Causes of Canadian Confederation

July 1st, 1867 was the day Canada was born. On this day the British Parliament passed

the British North America Act, which brought together the colonies of Nova Scotia, New

Brunswick and the Province of Canada(Quebec and Ontario) to form the Dominion of

Canada. The Confederation of 1867 laid the foundation for the expansion and

development of Canada into the country it is today. The confederation was driven by

several reasons including fear of American annexation and political deadlock in the

Province of Canada.

Let’s start with the fear of American annexation. After the American Civil War, which

lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Northern states came out on top with a strong army. This

win made the United States feel powerful and ambitious, sparking talk in American

newspapers about something called Manifest Destiny. This idea basically said that it

was the United States' destiny to expand across North America, maybe even taking

over neighbouring territories. The Civil War also strained relations between Britain and

the United States. Though it was mainly economic, Britain’s support for the Southern

states during the war made a lot of people in the Northern states angry. This led to the

cancellation of the reciprocity treaty, which had made trade between the United States

and British North America free and easy. Without the treaty, British North America's

economy became vulnerable. This was a big reason why the Charlottetown Conference

of 1864 happened. On top of that, incidents like Southern sympathizers raiding a town

in Vermont and then escaping to Canada made people even more worried about the
United States coming after British North America. This fear made a lot of Canadians join

militia forces to get ready for a possible fight. And when the United States bought

Alaska in 1867, it made people even more concerned about the United States trying to

take over more land.

We then have the political deadlock in the Province of Canada, what is now Ontario and

Quebec. This deadlock was caused by a bunch of issues that made it really hard to

govern effectively, so they had to make some big changes. Initially, Canada West had

fewer people than Canada East, but they had the same number of seats in the

government. By the 1850s, though, Canada West had more people than Canada East.

So, the politicians in Canada West started asking for fair representation based on the

population. This shift meant that Canada West should have more seats in the

government to match its larger population. Canada East didn't like this idea and resisted

it, which created tensions and added to the stalemate in the government. The split

between English Protestants in Canada West and French Catholics in Canada East

made the deadlock even worse. Things like government funding for Catholic schools

made the two groups even more suspicious and hostile towards each other. On top of

that, there was a growing divide between the conservatives and the reformers. All this

infighting made it really hard to form stable governments or put effective policies in

place.

So, they needed to make some big changes to break this deadlock. The idea of

Confederation came up, which would separate Canada West and Canada East into
their own provinces with their own governments. But, they had to deal with the political

deadlock first. The Great Coalition was the solution to this problem.

By 1864, things were pretty shaky in the Province of Canada. There were four short-

lived governments, and that's when the Great Coalition came together. It was an

alliance between Canada West's Conservatives, led by John A. Macdonald, and the

Clear Grits, led by George Brown. Their goal was to unite with the Atlantic colonies, and

they had the backing of three out of the four major political groups in the Province of

Canada. This gave them the push they needed to make the Confederation happen. In

Canada East, the dominant conservative Parti bleu, led by George-Étienne Cartier,

Hector Langevin, and Alexander Galt, supported Confederation, despite opposition from

A.A. Dorion’s Parti rouge. They even had the support of the Catholic Church.

Confederation was seen as a way to bring back the provincial identity of French

Canadians, with Quebec City as the capital. It also promised to give them their own

legislature and a strong presence in the federal Cabinet, which helped ease worries

about anglophone domination.

After the government became stable, the next step was to make the Confederation

happen and unite Canada. The Charlottetown Conference was the first step towards

this goal. The conference, held from 1–9 September 1864, was originally intended to

discuss a proposed Maritime Union between Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince

Edward Island, as encouraged by Britain. However, the Province of Canada requested

to attend and expand the agenda to discuss a larger union that would include them. At
the conference, the Canadian delegates proposed many things including maintaining

ties with Great Britain, a central authority with overall jurisdiction, a bicameral system

with population-based representation in the Lower House and regional representation in

the Upper House, and responsible government at federal and provincial levels. The

Canadian governor general would be appointed by the British Crown. For the Maritime

colonies, appealing proposals included the central government taking on provincial

debts, distributing revenues based on population, and building an intercolonial railway

linking Montreal and Halifax.

By September 7, 1864, delegates from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince

Edward Island supported the idea of a confederation if agreeable terms were set,

moving away from a Maritime Union. After adjourning on September 9, further meetings

in Halifax, Saint John, and Fredericton led to the decision to hold a second conference,

the Quebec Conference.

A month after the Charlottetown Conference, a second meeting, the Quebec

Conference, was held where many of the same delegates who met in Charlottetown

met again. 33 delegates from various British North American colonies including

Newfoundland, known as the Fathers of Confederation, met privately for 18 days in

Quebec City to finalize the details of uniting the British North American colonies into one

federation. After intense negotiations, the delegates produced the 72 Resolutions which

formed the basis for the eventual British North America Act of 1867. These resolutions

established a constitutional framework for a new country, emphasizing a federal system

advocated for a strong central government to avoid the mistakes that led to the US Civil

War, while George-Étienne Cartier ensured significant provincial powers. The Quebec

Resolutions proposed a national Parliament with an elected House of Commons based

on population and an appointed Senate with equal regional representation. They also

included financial commitments like constructing the Intercolonial Railway to improve

economic opportunities and defence capabilities. This promise was crucial for securing

the inclusion of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in the Confederation. The fear of the

Fenian raids was also one of the reasons why New Brunswick joined the confederation.

Fenians were members of a mid-19th-century movement to secure Ireland’s

independence from Britain. They launched a series of armed raids into Canadian

territory between 1866 and 1871. The movement was primarily based in the United

States, but it had a significant presence in Canada. Prince Edward Island and

Newfoundland were disappointed with the conference proposals and joined the

confederation only later. Sir John A. Macdonald dominated the conference, proposing

compromises on Senate representation and central government powers. 50 of the 72

resolutions were made by him.

The London Conference, December 1866 to February 1867, was the final stage of

translating the 72 Resolutions of 1864 into legislation. It occurred in London, England

from December 4, 1866, to March 1867, following the earlier Charlottetown and Quebec

Conferences of 1864. Delegates from the colonies of British North America (Canada,

New Brunswick, Nova Scotia) met with members of the British government to finalize
the legal details of Confederation. According to British officials, the conference was

chaired by John A. Macdonald, who emerged as the "ruling genius" and drove much of

the proceedings.

The delegates reviewed and updated the 72 Resolutions from the Quebec Conference,

which formed the basis of the British North America Act. Macdonald insisted the

meetings be kept confidential with no recorded minutes to avoid opposition from anti-

Confederationists like Joseph Howe. Macdonald built a strong relationship with the

British Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon to ensure the BNA Act's passage through the

British Parliament. After months of negotiations, the British North America Act was

finalized and passed by the British Parliament, receiving Queen Victoria's assent on

March 29, 1867, officially establishing the Dominion of Canada. It was proclaimed into

law on 1 July 1867.

The building of the railway system played an important role in the Confederation of 1867

as it literally connected the country. The railways ensured trading between colonies was

possible thus boosting their respective economies. Because American railroads were

the main means of entry for British forces trying to enter Canada West during the winter,

and because they would not be effective in the event of an American attack on Canada,

rail was also vital to the country's defence. The proposed Intercolonial Railway, meant

to connect the Maritime colonies to Quebec, was a major incentive for the smaller

Atlantic colonies to join the Confederation. They hoped the railway would attract

investment and economic benefits.

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