beck and call."
"And have you met Father Brousseau lately?" asked Amabel. "You wrote us last winter that
he had been to see you two or three times."
Mrs. Thorpe blushed like a young girl.
"Oh, yes. Have you not heard? He has a parish in London, among the French weavers,
where he is doing a great deal of good."
"I am right glad to hear it," said Amabel. "He is an excellent man."
"Then, perhaps, you will not be sorry to hear that he—that I—in short, we are going to be
married!" said Mrs. Thorpe, smiling, in the midst of her confusion, at our astonishment.
"You see, he is such a babe in the woods in respect of English ways, and needs some one
to care for him, and I thought I could do as much good in that way as any other. And I
always did like the good gentleman ever since I took care of him when he was so seasick
coming over on my brother's vessel."
I saw Amabel nicely settled in her new house, and then went back to Mrs. Deborah. I tried
not to be selfish, but I must confess I felt rather forlorn. However, I knew there was no use
in repining, and no sense in it either, seeing that my fate had been ordered by One wiser
than myself, who knew just what was best for me.
So I set to work with all my might nursing Mrs. Deborah, who was growing very feeble and
helpless from rheumatism, and attending to the poor folks and teaching in the school,
whereby I got into some trouble with Mr. Lethbridge from teaching the children one of Mr.
Charles Wesley's hymns. He forgave me afterward, however, and grew somewhat
inconveniently friendly. However, he got over it, and married a very nice young lady.
I helped Mary Lee prepare her wedding set out, and saw her married to Alick, who made
her an excellent husband. I spun a great deal of fine thread, and made baby-linen for
Amabel, whose first child was named for me. I was quite rich for the time and place. Sir
Julius had directed Mr. Thirlwall to pay me the rents of the Black Lees, which was in the
hands of an excellent tenant, and I asked no questions about the past profits which had
gene into Sir Julius' pockets. Besides, I had a hundred a year from Mr. Carey.
I finished Mrs. Chloe's knitted quilt, and made one of silk patchwork for Amabel, which was
much admired. I will not say that I was not somewhat sad and lonely at times, but
generally I was content enough. Amabel was happy as a woman could well be in this
world, with an excellent husband and lovely, healthy children, and I saw her two or three
times a year.
I knew that I was a great comfort to Mrs. Deborah in her lonely old age, and that I was
useful in the village.
I staid several years with Mrs. Deborah, and laid her honored head in the grave beside
Mrs. Chloe's.
Then, being over five and twenty, and my presence being needful in Exeter to settle
certain business matters, I made the long journey thither, and staid with Mr. and Mrs.
Carey several months, after which I came to my present home. It is a very neat and pretty
old house, not large, but convenient and sunny, in a little valley or coombe opening to the
sea.
After I had lived here a year, I put in practise a plan which had been brewing in my head
for some time. I took into my family five or six orphan maidens, children of sailors, and
with the help of an excellent worthy woman, I made a home for them; teaching them to
read and write, to knit, spin, and sew, and giving them other learning suitable for their
condition, preparing them either for service or for ruling families of their own. I never have
more than six at one time, and though they have all sorts of dispositions among them, and
are naughty and troublesome at times like all children, I have been very happy with them.
I have only one of my original flock left, and she is sister, child, and servant all in one. I
fear that I shall soon lose her, for Simon Sablot, a fine young man of French protestant
descent, and a ship's carpenter in good business, is looking after her, and I do not think
she is at all averse to him.
Mr. Cheriton in course of time succeeded to the Carew estate and title, and came to live
upon his lands. This was a great joy to me, as it brought Amabel once more within my
reach. She often comes to see me, and I have one or other of her daughters with me for
weeks at a time. She has been a happy woman, though she has had her troubles,
particularly in the loss of several of her children.
When peace was proclaimed, Walter and Amabel went abroad and visited our old home in
France. They found the convent quite deserted, save by an old priest who did duty in the
church, and the court-yard and cemetery so overgrown that they could hardly find the
place where dear Mother Superior was buried. The community were living and flourishing
in the new house at Fleurs, having received several accessions to their numbers. Mother
Prudentia was still superior, and received Amabel with great affection, though she mourned
greatly over her desertion of the true church. The dear lady sent me some beautiful lace,
and a book of His Grace the Archbishop of Cambrai's writings, which are good reading for
any one, whether Catholic or Protestant. There is, it seems, little or no persecution for the
sake of religion in France at present, though the Jesuits still hold up their heads, and have
whatever education there is for the common people wholly in their own hands. But there is
great distress among the people, especially among the peasantry, and many ominous
mutterings of discontent. If the poor beast of burden does once get loose, I pity his former
keepers.
My Lord Carew is an excellent landlord, and has greatly improved the condition both of his
estate and the people living upon it. He and Mr. Wesley are as great friends as ever. Mr.
Wesley always visits me when he comes into these parts, and approves my management
of the children in general, though he thinks I allow them too much play, * and shakes his
head over the baby-house and storybooks in the girls' sitting-room. However, he admits
nowadays that fiction may have its uses, and has himself edited an edition of Mr. Brooke's
"Fool of Quality" under the name of "The life of Henry, Earl of Moreland," and he has also
written some notes upon Shakespeare, † as he tells me. He is still hale and hearty, and
preaches with all the fire and vigor of his early days, when I heard him in the church-yard
of St. Anne's.
* It is well-known that Mr. Wesley forbade play entirely in his own school at Kingswood
—a strange mistake to be made by such a sensible, practical man. No wonder the
school was not a success.
† Which were unhappily destroyed.
It is most wonderful to see the changes he has worked in these parts, among the tinners,
fishermen, and other wild people. He has greatly lessened by his influence, the horrible
practise of wrecking, that is, decoying vessels on shore by means of false lights that they
may be wrecked and plundered. There are wrecks enough as it is on this dangerous shore.
I hope we shall hear of none to-morrow, but it promises a wild night, and there are two or
three ships in the offing.
* * * * *
Word has been brought to me that several bodies have come ashore, and that the
fishermen have saved alive two persons who were floating on a spar. One, they tell me,
says he is from Newcastle, and has been a prisoner among the Moors for many years. I
must go down and see if I can do anything for them. I am so silly, that such a story sets
my heart to beating as though Harry had not been dead this many a year. If it should be
he! Well, if it were, I am growing an old woman, and very likely he would not know me, or
he may be married. How silly I am. As if there were one chance in ten thousand.
* * * * *
But it was Harry, and we knew each other before a word was spoken. He was shipwrecked
in the Indian Ocean as we heard, but was saved by a Moorish vessel after he had floated
on some pieces of the vessel for two or three days, and was a slave to the Moors for many
a long year. Being thus forced to serve on board a pirate vessel, he had the luck to be
taken by an English Indiaman, and carried to Bombay, from whence he had come home at
last.
He said he might have returned before, but hearing from some Newcastle man that I was
married, he lost all heart or wish to see his native place again. So he staid in India, where
he got good employment under the company and made a fair fortune.
At last, he conceived a desire to see England again. Coming to London, he met Wilson,
who is comfortably established there in a hair-dressing business, and having formerly had
some slight acquaintance with her, he made himself known to her, and heard the truth
about me.
He was coming to seek me out, when his ship, which was bound for Bristol, was wrecked
and threw him as it were at my very door.
Harry is very earnest with me to marry him at once, saying that we have been separated
long enough, and if we have not many years to live there is so much the more reason why
we should spend them together. I have told him that I must consult my Lord and Amabel,
and he makes no objection, because, as he says, he knows well enough what they will say.
Harry told me, that while in London, he lodged with Mrs. Wilson, who is quite a changed
woman and as devout and serious as she used to be the contrary. He found her caring for
a poor demented sullen creature who never spoke, but spent her whole time in twisting
and untwisting a ribbon in her wasted hands. Mrs. Wilson was as tender of her as though
she were her own child, serving her with the best of everything, and treating her with the
greatest respect, though the poor thing hardly seemed to take a sense of anything.
It was only just before he came away, that Wilson told him this wretched spectre was once
the proud and beautiful Lady Throckmorton. She had found her former mistress sustained
by the charity of some poor fallen creatures in a wretched garret (for it seems Wilson
spends much time and money in visiting and helping the poor) and had brought her home
to spend her last days in peace. The poor thing has a heart disease, and was like to die at
any time.
Never was a woman who had more advantages, or one who more wantonly threw them all
away. She chose the world for her portion. She would have her good things in this life. But
the world slipped from her grasp, and its fruits turned to dust and ashes on her lips.
She did not sin in ignorance. She heard times enough, the voice which said: "This is the
way, walk ye in it." But she chose her own way and it led her down to utter destruction.
Poor thing, poor thing!
I shall go to see Amabel to-morrow, but I know very well what she will say.
THE END.
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Employees' Emotional Intelligence, Motivation & Productivity, and Organizational Excellence: A Future Trend in HRD 1st Edition Gagari Chakrabarti

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Employees' Emotional Intelligence, Motivation & Productivity, and Organizational Excellence: A Future Trend in HRD 1st Edition Gagari Chakrabarti

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Employees’ Emotional Intelligence,

Motivation & Productivity, and

The Future of HRD, Volume I: Innovation and Technology

Wireless Mobility in Organizations: Utilizing Social,

Woman 99 1st Edition Macallister Greer

Nano-Technological Intervention in Agricultural

Improving the Emotional Intelligence of Translators: A

Woman 99 Greer Macallister

The Automation Advantage: Embrace the Future of

AI and the Future of Education: Teaching in the Age of

A Future Trend in HRD

ISBN 978-981-10-5758-8 ISBN 978-981-10-5759-5 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947723

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover illustration: © John Rawsterne/patternhead.com

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The study of Emotional Intelligence could be traced back to the era

situations are being claimed to require a perfect blending of reasoning

belong, to attain certain specific goals. Do emotional intelligence skills

Kolkata, India Amitava Sarkar

This book is an attempt to recognize the relevance and significance of

While the book is an attempt to quench the thirst of the researchers,

Kolkata, India Dr. Gagari Chakrabarti

2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional

3 Indicators of Emotional Intelligence: Determinants

4 Benefit to an Organization: Intrinsic Skills

Author Index 291

Subject Index 295

Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender 62

Graph 3.12 Predicted probability of having above-average

Graph 3.27 Predicted probability of attaining above-average

Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

Graph 4.23 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills

Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure 65

Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

Table 3.34 Predicted probability of showing above-average

Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

Abstract As a preamble to the issue of employees’ emotional

© The Author(s) 2018 1

Keywords Emotional intelligence · Cognitive and Non-cognitive

The 1997 classic paper by J.D. Mayer and P. Salovey on “What is

In traditional line of thinking passions and reckoning were considered

proficiency in dealing with, specially disruptive, emotions; the skills in

and control personal emotions; would recognize, appreciate and respect

1. How competent a group of individuals, coming from different socio-

models that are available in literature for analysing, measuring and

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In

Emotions can get in the way or get you on the way.

Abstract This chapter portrays the conceptual development of

Keywords Emotional intelligence · Bar-On model · Ability based

may be described as an unconscious state which is distinct from cogni-

with higher emotional and social skills and by offering opportunities to

Graph 3.12 Predicted probability of having above-average

Graph 3.27 Predicted probability of attaining above-average

Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

Graph 4.23 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills

Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

Table 3.34 Predicted probability of showing above-average

Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

2.2 Models for Analysing Emotional

2.2.1 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Intelligence

2.2.2 The Ability-Based Model: Mayer and Salovey