AbououAngoetal 2022

Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2022) 15:1518
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10779-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
Petrology, geochemistry and structural analysis of the Kopongo

greenstone belt, Congo craton, southern Cameroon: geodynamic
evolution and geotectonic styles
Thierry Abou’ou Ango1,2 · Bernard Njom1 · Mero Yannah3 · Jean‑Bosco Olinga1,3 · Joseph Mvondo Ondoa1
Received: 28 June 2022 / Accepted: 27 August 2022

© Saudi Society for Geosciences 2022
Abstract
The Kopongo greenstone belt lies within the Paleoproterozoic Nyong Complex, which is categorized as the northwestern edge
of the Archean Congo craton in southern Cameroon. These metamorphic terrains consist of gneissic iron formations (GIFs)
with resource estimation of 82.9 [email protected]%Fe inferred, 46.4%SiO2, 3.7%Al2O3, 0.15%P and 0.48%S. These formations
display elongated distorted bands with poor interlayering. The mineral assemblages of the GIFs and country rocks conform to a
medium to high-grade metamorphism. Their lithopackage comprises of regolith, gneissic iron and gneissic country formations.
The chemical composition shows > 98 wt% Fe2O3 and SiO2, suggesting that quartz and iron oxide are chemically precipitated
sediments. Furthermore, the low concentrations of Al2O3, TiO2, K2O, Na2O, MgO and CaO, coupled with a strong positive
correlation between MgO with CaO (r ˂ 1.0), are indicative of negligible terrigenous influx in a marine environment. These
geochemical characteristics indicate that the Kopongo GIFs were the result of deep ocean hydrothermal activity mixed with
sea water at an extensional geodynamic setting as Algoma-type and other greenstone belts within the Congo craton. Five main
iron mineralization types were identified in the Kopongo: Detrital iron, Magnetite-quartz, Quartz-hematite breccia, Magnetite
and Enriched magnetite mineralizations. The Kopongo structural evolution shows intense polyphase deformations defined by
three major episodes of folding from D n to Dn+2 disturbed by a series of brittle-ductile and brittle tectonics, similar to other
Congo craton greenstone belts. Magnetite ore bodies are controlled by F n+1 and F n+2 folds, while enriched magnetite ores
occur as anastomosing mesobands in Fn+2 folds.
Keywords Congo craton · Nyong complex · Kopongo greenstone belt · Gneissic iron formations · Magnetite gneiss ·
Geodynamic evolution
Introduction in both West Africa and NE Brazil (Feybesse et al. 1998;

Barbosa and Barbosa 2017; Bouyo Houketchang et al. 2019).
The Paleoproterozoic Nyong Complex (NyC) is located at This belt has usually been interpreted as the result of the
the northwestern corner of the Congo Craton in southern convergence and collision between the São Francisco-Congo
Cameroon (Fig. 1). It is part of the N-S trending Eburnean- cratons (Van Schmus et al. 2008; Bouyo Houketchang et al.
Trans Amazonian West Central African Fold Belt reported 2016). The Paleoproterozoic NyC is widely recognized in
Cameroon as a new emergent iron belt (e.g. Suh et al. 2008;
Responsible Editor: François Roure Chombong and Suh 2013; Ganno et al. 2018; Soh Tamehe
et al. 2018, 2019; Moudioh et al. 2020; Ndema and Mbonjoh
* Thierry Abou’ou Ango 2020; Nzepang Tankwa et al. 2020). Several research
[email protected]
projects dealt with the genetic models of mineralised iron ore
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, deposits with a focus on the petrographical, mineralogical,
University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon geochemical, geochronological and lithostratigraphical
2
West African Minerals Corporation, P.O. Box 35561, studies of the Banded Iron Formations (BIFs) and Country
Yaoundé, Cameroon rocks (e.g. Ilouga et al. 2017; Bonda et al. 2017; Ganno
3
Institut de Recherches Géologiques Et Minières, IRGM, et al. 2017; Soh Tamehe et al. 2019). Moreover, detailed
P.O. Box 4110, Yaoundé, Cameroon studies related to the structural analysis of the NyC iron
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
1518 Page 2 of 25 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1518
Fig. 1 Geological map of the SW Cameroon showing the location of the Kopongo greenstone belt (red square) and discovered BIF-hosted iron
deposits (red star) (After Maurizot et al. 1986)
formations have received less attention over the years. In to the east and the Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic NyC
this regard, this work presents detailed lithostratigraphic to the west (Maurizot et al. 1986; Penaye et al. 2004;
sequences, petrographic features, chemical composition and Lerouge et al. 2006; Soh Tamehe et al. 2021; Fig. 1).
structural pattern of the Kopongo greenstone belt. These Although the origin of the NyC has been debated.
investigations will enable the establishment of a geodynamic Several studies have documented that the NyC represents
evolution, geotectonic styles, and iron mineralization types those parts of the Archean Congo craton that were
at Kopongo. reactivated throughout Eburnean/Trans-Amazonian
and Pan-African/Braziliano thermotectonic events (e.g.
Maurizot et al. 1986; Feybesse et al. 1998). Whereas,
Geological setting other authors suggested that the northwestern part of
the Congo craton was remobilized between 2400 and
The Kopongo area is located within the Ntem complex 1750 Ma by the collision of the Congo and the São
(NC) which represents the northwest extension of the Francisco cratons during the Eburnean/Trans-Amazonian
Congo Craton in South Cameroon (Tchameni et al. 2000; orogeny (Lerouge et al. 2006; Loose and Schenk 2018),
Fig. 1). The Ntem complex is bordered in the north by emplacing the Paleoproterozoic suture zone coeval to
the Yaoundé Group of the Pan-African orogenic belt in a nappe tectonic event (e.g. Bouyo Houketchang et al.
Central-Africa (Mvondo et al. 2003; Toteu et al. 2006). 2019; Nga Essomba et al. 2020). However, previous
This Complex is made up of the Archean Ntem Group geochemical data, field and petrographic observations
13
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1518 Page 3 of 25 1518
indicated that the NyC rocks comprise of reworked and chemical sedimentary rocks interpreted as a result of hydro-
partially molten Archean crust (Lasserre and Soba 1976; thermal fluids and seawater mixing, relatively influenced by
Tchameni et al. 2001). Furthemore, the Archean origin significant terrigenous input and metamorphic events (Ilouga
of most protoliths has been fixed at ~ 3000 Ma (Penaye et al. 2017). Recent works have shown that the Kopongo
et al. 2004), 3072 ± 28 Ma (Nkoumbou et al. 2015) and area is comprised of orthogneisses, magnetite amphibole
2819 ± 12 Ma (Owona et al. 2021). Moreover, Chombong gneiss, magnetite gneisses, enriched magnetite amphibole
et al. (2017) recorded Neoarchean age (2699 ± 7 Ma) gneiss, mylonites, and granitoids (Bonda et al. 2017; Ilouga
and Neoproterozoic age (600–500 Ma) from zircon of et al. 2017). Both banded and massive iron formations in
magnetite gneisses. They suggested that the former the region are characterized by magnetite quartzite type
age represents the maximum age of formation of the surrounded by high-grade metamorphic rocks (Bonda et al.
magnetite gneisses, whereas the later age is interpreted as 2017) and occur along NE-SW trending structures (Maurizot
the Pan-African disturbance recorded by these gneisses. et al. 1986). Generally, the main mineral association of these
Lithologically, the NyC comprises orthopyroxene-garnet iron formations is defined by magnetite, martite, quartz, and
gneisses, biotite hornblende gneisses, magnetite bearing pyroxene as their major components, associated with minor
rocks, dolerites, tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite, vari- biotite, apatite and amphibole (Bonda et al. 2017).
ous monzonitic, garnet-amphibole-pyroxenites, alkaline
syenites, greenstone belts and BIFs (Maurizot et al. 1986;
Chombong et al. 2017; Nga Essomba et al. 2020; Owona Methods
et al. 2021; Soh Tamehe et al. 2021; Fig. 1).
Structurally, the NyC was influenced by four deformation Lithological and structural analyses
events: Dn > 2100 Ma, Dn+1 > 2000 Ma, Dn+2 > 1800 Ma and
Dn+3 (Maurizot et al. 1986; Toteu et al. 1994; Feybesse et al. To achieve the geological and structural investigations
1998; Lerouge et al. 2006; Owona 2008; Abou’ou Ango within the Kopongo area, two distinct approaches were
et al. 2021). The Dn+3 deformation event is still clearly unde- used that are applicable at both local and regional scales. At
fined and remains widely debated (Owona 2008). the local scale, detailed lithological mapping and structural
The first deformation event ( Dn) is characterized by the analysis were carried out on the area of 12.5 Km2 (Fig. 2b),
relics of foliation Sn preserved on the hinges of the folds while regional scale analyses were focused on the structures
Fn+1 (Feybesse et al. 1998; Penaye et al. 2004). Dn has been exhibited by Kopongo hills. Sample collections were done
interpreted to reflect early crustal shortening (Feybesse along twenty-one selected profiles oriented NW–SE with
et al. 1998). The second deformation event ( Dn+1) is marked 200 m spacing (Fig. 2b). Despite limited outcrop exposure
by the ENE-WSW, WNW-ESE to NW–SE trending L n+1 along selected profiles, core logging was carried out on drill-
stretching and amphibole lineations parallel to A n+1 axes core samples collected at different depth intervals from nine
(Feybesse et al. 1998; Owona et al. 2020). Fn+1 mesofolds representative boreholes within the studied area (Fig. 3). In
are intrafolial, tilted, isoclinal, dissymmetric to upright with addition regolith, gneissic iron and gneissic country forma-
Sn+1 axial planes trending WSW-ENE to E-W, and parallel tions were identified and investigated. A petrographic study
to the S n/Sn+1 and S
n+1 foliations (Soh Tamehe et al. 2019; was done on outcrops of Gneissic iron formations (GIFs)
Owona et al. 2020; Abou’ou Ango et al. 2021). The third and gneissic rocks. A total of fifteen (15) rock samples (15
deformation event ( Dn+2) is mainly brittle-ductile and, is outcrops) were collected for a detailed petrographic study.
responsible for the Sn+2 mylonitic foliation, NE-SW trend- Structural mapping was carried out on iron formations
ing Cn+2 blastomylonitic shear-zones, and upright F n+2 folds and associated country rocks within the studied area. Struc-
with their N-S to NE-SW axes (Feybesse et al. 1998; Soh tural parameters (e.g. dip, strike and plunge) on outcrops
Tamehe et al. 2019). The fourth deformation event ( Dn+3) were observed and systematically measured with a Silva-
displays multiple brittle tectonic styles, likely post-orogenic type compass-clinometer, while a Goniometer and Douglas
(Owona et al. 2020). were used to measure structures on drillcores. Structural
Kopongo greenstone belt belongs to the largest Pre- data analysis was done using a Stereonet software version
cambrian province of iron ore deposits in Central Africa. 10.2.9 (Cardozo and Allmendinger 2013). This enables the
This area consists of feldspathic pyroxeno-amphibolites to understanding of the structural geometry and the deforma-
garnet, pyroxene-bearing calc-alkaline granites, two-mica tion history of the Kopongo area.
gneisses to garnet, and iron formations hosted within the
hypersthene-bearing gneisses, pyroxene-bearing gneisses, Geochemistry
biotite-amphibole gneisses, amphibolites, biotite-amphibole
migmatites, undifferentiated migmatite rocks (Abou’ou Eighteen (18) quarters of the core (1 m) samples were used
Ango et al. 2021; Fig. 2a). The Kopongo iron formations are for whole-rock geochemical analysis (see Fig. 3, for sample
13
Fig. 2 a Simplified geological map of the Kopongo area (Abou’ou Ango et al. 2021). b Geological sketch map of block one in the Kopongo
metamorphic iron deposit (West African Minerals Corporation 2017)
Fig. 3 Schematic stratigraphic logs of the Kopongo iron deposit with respective depth locations
13
location). Samples were crushed using a jaw-crusher steel minerals. It is considered to be saprolitic material in sharp
with steel plates followed by drying, splitting and pulver- contact with the hanging wall of magnetite-pyroxene gneiss.
izing. Geochemical analysis for major and trace elements Magnetite-pyroxene gneiss is marked by the presence of
was performed at the ALS laboratory of Johannesburg in abundant magnetite and pyroxene. It is a sandwich between
South Africa. Powders were first fused 0.2 g of rock with the quartz-magnetite gneiss and the amphibolite/ hyper-
LiBO2 and dissolved in 100 m m3, 5% H NO3 at 105 °C in sthene-bearing gneiss at different intervals. From the logged
the presence of oxygen to drive off remaining volatile com- core, these lithological facies are intercepted at depth of
ponents. The loss-on-ignition was determined using 0.5 g of 8.52–219.85 m, with a thickness varying between 0.10 and
pulverized core sample dried at 105 °C and then ignited for 33.03 m. These iron facies make contact with amphibolite
2 h at 1000 °C and weighed again. XRay fluorescence was at the footwall and with hypersthene-bearing gneiss at the
used to determine the major element concentrations after bottom of the deposit. The magnetite-pyroxene-hornblende
LOI measurement. Powders were first ignited and melted gneiss is located between 20 and 177 m in depth, with a
with a lithium tetraborate flux and then analysed with a thickness varying between 0.51 and 28 m.
Rigaku RIX-3000 wavelength-dispersive X-Ray Fluores- The gneissic formations occupy the footwall of the
cence (XRF) spectrometer. Another fraction of the powder deposit. It is composed of amphibolite and hypersthene-
was prepared for the trace elements analysis by inductively bearing gneiss.
coupled plasma- mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) following the
digestion using three acids (see e.g. Burnham and Schw- Petrography
eyer 2004). Certified reference material, duplicate and quartz
blanks were randomly inserted into the sample batches as Quartz‑magnetite gneiss
part of a continuous sample number to ensure quality assur-
ance and quality control. In addition, four different iron ref- Generally, the fine to coarse-grained quartz-magnetite gneiss
erence materials (GIOP-50, GIP-65, GIOP-96 and GIOP- (QMG) displays a dark grey colour (Fig. 4a). In the thin sec-
126) with Fe concentrations of between 27 and 64% were tion, this rock displays heterogranular granoblastic micro-
inserted. structure composed of magnetite (∼50%), quartz (∼30%)
and clinopyroxene (∼20%) (Fig. 4b−d). Magnetite is fine
to coarse-grained (0.1–10 mm) (Fig. 4b−d), and commonly
Results bears contains minor clinopyroxene and quartz inclusions.
Quartz shows a fine to medium grained texture (0.1–6 mm)
Lithostratigraphy and commonly occurs as anhedral crystal (Fig. 4b−d).
Clinopyroxene occurs as idiomorphic to hypidiomorphic
This section presents the results of nine representative drill- crystals (0.1–0.7 mm) (Fig. 4b−d).
core samples labelled KDD1, KDD2, KDD3, KDD4, KDD5,
KDD6, KDD7, KDD8 and KDD12 (Fig. 3) from Block 1. Magnetite‑pyroxene gneiss
These samples were obtained at depths of 159.8 m, 105 m,
69.25 m, 141 m, 108 m, 226.8 m, 150 m, 86.7 m and 93.8 m, The magnetite-pyroxene gneiss (MPG) is medium- to
respectively. Information on the three units indicated as (1) coarse-grained and dark grey (Fig. 4e). It mainly consists
regolith formations, (2) iron formations and (3) gneissic for- of dark iron-rich elongated bands alternating with light sil-
mations vary considerably with depth. ica-rich layers (Fig. 4e). The rock displays heterogranular
The regolith formations are composed of oxidized cap and granoblastic microstructures composed of silica-rich
and weathered gneissic formations. The oxidized cap con- and iron-rich layers (Fig. 4f−h). Silica-rich layers consist
sists of colluvium and pisolitic-laterite materials (Fig. 5a, b). of quartz (∼30%), while the iron-rich layers are composed
The barren gneissic basement consists of oxidized amphi- of magnetite (∼40%), clinopyroxene (∼25%), amphibole
bolite and hypersthene-bearing gneiss. It shows significant (∼3%) and biotite (2%) (Fig. 4f−h). Magnetite is light grey
variation in thicknesses from one hole to another, and is and occurs as elongated subhedral to anhedral crystals
generally intercepted at different depths within 0 to 2.79 m. (0.2–10 mm) (Fig. 4f−h). Quartz (0.1–4 mm) is represented
The total thickness along each section varies between 0.5 by allotriomorphic to hypidiomorphic texture (Fig. 4f−h).
and 2.79 m, with the largest thickness being ∼ 2.79 m. Some grains of quartz mineral, in a minor amount, are often
For the iron formations, the lithologies comprise of included within the subhedral to anhedral clinopyroxène
quartz-magnetite gneiss (Fig. 5d), magnetite-pyroxene crystals (0.2–10 mm). Clinopyroxene crystals are recog-
gneiss (Fig. 5e) and magnetite-pyroxene-hornblende gneiss nizable by their brownish colour (Fig. 4f−h). Amphibole
(Fig. 5f). Contrary to other iron formations, the quartz-mag- shows long prismatic crystals (0.2–0.8 mm), bordered by
netite gneiss shows magnetite and hematite as predominant magnetite grains, while biotite occurs as idiomorphic to
13
13
◂Fig. 4 Macroscopic characteristics and photomicrographs showing within amphibole and plagioclase (Fig. 4n−p). Plagioclase
the representative mineral assemblage, texture and microstructure shows hypidiomorphic grains with irregular grain bounda-
of the Kopongo GIFs and country rocks (transmitted plane-polar-
ized light): (a) QMG sample. (b), (c) and (d) Large magnetite crys-
ries locally zoned (1.2 mm × 2.7 mm). This mineral occurs
tals coexisting with clinopyroxene (Cpx) and quartz (Qtz). (e) MPG both as single grains and in clusters alongside amphibole
sample. (f), (g) and (h) Magnetite-rich band. (i) MPHG sample. (j) (Fig. 4n).
and (k) Disseminated magnetite megacrysts displaying abundant
mineral inclusion (quartz and clinopyroxene). (l) Isolated magnetite
crystal associated with abundant amphibole mega-to- microcrysts.
Hypersthene‑bearing gneiss
(m) Amphibolite sample. (n) Amphibole (Amp) crystals coexisting
with clinopyroxene (Cpx), plagioclase (Pl) and quartz (Qtz) crystals. The colour variation of this rock is light- to grey (Fig. 4a). The
(o) Heterogranular and nematoblastic microstructures. (p) K-felspar microfabric of the hypersthene-bearing gneiss shows a het-
(Kfs) crystals coexisting with quartz (Qtz) crystals. (r), (s) and (t)
Photomicrographs showing heterogranular granoblastic microstruc-
erogranular granoblastic texture composed of orthopyroxene
ture of hypersthene-bearing gneiss (∼35%), quartz (∼25%), plagioclase (∼20%), K-feldspar (∼15%)
and biotite (∼5%) (Fig. 4q−t). Orthopyroxenes show variable
grain sizes with idio-allotriomorphic shapes (0.1–4.6 mm).
hypidiomorphic crystals (0.2–0.9 mm) often in association Some of the orthopyroxene crystals contain minor quartz inclu-
with magnetite. sions. Coarse- to medium-grained plagioclase (3 mm) and
K-feldspar (2 mm) include subhedral to anhedral crystals and
Magnetite‑pyroxene‑hornblende gneiss commonly show resorbed margins (Fig. 4t, s, respectively). Both
feldspars commonly bear quartz and biotite inclusion (Fig. 4s, t).
This group of gneisses (MPHG) are dark grey, fine to coarse- Fine- to coarse-grained quartz displays hypidio-allotriomorphic
grained rock and consists of quartz, magnetite and clinopy- shapes (0.1–3.8 mm) (Fig. 4q−t) forming inclusions and filling
roxene (Fig. 4i). Microscopic observations show the rock mineral interstices.
with developed heterogranular granoblastic and nematoblas-
tic microstructures. The mineralogy composed of magnetite Chemical composition
(∼50%), quartz (∼28%), clinopyroxene (∼17%), amphibole
(∼4%) and biotite (1%) (Fig. 4j−l). Magnetite varies from Whole rock geochemical analyses of whole weathered
fine, medium to coarse-grained (0.1–7 mm), allotriomor- (enriched) and unweathered (magnetite-rich) GIFs are given
phic to hypidiomorphic form and is commonly disseminated in Tables 1 and 2.
(Fig. 4j−l). However, the oxide mineral also bears quartz and
clinopyroxene inclusions of different shapes and sizes. Pyrox- Weathered GIFs
ene crystals show variable sizes and vary from fine to coarse-
grained (0.1–0.6 mm). They commonly display subhedral to The weathered GIFs are composed of regolith iron forma-
anhedral shapes, pale brown colour and high relief (Fig. 4j−l). tions and quartz-magnetite gneiss (Tables 1 and 2). Bulk
They occur as inclusions in both quartz and magnetite. Quartz analyses indicate high Fe2O3 and SiO2 contents ranging from
is commonly fine to medium-grained, with hypidio-allotri- 29.03–87.16 wt% and 3.2–55.50 wt%, respectively. Al2O3
omorphic grains (0.1–0.6 mm) displaying wavy extinction. content is relatively low (Al2O3: 1.08–10.20 wt %). MgO,
Amphibole occurs as long prismatic minerals (0.1–5 mm). CaO, K2O, Na2O, TiO2, P2O5, S, MnO and C r2O3 contents
Some of the amphibole grains often bear quartz inclusions are equally low as Al2O3 (MgO = 0.04–1.74 wt %), P2O5
and are found in association with idio-hypidiomorphic biotite (0.08–0.81 wt%), CaO = ~ 0.01–0.67 wt %), TiO2 (0.07–0.68
grains (0.1–0.5 mm). wt %), K2O (0–0.45 wt%), Cr2O3 (0.00–0.44 wt%), Na2O
(0–0.41 wt%), MnO (0.02–0.20 wt%) and S (~ 0–0.07% wt).
The concentration of trace elements in the weathered GIFs
Amphibolite is generally low (< 330 ppm, Table 2). Slight enrichments
are observed in Ni (5–320 ppm), Zn (30–320 ppm) and Cu
This mafic rock occurs as fine to coarse-grained, foliated (5–300 ppm) while Zr (40–180 ppm), Cl (10–150 ppm),
with a dark grey to green colour (Fig. 4m). The microfabric V (5–130 ppm), Ba (5–100 ppm), Pb (5–90 ppm), As
of the rock shows heterogranular and nematoblastic micro- (10–30 ppm), Co (5–30 ppm), Sr (5–30 ppm) and Sn
structures made of amphibole (∼ 37%), biotite (26%), pla- (5–20 ppm) contents are low.
gioclase (∼20%) and quartz (∼17%) (Fig. 4n−p). Amphibole
blasts consist of subhedral to euhedral grains with variable Unweathered GIFs
sizes marked by their characteristic long (0.1–9 mm) and
short (0.1–2.6) axes (Fig. 4n−p). Quartz is present as allo- The unweathered GIFs are present as magnetite-pyroxene
triomorphic grains (0.1–3.2 mm) and also forms inclusion ( Fe 2O 3 < 50 wt%) and magnetite-pyroxene-hornblende
13
1518
13
Table 1 Major elements geochemical composition (%) and elemental ratio of Kopongo GIFs
Rock types RGL QMG MPG MPHG
Page 8 of 25
Drillhole KDD1 KDD5 KDD7 KDD8 KDD2 KDD7 KDD5 KDD8 KDD5 KDD4 KDD6 KDD8 KDD12 KDD2 KDD6 KDD6 KDD7 KDD8
Sample ID KDS1 KDS2 KDS3 KDS4 KDS5 KDS6 KDS7 KDS8 KDS9 KDS10 KDS11 KDS12 KDS14 KDS15 KDS16 KDS16 KDS17 KDS18
Depth (m) 3 3 3 1 10 17 15 3 22 92 124 58 18 42 93 154 74 47
AL2O3 2.67 3.31 4.89 6.57 1.15 3.21 4.98 1.08 10.20 0.98 2.67 1.82 2.30 1.15 0.54 0.57 1.42 0.48
Fe2O3 60.78 87.16 79.83 57.19 51.27 40.52 74.52 53.82 29.03 43.71 42.39 49.60 45.61 51.27 52.05 54.07 50.34 55.40
SiO2 34.20 3.20 11.65 31.20 46.00 55.00 17.10 42.90 55.50 52.30 50.90 44.80 48.30 46.00 45.90 44.60 45.40 41.90
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.21 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.31 0.43 0.41 0.45 0.21 0.10 0.02 0.23 0.02
MgO 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.05 1.72 0.12 0.05 0.09 0.09 2.02 1.97 2.31 2.33 1.72 1.88 1.72 1.72 1.92
MnO 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.20 0.15 0.02 0.13 0.10 0.12 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Na2O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.18 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.36 0.41 0.24 0.18 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.07
CaO 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.01 0.67 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 1.06 0.81 1.66 1.28 0.67 0.92 1.14 1.04 1.07
TiO2 0.26 0.22 0.43 0.37 0.08 0.68 0.28 0.07 0.40 0.05 0.26 0.35 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.07 0.24 0.04
Cr2O3 0.01 0.05 0.44 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
P2O5 0.10 0.81 0.17 0.15 0.09 0.08 0.24 0.08 0.43 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.25 0.13 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.11
S 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 1.05 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.00
LOI 1.58 4.85 3.24 4.35 -0.38 0.87 3.55 0.65 5.15 -0.28 -1.08 -1.09 -0.99 -0.38 -1.45 -1.42 -1.24 -1.33
Total 99.73 99.80 100.97 100.00 101.04 100.72 100.95 98.75 101.01 101.43 99.10 100.47 99.93 101.08 100.15 100.99 99.48 99.75
Total Fe 42.51 60.96 55.84 40.00 35.86 28.34 52.12 37.64 20.30 30.57 29.65 34.69 31.90 35.86 36.41 37.82 35.21 38.75
Si/Al 12.81 0.97 2.38 4.75 40.00 17.13 3.43 39.72 5.44 53.37 19.06 24.62 21.00 40.00 85.00 78.25 31.97 87.29
Fe/Ti 233.77 396.18 185.65 154.57 640.88 59.59 266.14 768.86 72.58 874.20 163.04 141.71 570.13 640.88 1735 772.43 209.75 1385.00
Al/Ti 10.27 15.05 11.37 17.76 14.38 4.72 17.79 15.43 25.50 19.60 10.27 5.20 28.75 14.38 18.00 8.14 5.92 12.00
Fe/Al 22.76 26.33 16.33 8.70 44.58 12.62 14.96 49.83 2.85 44.60 15.88 27.25 19.83 44.58 96.39 94.86 35.45 115.42
Fe/Si 1.78 27.24 6.85 1.83 1.11 0.74 4.36 1.25 0.52 0.84 0.83 1.11 0.94 1.11 1.13 1.21 1.11 1.32
Si/Fe 0.56 0.04 0.15 0.55 0.90 1.36 0.23 0.80 1.91 1.20 1.20 0.90 1.06 0.90 0.88 0.82 0.90 0.76
Fe/K 30,390 29,053.33 3991.50 1545.68 245.31 6753.33 10,645.71 53,820 1814.38 142.38 99.51 121.27 101.58 245.31 542.19 3604.67 219.83 3258.82
Na/K 7.00 5.33 1.50 0.16 0.84 0.42 2.71 2.50 0.44 0.20 0.85 0.99 0.53 0.84 0.32 2.20 0.49 4.24
Na/Al 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.13 0.22 0.10 0.15 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.15
CaO/MgO 0.25 0.14 1.11 0.20 0.39 0.08 0.20 0.33 0.33 0.52 0.41 0.72 0.55 0.39 0.49 0.66 0.60 0.56
Arab J Geosci
Al/(Al + Fe + Mn) 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.26 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01
CaO/(CaO + MgO) 0.20 0.13 0.53 0.17 0.28 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.34 0.29 0.42 0.35 0.28 0.33 0.40 0.38 0.36
(MgO + CaO + MnO)/ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06
Fe2O3
RGL, regolith; QMG, quartz magnetite gneiss; MPG, magnetite pyroxene gneiss; MPHG, magnetite pyroxene-hornblende gneiss
(2022) 15:1518
Arab J Geosci
(2022) 15:1518
Table 2 Trace elements geochemical composition (ppm) and elemental ratio of Kopongo GIFs
Rock types RGL QMG MPG MPHG
Drillhole KDD1 KDD5 KDD7 KDD8 KDD2 KDD7 KDD5 KDD8 KDD5 KDD4 KDD6 KDD8 KDD12 KDD2 KDD6 KDD6 KDD7 KDD8
Sample ID KDS1 KDS2 KDS3 KDS4 KDS5 KDS6 KDS7 KDS8 KDS9 KDS10 KDS11 KDS12 KDS14 KDS15 KDS16 KDS16 KDS17 KDS18
Depth (m) 3 3 3 1 10 17 15 3 22 92 124 58 18 42 93 154 74 47
Ni 50 160 60 20 20 120 60 5 320 120 80 70 20 20 80 30 40 60
Pb 20 40 90 50 30 50 70 5 50 60 5 40 10 30 50 60 20 10
Sn < 10 5 20 5 < 10 10 10 5 5 10 10 20 10 < 10 10 20 5 20
As 20 30 20 10 20 10 20 10 10 10 5 10 10 20 10 5 20 10
Ba < 10 40 40 10 50 5 100 5 40 140 130 180 140 50 80 70 10 50
Cl 30 50 40 20 150 20 40 10 20 70 90 70 320 150 30 40 170 20
Co < 10 10 10 5 < 10 30 5 5 20 20 10 5 5 < 10 5 5 5 5
Cu 20 40 130 80 20 40 110 5 300 140 50 30 20 20 80 20 20 20
Sr < 10 20 30 20 10 10 30 5 10 50 5 50 30 10 40 60 5 20
V 30 70 120 50 20 110 80 5 130 < 10 50 80 20 20 20 30 10 10
Zn 30 110 120 120 60 50 320 20 80 50 60 50 40 60 30 40 70 30
Zr 40 60 110 180 50 40 80 40 70 20 20 70 40 50 40 50 40 40
Co/Zn 0.33 0.17 0.08 0,04 0.17 0.60 0.06 0.25 0.29 0.40 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.17 0.13 0.07 0.17
Co/Ni 0.20 0.06 0.17 0.25 0.20 0.25 0.08 1 0.06 0.20 0.13 0.07 0.25 0.50 0.06 0.17 0.13 0.08
Page 9 of 25
1518
13
Fig. 5 Field photographs of

Kopongo iron ore types: (a) and
(c) Detrital iron mineralization.
(d) and (e) Quartz-hematite
breccia mineralization. (a), (b)
and (c) Magnetite-quartz miner-
alization. (f) and (g) Magnetite
mineralization. (h) Enriched
magnetite mineralization
(Fe2O3 > 50 wt%) gneisses (Tables 1 and 2). Both GIFs dis- The detrital iron mineralization type is highly weath-
play high F
e2O3 (42.39–55.40 wt%) and S iO2 (41.90–52.30 ered, friable- to hard texture. The particle size varies from
wt%) concentrations, while the A l 2O 3 content is low fine, medium to coarse-grained and also float materials
(Al2O3 = 0.48 to 2.67 wt%). The MgO, S and CaO contents (Fig. 5a, c). This mineralization is considered as a mixture
are also high (MgO = 1.11–2.33 wt%; S (0–1.05 wt%) and of eluvial and colluvial unconsolidated gravel composed
(CaO = 0.59–1, 66 wt%), while the K2O (~ 0.02–0.45 wt%), of up to 80% coarse clasts of martitised MPG and cap
Na 2O (~ 0.03–0.41 wt%), T iO2 (0.03–0.35 wt%), P 2O 5 materials. The detrital iron orebodies formed when hydro-
(~ 0.07–0.25 wt%), MnO (~ 0.05–0.12 wt%), and C r 2O 3 morphic weathering processes eroded pre-existing MPG
(0–0.03 wt%) contents are low (Table 1). In addition, the outcrops with the leaching of silica and concentrated iron
contents of Cl (20–320 ppm) are high whereas those of under oxidic conditions both as residual (hematite, mag-
Cu (20–140 ppm), Ba (10–180 ppm), Ni (20–120 ppm), netite) and newly formed minerals (hematite and goethite).
V (10–80 ppm), Zr (20–70 ppm), Zn (30–60 ppm), Pb This deposit occurs as reddish brown to brown iron oxides
(5–60 ppm), Sr (5–60 ppm), Sn (5–20 ppm), As (5–20 ppm) and reached depths of up to 2.79 m.
and Co (5–20 ppm) are low (Table 2). The magnetite-quartz mineralization type is a friable
material that occupies the lower part of the weathering
Iron mineralization types profile as floats or subcrops and is found below detrital
iron and above the fresh iron type deposit (Fig. 5a−c).
Kopongo metamorphosed iron deposit can be broadly It is commonly dark grey, reddish brown to brown dis-
divided into five field categories namely detrital iron, playing fine, medium to coarse-grained in thin bands.
magnetite-quartz, quartz-hematite breccia, magnetite and The mineralised material is soft laminated, porous and
enriched magnetite mineralization types. fragile. Individual layers measures from a few millimetres
13
to centimetres. Thick bands of quartz and magnetite with bole ± apatite) and hypersthene-bearing gneiss (orthopyrox-
minor goethite, hematite, martite and pyroxene are com- ene + quartz + plagioclase + K-feldspar ± biotite ± amphi-
mon. This iron mineralization was intercepted between 0 bole) drillcore samples (Figs. 6a, b, c and d, respectively).
and 31.72 m depth and is found in quartz magnetite gneiss. Relict of the original bedding So however is poorly preserved
The quartz-hematite breccia mineralization type consists and completely transposed into a composite S0/Sn foliation,
of dark-grey (hard hematite) or dark-grey to white (hema- characterized by leucosome and melanosome macrobands
tite with major quartz) (Fig. 5d−e). Unweathered hematite (Fig. 6a) to microbands (Fig. 6b−d), visible in hypersthene-
displays massive texture, is moderately to highly porous, bearing gneiss, amphibolite and quartzite formations. How-
and fine-grained with minor amounts of quartz and magnet- ever, S0/Sn metamorphic foliations were poorly preserved
ite interleaved. On the other hand, the quartz-rich hematite within GIFs (Fig. 6b) due to intense Dn+1 overprinting.
consists of > 90% fine-grained quartz with minor hematite Indeed, within gneissic formations, S n is oriented NE-SW
and magnetite. According to the field evidence and the tec- and displays steep dips (60 to 85°) to the SE and the direc-
tonic macro-structure of the area highlighted in Sect. 2, the tion NW (Fig. 7a, b, respectively). F n fold has been found in
Kopongo iron deposit hosts fault breccias and fault-related gneissic rocks strongly overprinted by Fn+onefold (Fig. 7b).
hydrothermal breccias. Then, these fracture systems pro- But, the stereographic projection reveals that, F n fold gener-
vided structural pathways for the transport of the hydrother- ally trends NW–SE with their A n fold axes oriented NE-SW,
mal fluids. Consequently, quartz-hematite breccia minerali- where they plunge (0–10°) SW (Fig. 7c). According to the
zation appears to be largely controlled by the intensity of synthetic stereograms, it appeared that σ1 (NW–SE) and σ3
hydrothermal alteration along faults. (NE-SW) are sub-horizontal, while σ2 (E-W) is sub-vertical
The magnetite mineralization type is observed below the (Fig. 7c).
weathering front and corresponds to the unweathered mate- Dn+1 event is characterized by S n+1 mylonitic schistosi-
rial of the Kopongo iron deposit (Fig. 5f, g). It is black to ties (Fig. 6a−c; Fig. 7c, d) axial plane to F n+1 fold(Fig. 8a,
grey and appears as a compact, dense, massive fine, medium b). Amphibole, pyroxene, K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz
to coarse thin elongated and disturbed bands of magnetite and magnetite stretched, aligned or extensive mineral
and quartz assemblage ± pyroxene. The thickness of the bands underline the S n+1 foliation (Fig. 6), with vari-
individual band, however, varies between a few millimetres able attitudes (Fig. 8c, d). Sn+1 fabric defined by the pre-
to 2 cm. This iron unit is commonly found in the magnet- ferred orientation of the mineral assemblage showing:
ite pyroxene gneiss and occurs at 8.52–219.85 m depth and (1) orthopyroxene + quartz + plagioclase + K-feldspar, (2)
alternates with the barren formations. amphibole + plagioclase + quartz + K-feldspar and (3) mag-
The enriched magnetite mineralization type (MPHG) is netite + quartz + clinopyroxene. This strong secondary pla-
grey to very dark in colour and appears as strongly dense, nar fabric is considered as the significant tectonic foliation
massive and compact iron. It shows inequigranular fine to observed in the Kopongo greenstone belt and exhibits an
medium and medium to coarse-grained variety. It displays average strike of N315° and N18° with an average dip of
thin irregular/discontinuous centimetre to millimetre bands 47° (Fig. 7a, b, respectively). B n+1 Boudins are defined by
of magnetite interspersed with millimetre to centimetre intrafolial quartz veins, with a characteristic pinched and
bands of quartz, pyroxene, and amphibole (Fig. 5h). The swell outline that lies parallel to Sn+1 structure (Fig. 8a,
relic of primary magnetite fabric is visible within bands at b). Ln+1 lineations are oriented E-W to NW–SE plunging
a millimetric scale. This iron mineralization is found in the between 0 and 12° towards the W and NW (Fig. 8e, f). Steep
enriched magnetite pyroxene gneiss and appeared between to moderately inclined F n+1 folds are overturned (Fig. 6c),
33 and 177 m and alternating with the magnetite mineraliza- commonly isoclinal (Fig. 8a) to dissymmetric (Fig. 8b) and
tion and barren formations. refolded by S0—Sn planes. On a stereogram, their axes are
oriented NE-SW and NNE-SSW towards the NE and NNE
Structural analysis (Fig. 8c, d, respectively). All observations jointly indicate
the presence of a large-scale S-shaped Fn+1 fold in the area.
Fabric elements and folds By comparison of the plunge angle of the fold axes, σ1 is
sub-horizontal in the direction WNW-ESE, σ2 is sub-hori-
Kopongo greenstone belt has been affected by Dn, Dn+1 and zontal along WNW-ESE to NNW-SS, while σ3 varies from
Dn+2 polyphase deformations. horizontal to sub-horizontal in the NNE-SSW to NE-SW
Dn deformation event is characterized by S 0 bedding directions (Fig. 8c, d). This conforms to the waviness of
planes overprinted by Sn compositional banding. The So the Sn+1 foliation at the Kopongo area as observed on the
and Sn foliations are sporadically found within amphibo- geological map (Fig. 1).
lite (amphibole + biotite + plagioclase + quartz ± pyroxene), Dn+2 deformation event is characterized by overprint-
GIF (magnetite + quartz + clinopyroxene ± biotite ± amphi- ing of Dn and Dn+1 structures. Syn-Dn+2 metamorphism
13
Fig. 6 Photographs showing the

main structures from the GIFs
and associated wallrocks at the
Kopongo iron deposit: (a) Paral-
lel S0/Sn and S0/Sn/Sn+1, Cn+2a
blastomylonitic shear zone, Sn+1
mylonitic foliation and Sn+2
cleavage schistosity. (b) Bed-
ding relict S 0 and Sn foliation,
Sn+1 mylonitic foliation, C n+2a
blastomylonitic shear zones.
(c) S0/Sn foliation and Sn+1
mylonitic foliation, hinge of
overturned Fn+1 fold. (d) Bed-
ding relict S 0 and Sn foliation.
(e) Cataclasite type fault
structures occur as large F n+2 asymmetric M-shape and the northern and southern parts of the study area oriented
S-shape folds (Fig. 2b). Sn+2 cleavage surfaces are com- N313°0.38° and N121°0.52°, respectively (Fig. 10c).
mon within the meta-granites (Fig. 6a), GIFs (Fig. 7d, e These F n+2 mega folds exhibited their A n+2a and A n+2b
and Fig. 9a) and the lenticular magnetite-pyroxene-horn- axes oriented N335°0.41° and N138°0.47° respectively
blende gneiss (Fig. 10a). S n+2 cleavage displays schis- (Fig. 10c). The third deformation stage ( Dn+2) produced
tosities oriented N-S dipping to the E (Fig. 7d), NE-SW large gentle to open folds showing vertical to sub-vertical
with dips to the SE and NW (Fig. 7e). These are axial Sn+2 hinges level cleavage. This area is characterized by
planes schistosity to F n+2 folds (Fig. 11a) and with high an en-echelon anticline-syncline system (Fig. 2a, b and
dips ranging from 59 to 88°. The traces of meso-scale Fig. 12a). These F n+2 folds generated σ 1 horizontal to
axial planes of F n and F n+1 folds have been refolded by sub-horizontal NNW-SSE, and σ 3 horizontal NE-SW
the regional F n+twofold during the early D
n+2 ductile defor- trends (Fig. 10c). These kinematic features reveal that
mation. This produced the undulations of the Kopongo the Kopongo area suffered compression in a NNW-SSE
greenstone belt and defined an asymmetrical F n+2 car- direction during its ductile deformation stage. Mean-
tographic fold (Fig. 2a, b). Synthetic stereograms of while, Fn+2 folds developed during the NNW-SSE crus-
the S n/S n+1 foliations show that the axial plane values tal shortening and NE-SW horizontal extension regime.
of asymmetrical F n+2 folds oriented ENE-WSW dipping The gentle to open asymmetric mega F n+2 folds form
ESE, NNE-SSW dipping WNW and NE-SW towards the NW–SE, NE-SW, WNW-ESE and ENE-WSW anticlines
SE (Fig. 10c). A n+twofold axes with upright to steep F n+2 and synclines (Fig. 2b) and control the lenticular magnet-
folds defined NE-SW to NNE-SSW-trend and flat to gen- ite-pyroxene-hornblende gneiss (Fig. 10a). Bn+2 boudins
tle plunge between 09 and 17° towards the SW and NNE consist of elongated MPHG bodies in the gneissic coun-
(Fig. 10c). Other F n+2 mega folds were also observed at try rocks package (Fig. 10a).
13
Fig. 7 Structural features of

gneissic formations observed
on the field at the Kopongo iron
deposit and synthetic stereo-
gram: (a) S0/Sn foliation. (b)
Fn fold strongly overprinted
by Fn+1 fold. (c) Synthetic
stereogram of S0/Sn foliation.
(d) WNW-ESE Sn+1 foliation
(red lines) crossed cut by N-S
and E-W subvertical S n+2 cleav-
age schistosities (yellow lines).
(e) NE-SW Sn+1 schistosity
crossed cut by N-S, NW–SE
and NE-SW Sn+2 cleavage
schistosities
Brittle‑ductile tectonic the Kopongo area. They constitute minor shear zones in the
area and vary from a few centimetres to about 10 m long
The Kopongo area is highly affected by ductile deformation. and < 20 cm wide, generally trending NE-SW (Fig. 11c, d).
However, both field and petrographic data show the co-exist- Cn+2 shear planes are observed at all scales within this green-
ence of both brittle and ductile structures within the ore forma- stone belt (Fig. 2b). They are marked by blastomylonitic shear
tions. Dn+1 event overprinted D n, whereas, D
n+2 deformation zones at the mesoscopic and macroscopic scales corresponding
affected the Dn and D n+1 structures giving rise to Cn+1 and to Cn+2a and Cn+2b shear bands respectively. The Cn+2a blasto-
Cn+2 shear planes respectively. Cn+1 shear planes are sinistral mylonitic shear bands visible in drill cores crosscut the amphi-
to dextral. They crossed-cut S0/Sn foliation and are sub-parallel bolites in dextral (Fig. 6a) to sinistral (Fig. 6b) shear movement.
to Sn+1 mylonitic foliation (Fig. 11c, d). These C n+1 planes Locally, the C
n+2a shear zones are sinistral NE-SW, WNW-ESE
are vertical steeply dipping structures common throughout and ENE-WSW-trends (Figs. 11b, 12c and d, respectively). The
13
Fig. 8 Photographs showing the main structures from the Kopongo greenstone belt and synthetic stereogram: (a) and (b) Bn+1 boudins and F
n+1
folds. (c) and (d) synthetic stereogram of the S
n+1 mylonitic foliation and axial plane to F
n+1 fold. (e) and (f) Ln+1 lineations
13
Fig. 9 Photos illustring geologi-

cal structures observed in the
Kopongo iron deposit: (a) Sn+2
cleavage schistosity on GIFs.
(b) Hinges of dissymmetric
Fn+1 folds and veinlets crossing
amphibolite. (c) Sn+1 mylonitic
foliation, Cn+3a en echelon
reverse and normal faults with
sheared magnetite vein
Cn+2a bands show parallel strike with the Sn+2 schistosity and Faults in this area are associated with C
n+3 shear planes.
the axial Fn+twofold planes (Fig. 11a). However, the schistosity is In drillhole KDD1 en echelon reverse and normal faults
underlined by continuous to discontinuous cleavage oblique to (Fig. 9c) were intercepted between 61.10–62.40 m and
the Sn+1 planes (Fig. 7a, b). Whereas, the Cn+2b blastomylonitic 63.14–64.24 m depth respectively. The minor en echelon
shear zones cross-cut mega Fn+2 folds that affected the So/Sn normal dip-slip faults are truncated, and display very thin
and Sn/Sn+1 foliations (Fig. 11a). Also, the Cn+2b blastomylo- magnetite step-fillings (Fig. 9c), while amphibolites dis-
nitic and shear corridors displayed various strikes directed N-S, played cataclasite type fault visible at 60.65–63.70 m and
NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE, NE-SW and NW–SE. These strikes 62.47–62.90 m depth on drillhole KDD9 (Fig. 6e). These
cross-cut all lithologies and foliation trajectories (Fig. 2b) in the structures observed at the mesoscopic scale can also be well
investigated area. The Kopongo shear zones are dominated by illustrated at the regional scale by en echelon pattern of nor-
sinistral-transcurrent shear sense indicators on horizontal sur- mal dip-slip faults displayed by the Kopongo hills (Fig. 12d).
faces, and steeply dipping foliation is interpreted either as (i) They were generated by the horizontal N-S σ1 and sub-
transpressional shear zones or (ii) zones of high-angle reverse vertical NW–SE σ3 markers (Fig. 11e). Consequently, the
faulting that were later reactivated by strike-slip faults. Kopongo brittle tectonic is a result of an extensional regime
(NW–SE) due to a crustal compresssional (N-S).
Brittle tectonic
This deformation stage marks the early stage of D n+3 Discussion

deformation. It is defined by the development of faults,
tension fractures, tension gashes, inverse dip-slip, vertical Chemical deposition and detrital input
strike-slip and normal dip-slip faults cross-cutting markers
from previous events. Major fractures related to this event Aside from being a major source of iron ore in the world, the
have been distinguished using drillcore logging (Fig. 9a−c) BIFs have also shown their importance in the development
and field mapping (Fig. 7e−d and Fig. 12d). They show of oxygen in the atmosphere, the chemical composition of
dominant N-S, E-W and NE-SW directions (Fig. 7a, b and the oceans and the understanding of the genesis of life on
Fig. 10c). However, the dominant strike directions are NNE- earth (Spier et al. 2007). However, not all iron formations
SSW, NNW-SSE, ENE-WSW, WNW-ESE and NW–SE (IFs) are purely sedimentary as most of these chemical sedi-
recorded from minor faults and tension gashes or tension ments show contamination of a continental nature (Pecoits
fractures. Most tension gashes are defined by quartz veinlets et al. 2009). In the studied area, weathered GIFs show higher
(Fig. 9b) observed at various depths from drillcore samples. contents in Fe2O3 and SiO2 than those of unweathered GIFs.
13
Fig. 10 a Geological NW–SE (dip) cross-section (A-A′ in Fig. 2b) of the Kopongo metamorphic iron deposit. (b) Synthetic stereogram of S
n/
Sn+1 foliation (amphibolite, gneiss and GIFs). (c) Histogram shows the distribution of the fracture trajectories
The chemical analyses of the unweathered GIF samples from the Archean and Paleoproterozoic have always shown a
show that the high S
iO2 and F
e2O3 contents (41.90–52.30 similar average overall content of iron, with Fe-total oscillat-
wt% and 42.39–55.40 wt%, respectively) are similar to other ing between 20 and 40 wt % (Klein 2005). The correspond-
IFs worldwide (see, Gutzmer et al. 2008). Unenriched IFs ing Fe-total content from the unenriched IFs in this study
13
Fig. 11 Photos illustring geo-

logical structures observed in
the Kopongo area: (a) Sinistral
Cn+2a shear planes shearing F n+2
folds. (b) Cn+2a shear planes
are concordant to S n+2 cleav-
age schistosity, axial plane of
Fn+2 folds. (c) and (d) Sinistral
and dextral C n+1 shear plane
associated with the development
of Sn+1 mylonitic foliation. (e)
Stereograms (equal area, lower
hemisphere) displaying the fault
shear population measured for
this study and calculated princi-
pal axes for all shear bands (σ1,
σ2 and σ3)
varies from 29.65 to 38.75 wt% concording with those of when solution are introduced (e.g. Yang et al. 2015; Pecoits
Archean and Paleoproterozoic formations. et al. 2009) thus, making it possible to detect clastic con-
The Kopongo GIFs show an abundance of magnetite taminations in IFs following their strong positive correlation
and quartz, with SiO2 + Fe2O3 contents (55.50–87.16 wt %, (Table 3). In addition, the high proportions of Al2O3 and
average at 71.33 wt %) similar to pure chemical sediment. TiO2 reflect the presence of terrigenous clastic sediments
On the other hand, the other major oxides display highly (Lascelles 2007). Both display strong positive correlations
variable contents, suggesting the incorporation of detrital (e.g. MgO with CaO (r ˂ 1.0), K2O with Na2O (r ˂ 0.9),
components. It has been indicated that during the processes Al2O3 with LOI (˂ 0.9) and TiO2 and V (r ˂ 0.7)) and the
of diagenesis, hydrothermal circulation and meteoric weath- weak positive correlations are also described (e.g., K
2O with
ering, the mobility of A
l2O3 and T
iO2 is highly influenced CaO (r ˂ 0.8) and MgO (r ˂ 0.8), MgO with N a2O (r ˂ 0.8),
13
Fig. 12 Photos illustring

geological structures observed
in the Kopongo iron deposit:
(a) Alternating anticlines and
synclines observed behind
geologist. (b) and (c) Sinistral
Cn+2a shear planes oblique to
Sn+1 mylonitic foliation. (d) En
echelon pattern well illustrated
by normal dip-slip faults (yel-
low lines) located at about 5 km
from the photo position
Al2O3 with V (r ˂ 0.8), N a2O with CaO (r ˂ 0.7), A

l2O3 with the amalgamation of the Archean micro-blocks and Paleo-
TiO2 (r ˂ 0.7), LOI and Zr (˂ 0.7), Al2O3 and Zr (˂ 0.6) and proterozoic to Neoproterozoic collisions in the northwest of
TiO2 with Zr (r ˂ 0.5). The positive correlations suggest clas- Congo Craton (Toteu et al. 1994; Lerouge et al. 2006; Loose
tic input during the geodynamic evolution of IFs (Horstmann and Schenk 2018; Owona et al. 2022).
and Halbich 1995; Spier et al. 2007). The incorporation of
terrigenous sediments in GIFs is suggested by the weak cor- Sources of iron and silica
relation between Al2O3 with TiO2, and Zr (Table 3), as Zr is
an element considered as a detrital component (Hirst 1962; The source of Fe and Si in IFs has been highly debated over
Spier et al. 2007). Thus, the Kopongo greenstone belt may the years as to whether these were derived from (1) conti-
have resulted from chemical precipitation slightly contami- nental sources (2) oceanic crust altered by hydrothermal pro-
nated by continental detrital components. Nevertheless, iron cesses (3) a combination of weathering materials from the
ore samples from this area do not show any major enrich- continental crust and vent-sourced hydrothermal fluids (e.g.
ment in A l2O3 and TiO2 contents and their weak positive Hamade et al. 2003; Bekker et al. 2010). To this day, their
correlation suggest slight crustal contamination. origin is still uncertain. It is all the same, admissible that the
From the above, we propose that Kopongo GIFs have environmental and geochemical evolutions of the Earth are
no significant amounts of clastic material, and therefore, a consequence of secular changes in their style of deposit
a geodynamic setting was in a marine environment (Spier (Bekker et al. 2010). Nevertheless, marine, hydrothermal,
et al. 2007). A similar depositional model was advocated in biogenic and detrital sources have been proposed accord-
the Mesoarchean Bikoula (NC, Teutsong et al. 2017) and ing to chemical differences, and mineralogical and isotopic
Bipindi (NyC, Moudioh et al. 2020) greenstone belts in composition (Klein 2005; Lascelles 2006). However, the
the Ntem complex, Congo craton. On the other hand, the samples of Kopongo GIFs show a strong affinity to hydro-
lithostratigraphic correlation of GIFs (Abou’ou ango et al. thermal activity based on the Fe–Mn-Al diagram of Bonatti
2021), Nkout BIFs (Ndime et al. 2018) and Gouap BIFs et al. (1979), (Fig. 13a). The same observations have been
(Soh Tamehe et al. 2019) support the fact that IF's deposition indicated on the Al2O3-SiO2 discrimination diagram (Won-
took place on a basin-wide scale. Considering the extent of der et al. 1988) where the Kopongo GIF samples fall within
the Congo basin, it appears that a huge amount of F e2+ in or close to the field of hydrothermal deposit (Fig. 13b).
ocean water was required (James 1954). These greenstone Besides, the positive correlation between the A l2O3 and
belts were late affected by multiple tectonic events during SiO2 (Fig. 13b) suggests that the chemical sediments were
13
Arab J Geosci
Table 3 Linear inter-element correlations for all samples of gneissic iron formations (n = 18)
(2022) 15:1518
AL2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 K2O MgO MnO Na2O CaO TiO2 Cr2O3 P2O5 S LOI Ni Pb Sn As Ba Cl Co Cu Sr V Zn Zr
AL2O3 1
Fe2O3 − 0.03 1.00
SiO2 − 0.21 − 0.97 1.00
K2O − 0.30 − 0.42 0.44 1.00
MgO − 0.64 − 0.41 0.53 0.78 1.00
MnO 0.32 − 0.39 0.32 0.08 − 0.07 1.00
Na2O − 0.27 − 0.29 0.32 0.88 0.69 0.03 1.00
CaO − 0.60 − 0.35 0.46 0.73 0.96 − 0.09 0.67 1.00
TiO2 0.62 − 0.01 − 0.12 − 0.22 − 0.56 0.55 − 0.10 − 0.48 1.00
Cr2O3 0.26 0.50 − 0.54 − 0.23 − 0.32 − 0.09 − 0.17 − 0.27 0.33 1.00
P2O5 0.44 0.44 − 0.56 − 0.23 − 0.37 − 0.07 − 0.19 − 0.34 0.12 0.09 1.00
S − 0.16 − 0.17 0.18 0.30 0.23 0.15 − 0.03 0.19 − 0.22 − 0.07 − 0.12 1.00
LOI 0.84 0.41 − 0.60 − 0.56 − 0.85 0.07 − 0.51 − 0.82 0.51 0.34 0.65 − 0.10 1.00
Ni 0.64 − 0.26 0.09 − 0.18 − 0.29 0.45 − 0.21 − 0.27 0.38 0.02 0.55 0.18 0.51 1.00
Pb 0.38 0.34 − 0.39 − 0.36 − 0.34 0.27 − 0.40 − 0.25 0.37 0.55 0.12 0.19 0.45 0.26 1.00
Sn − 0.35 0.14 − 0.04 0.08 0.40 − 0.02 0.29 0.50 − 0.07 0.38 − 0.35 − 0.08 − 0.41 − 0.27 0.26 1.00
As 0.06 0.70 − 0.70 − 0.27 − 0.37 − 0.29 − 0.22 − 0.40 0.05 0.29 0.54 − 0.15 0.43 0.00 0.14 − 0.24 1.00
Ba − 0.22 − 0.15 0.17 0.74 0.64 0.17 0.69 0.67 − 0.24 − 0.15 − 0.11 0.37 − 0.38 − 0.02 − 0.02 0.38 − 0.30 1.00
Cl − 0.26 − 0.20 0.23 0.71 0.57 − 0.07 0.53 0.49 − 0.31 − 0.15 − 0.01 − 0.03 − 0.40 − 0.32 − 0.38 − 0.10 0.10 0.33 1.00
Co 0.32 − 0.39 0.32 − 0.12 − 0.29 0.71 − 0.24 − 0.34 0.58 0.03 0.06 0.37 0.24 0.63 0.26 − 0.19 − 0.08 − 0.16 − 0.23 1.00
Cu 0.78 − 0.22 0.03 − 0.18 − 0.33 0.40 − 0.29 − 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.28 0.27 0.58 0.80 0.53 − 0.20 − 0.10 0.01 − 0.30 0.44 1.00
Sr − 0.24 0.14 − 0.08 0.11 0.34 − 0.06 0.04 0.50 − 0.23 0.08 − 0.10 0.34 − 0.21 − 0.08 0.51 0.60 − 0.26 0.59 − 0.09 − 0.19 0.04 1.00
V 0.75 0.06 − 0.23 − 0.22 − 0.52 0.59 − 0.13 − 0.43 0.83 0.49 0.36 0.09 0.65 0.68 0.67 0.07 0.06 0.01 − 0.37 0.68 0.71 0.06 1.00
Zn 0.47 0.51 − 0.60 − 0.25 − 0.44 0.32 − 0.20 − 0.41 0.28 0.20 0.30 − 0.07 0.57 0.07 0.51 − 0.13 0.39 0.02 − 0.14 − 0.11 0.31 0.01 0.41 1.00
Zr 0.59 0.35 − 0.47 − 0.33 − 0.48 − 0.20 − 0.23 − 0.40 0.40 0.37 0.16 − 0.27 0.63 − 0.06 0.47 − 0.04 0.12 − 0.29 − 0.25 − 0.21 0.26 0.04 0.37 0.45 1.00
Page 19 of 25
1518
13
Fig. 13 a Ternary Fe–Mn-Al

diagram proposed by Bonatti
et al. (1979), discriminating the
hydrothermal and non-hydro-
thermal fields. The Kopongo
GIFs falls on the hydrothermal
field. (b) Al2O3 vs. SiO2 dia-
gram (after Wonder et al. 1988)
indicating the possible genesis
of primary chemical precipitates
of the Kopongo iron samples
possibly diluted with A l2O3-rich clastic or volcanic materials known that Co/Zn ratio is used as a tracer of hydrothermal
and that the Si contribution came from hydrothermal flu- origin (Brian and Messmer 1982). According to this author,
ids and probably from the same source as Al2O3 (González a low Co/Zn ratio (0.15) characterizes hydrothermal deposits
et al. 2009). This may indicate that the primary chemical whereas hydrogenous deposits display a high Co/Zn ratio
precipitation of Si and Fe in the Kopongo GIFs came from (2.5). The average Co/Zn ratio of the studied iron ore sam-
hydrothermal fluids originating from diverse hydrothermal ples is 0.19, which is consistent with trace metals derived
vents. However, some samples plot in the hydrogenous field from a largely hydrothermal source (Toth 1980).
characteristic of chemical precipitation from seawater with According to Hatton and Davidson (2004), a high Fe/
insignificant hydrothermal input. Seawater input, however, Ti ratio (˃ 7000) characterizes pure hydrothermal fluids
is also justified by the low CaO/ (CaO + MgO) ratios ranging during sediments deposition, while Al/(Al + Fe + Mn)
between 0.08 and 0.53 (Table 1) which is in line with most ratio ˃ 0.6 indicates pure Al-rich clastic sediments.
marine origins (Dasgupta et al. 1999). Additionally, it is Reports also show that the high Fe/Ti, Fe/Al and Si/
13
Al ratios in IFs are inf luenced by a hydrothermal of sediments in the IFs systems can be achieved using
fluid due to the presence of A l 3+ and T
i 4+ which are the Fe/Ti vs. Al/ (Al + Fe + Mn) diagram (Bostrom 1973;
resistant to hydrothermal alteration and not soluble Barrett 1981). According to this diagram (Fig. 14a),
in seawater (Gurvich 2006). In the Kopongo area, the most of the samples collected at the Kopongo greenstone
investigated GIFs display average Fe/Ti (~ 515.02), Fe/ belt fall within the hydrothermal Soldier Cap Group
Al (38.51) and Si/Al (31.51) ratios which fall within iron formations with high Fe/Ti ratios (Hatton and
the range of hydrothermal input (Barrett 1981). Based Davidson 2004). This suggests a mixture of seawater
on these proxies, terrigenous deposits are marked by and hydrothermal fluids with a low terrigenous detrital
A l 3+ and T i 4+ cations, whereas those of hydrothermal input during the emplacement of the Kopongo IFs.
origin are characterized by Fe and Mn elements (e.g. Although partial contamination from continental detritus
González et al. 2009). The discrimination of the origin in their depositional environment is possible. However,
Fig. 14 a Fe/Ti vs. Al/

(Al + Fe + Mn) discrimination
diagram (after Bostrom 1973)
showing a further confirmation
that Kopongo metamorphosed
iron ore deposit derived directly
from a hydrothermal source.
(b) Comparison observed
from the Spider diagram of the
major element composition of
Kopongo deposit with those of
Congo craton, Pitangui BIF,
Minas Gerais, Brazil (Brando
Soares et al. 2017); Lake supe-
rior oxide facies BIF (Gross
1980); Algoma oxide facies BIF
(Gross 1980)
13
the geochemical features of the GIFs suggest that the greenstone belt is linked to Fn+1 and Fn+2 folds (Fig. 2b),
Kopongo greenstone belt was deposited at an extensional while metric to decimetric irregular enriched magnetite ore
geodynamic setting likely related to a back-arc (Wang lenses are related to Fn+2 folds (Fig. 10a). Consequently,
et al. 2014; Ghosh and Baidya 2017; Moudioh et al. the relative ages of magnetite and enriched magnetite ore
2020), similar to the depositional environment for many bodies (Figs. 3 and 10a) are considered to be spatially
Algoma-type BIFs. Archean-Paleoproterozoic arc setting and temporally related to syn-Dn+1 and syn-Dn+2 events
is widely distributed across the Congo Craton, suggesting respectively. These lenticular iron bodies occur at 20 m
integration of the tectonic evolution of the Kopongo right up to 177 m depth (Fig. 3). Massive magnetite or
greenstone belt into continental-scale palaeogeography. enriched magnetite ore bodies of the deposit generally form
discontinuous lenses as boudins (pinch and swell) with
Comparative geochemistry anastomosing magnetite mesobands of varying in sizes
and shapes within F n+2 folds. Their outlines are similar to
Archean and Paleoproterozoic are considered to be the those of the Hamersley Province in Australia (Lascelles
epic times of Precambrian that recorded the deposition 2006) hosted within amphibolite and gneissic formations
of IFs in cratonic provinces worldwide (Bontognali et al. (Fig. 10a). By contrast, the Quadrilátero Ferrífero shows
2013). These include the Carajas formation (Superior-type, discontinuous lenticular mineralization with variable
Gross 1980), Rio das Velhas formation (Algoma-type BIF, shapes and sizes within the itabirite-type (Mataragio et al.
Gross 1980), Quadrilátero Ferrífero in Brazil (Pitangui 2011). Meanwhile, within the Mayoko-Moussondji belt
BIFs, Brando Soares et al. 2017), the CC as Kpwa-Atog (in the Republic of Congo), the main deposit occurs at
Boga BIF (Soh Tamehe et al. 2018) and Kouambo BIF Makengui hill, which was interpreted as the locus of a
(Ganno et al. 2017). Thus, the average major chemical boudin neck developed during the main folding event and
compositions of the Kopongo GIFs can be compared with crosscutting late fault (De Waele et al. 2012). It has been
these worldwide iron districts (Fig. 14b). The chemistry demonstrated from numerical and analogue models that
of the Kopongo GIFs shows similar content of iron, the folds and the boudins can evolve simultaneously, and
silica, phosphorous and aluminium to other Precambrian the 3D deformation conditions the geometry of the boudins
BIFs (Fig. 14b). The average values of TiO 2 and MnO (Abe et al. 2013; Von Hagke et al. 2018). On the other
of Kopongo GIFs and Kpwa-Atog Boga BIFs are similar hand, these boudins are found at all scales and in varied
to those of the Pitangui, Superior-type and Algoma-type geotectonic frameworks (Schoenherr et al. 2009; Strozyk
BIFs. In contrast, Kouambo BIFs have a close pattern et al. 2014). During tectonic events, the surrounding matrix
with Pitangui and Superior-type BIFs. Meanwhile, the can record further information such as fluid pressure,
Kopongo GIFs and Kpwa-Atog Boga BIFs show similar pressure and temperature conditions while the necks of
TiO 2 and MnO content, but are higher than other BIFs the boudins structurally, control secondary mineralization
types, whereas the K 2O, CaO, MgO and N a2O contents (e.g. Schenk et al. 2007).
are slightly variable. Ore bodies of the Kopongo greenstone belt are well
illustrated by a folded nature of the topography that is
Mineralization controls characterized by alternating anticlinal and synclinal
structures trending NNE-SSW (Abou’ou Ango et al.
Geologic structures are very important in the control of 2021, Fig. 2a). They display variable attitudes and scales
iron ore deposits, and therefore understanding their tectonic indicating the intensity of ductile compressive deformation
framework becomes vital in unravelling the mineralization in the region (Figs. 2b and 12a). Based on lithostructural
history of the deposits. The Kopongo metamorphic iron analysis, folding of the Kopongo formations resulted in
deposit formed probably in the early tectonic evolution intense thinning of the GIFs along the limbs and thickening
of the NyC. Within this emerging iron ore district, most hinges (Fig. 10a). Closed-spaced sub-vertical cleavage along
of the IFs have suffered several phases of thermotectonic the hinge zones may have enhanced permeability GIFs and
and hydrothermal alteration that were enhanced by the iron enrichment. According to Coe (2010), the competence
re-activation and formation of brittle to brittle-ductile of the GIFs bands during Fn+1 and Fn+2 folding was crucial
structures after ore formation. In the search for concealed during this deformation. However, the prevalence of large-
ore bodies in the form of magnetite ore (MPG) and scale S-shaped Fn+1 and open Fn+2 asymmetric ‘M’ shaped
enriched-magnetite ore (MPHG) (Figs. 3 and 10a) in the folds structures in the area most like served as traps for this
Kopongo greenstone belt, tectonic unravelling helps to deposit. This can be supported by the presence of enriched
constrain the origin and evolution of these IFs. Analysis of magnetite ore body occupying the F n+twofold hinge zones
the geometry of folds, faults and shear zones suggests that where the elongated magnetite layers have considerable
the deposition of magnetite ore bodies within the Kopongo thicknesses.
13
Conclusion Declarations
Based on geological investigations and structural analysis Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
from the field, drill core, and satellite image, as well as the
major and trace element geochemistry interpretations, the
following conclusions have been proposed for the Kopongo
References
area: Abe S, Urai JL, Kettermann M (2013) Fracture patterns in nonplane
strain boudinage insights from 3-D discrete element models. J
(1) Three stratigraphic formations (regolith, iron and Geophys Res: Solid Earth 118(429):1304–1315
gneissic formations), and five lithologies occur within Abou’ou Ango T, Njom B, Ekoa Bessa AZ, Onana JB, Bafon GT,
Olinga J-B, Mvondo Ondoa J (2021) Correlations between
these gneissic terrains. morphoneotectonic parameters and Precambrian tectonic structures
(2) The Kopongo iron formations are chemical sediments in the Nyong Group greenstone belts: Example of the Kopongo area
related to a mixture of seawater and hydrothermal fluids (NW of the Congo Craton, Southwestern Cameroon). J African Earth
with a low terrigenous detrital input at an extensional Sci 182:104272
Barbosa JS, Barbosa RG (2017) The Paleoproterozoic eastern bahia
geodynamic setting. orogenic domain. In: Heilbron M, Cordani UG, Alkmim FF
(3) GIFs in this belt host detrital iron, magnetite-quartz, (eds) São Francisco Craton, Eastern Brazil. Springer, Tectonic
quartz-hematite breccia, magnetite and enriched mag- Genealogy of a Miniature Continent, pp 57–69
netite mineralization types. Barrett TJ (1981) Chemistry and mineralogy of Jurassic bedded chert
overlying ophiolites in the North Appenines. Italy Chem Geol
(4) This greenstone belt underwent D n, Dn+1, Dn+2 and 34:289–317
Dn+3 deformations. D n+1 is a simple shear that over- Bekker A, Slack JF, Planavsky N, Krapez B, Hofmann A, Konhauser
printed Dn. Transitional Dn-Dn+1 phase is recorded in KO, Rouxel OJ (2010) Iron formation: the sedimentary product
amphibolite and GIFs that are displayed by S n+1 mylo- of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic and
biospheric processes. Econ Geol 105:467–508
nitic foliation and meso- to mega Fn+1 folds. The early Bonatti E, Kolla V, Moore WS, Stern C (1979) Metallogenesis in
Dn+2 is a ductile deformation that developed F n+2 folds marginal basins: Fe-rich basal deposits from the Philippine Sea.
affecting composite Sn/Sn+1 foliation and generated Mar Geol 32:21–37
Sn+2 mylonitic foliation on their hinges. The late Dn+2 Bonda BMM, Etame J, Kouske AP, Bayiga EC, Ngon GFN, Mbaï SJ,
Gérard M (2017) Edea North Area, Nyong Complex, Southern
deformation is brittle-ductile and responsible for the Cameroon: implication for origin and enrichment process. Int J
development of blastomylonitic shear zones and large- Geosci 8:659–677
scale Fn+2 folds. The Dn+2 deformation is followed by Bontognali TRR, Fischer WW, Föllmi KB (2013) Siliciclastic associated
an early D
n+3 brittle phase represented by normal and banded iron formation from the 3.2 Ga Moodies Group, Barberton
Greenstone Belt. South Africa Precambrian Res 226:116–124
inverse dip-slip faults and strike-slip faults. Bostrom K (1973) The origin and fate of ferromanganoan active
(5) Iron mineralization is hosted by magnetite gneiss with ridge sediments. Stockh Contrib Geol 27:149–243
mylonitic schistosity. Bouyo Houketchang BM, Penaye J, Njel UO, Moussango IAP, Sep
(6) Most iron mineralization types are spatially related to NJP, Nyama AB, Wassouo WJ, Abaté EJM, Yaya F, Mahamat
AYH, Wu F (2016) Geochronological, geochemical and miner-
specific structures and their emplacement: magnet- alogical constraints of emplacement depth of TTG suite from
ite ore bodies are related to D n+1 folds and lenticular the Sinassi Batholith in the central African Fold belt (CAFB) of
enriched magnetite ore body is spatially and temporally northern Cameroon: implications for tectonomagmatic evolu-
related to syn-Dn+2 folds. tion. J Afr Earth Sci 116:9–41
Bouyo Houketchang BM, Penaye J, Mouri H, Toteu SF (2019) Eclogite
(7) Faults systems, fractures zones and fold hinges greatly facies metabasites from the Paleoproterozoic Nyong Group, SW
enhanced permeability, the transmission of oxygenated Cameroon: mineralogical evidence and implications for a high-pressure
solutions within the GIFs, supergene enrichment metamorphism related to a subduction zone at the NW margin of the
processes and concentration of iron. Archean Congo craton. J Afr Earth Sc 149:215–234
Brando Soares M, Vasconcelos ACN, Zeh A, Raphael AC, Fernandes
(8) The Kopongo iron deposit has the same tectonic LP, Bueno do Prado MG, Modesto de Almeida A, Guimarães LM,
position and share common depositional and structural Montenegro da Silva PH, Oliveira de Araújo RM, Mazutti TS (2017)
history as other iron deposits in the NyC. Geology of the Pitangui greenstone belt, Minas Gerais, Brazil:
stratigraphy, geochronology and BIF geochemistry. Precambrian
Res 29:17–41
Brian CL, Messmer RP (1982) An electronic model for the effect of
Acknowledgements This project forms part of the first authors PhD alloying elements of the phosphorus induced grain boundary
thesis and was financially supported by the West African Minerals embrittlement of steel. Acta Metallugica 30:1811–1818
Corporation. The authors thank Mrs Marie-Paule Mfoumbeng for her Burnham OM, Schweyer J (2004) Trace element analysis of geological
scientific contribution to this manuscript. But her soul departed before samples by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry at the
she could see the final version of this document. We are grateful to both geoscience laboratories: revised capabilities due to improvements to
anonymous reviewers for their detailed reviews, constructive comments instrumentation. Summary of Field Work and Other Activities 2004,
and suggestions that improve the overall quality of the paper. Ontario Geological Survey, vol. 54. Open File Report 6145:1–20
13
Cardozo N, Allmendinger RW (2013) Spherical projections with OSX- James HL (1954) Sedimentary facies of iron-formations. Econ Geol
Stereonet. Comput Geosci 51:193–205 49:235–293
Chombong NN, Suh CE (2013) 2883 Ma commencement of BIF depo- Klein C (2005) Some Precambrian banded iron-formations (BIFs) from
sition at thenorthern edge of Congo craton, Southern Cameroon: around the world:their age, geologic setting, mineralogy, meta-
new zircon SHRIMP dataconstraint from metavolcanics. Episodes morphism, geochemistry, and origin.Am. Mineral. 90:1473–1499.
36:47–57 Lascelles DF (2006) The Mount Gibson banded iron formation hosted
Chombong NN, Suh CE, Lehmann B, Vishiti A, Ilouga DC, Shemang magnetite deposit: two distinct processes for the origin of high
EM, Tantoh BS, Kedia AC (2017) Host rock geochemistry, texture grade ore. Econ Geol 101:651–666
and chemical composition of magnetite in iron ore in the Neo- Lascelles DF (2007) Black smokers and density currents: a uniformi-
archaean Nyong unit in Southern Cameroon. Appl Earth Sci 17 tarian model for the genesis of banded iron-formations. Ore Geol
Coe AL (2010) Geological Field Techniques. Wiley-Blackwell Edi- Rev 32:381–411
tions, pp. 323 Lasserre M, Soba D (1976) Age libérien des granodiorites et des
Dasgupta HC, Sambasiva Rao VV, Krishna C (1999) Chemical envi- gneiss à pyroxène du Cameroun méridional. Bulletin du Bureau
ronments of deposition of ancient iron- and manganese-rich sedi- de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres; Section 4: Geologie Gen-
ments and cherts. Sediment Geol 125:83–98 erale 17–32
De Waele B, Buckley D, Jupp B (2012) The geology of the Makengui Lerouge C, Cocherie A, Toteu SF, Milesi JP, Penaye J, Tchameni R,
Target in the Mayoko-Moussondji Projet, Republic of Congo, Nsifa NE, Fanning CM (2006) Shrimp U/Pb zircon age evidence
internal report for Equatorial Resources by SRK Consulting, p.53 for paleoproterozoic sedimentation and 2.05 Ga syntectonic plu-
Feybesse JL, Johan V, Triboulet C, Guerrot C, Mayaga-Mikolo F, Bou- tonism in the Nyong Group, South-western Cameroon: conse-
chot V, Eko N’dong J (1998) The West Central African belt: a quences for the eburnean-transamazonian belt of NE Brazil and
model of 2.5-2.0 Ga accretion and two-phase orogenic evolution. central Africa. J Afr Earth Sci 44:413–427
Precambrian Res. 87:161–216 Loose D, Schenk V (2018) 2.09 Ga old eclogites in the Eburnian-
Ganno S, Njiosseu Tanko EL, Kouankap Nono GD, Djoukouo Soh Transamazonian orogen of Southern Cameroon: significance for
A, Moudioh C, Ngnotué T, Nzenti JP (2017) A mixed seawater Palaeoproterozoic plate tectonics. Precambrian Res 304:1–11
and hydrothermal origin of superior-type banded iron formation Mataragio J, Jorgensen G, Uendro DC, Braga MA (2011) Twelfth
(BIF)-hosted Kouambo iron deposit, Palaeoproterozoic Nyong international congress of the Brazilian geophysical society in Rio
series, Southwestern Cameroon: constraints from petrography de Janeiro, Brazil, August 15–18
and geochemistry. Ore Geol Rev 80:860–875 Maurizot P, Abessolo A, Feybesse J, Johan L, Lecomte P (1986) Etude
Ganno S, Tsozué D, Kouankap Nono GD, Tchouatcha MS, Ngnotué et prospection minière du Sud-Ouest du Cameroun : synthèse des
T, Takam GR, Nzenti JP (2018) Geochemical constraints on the travaux de 1978 à 1985. Rapport BRGM 85 CMR 066, 274
origin of banded iron formation hosted iron ore from the Archaean Moudioh C, Tamehe LS, Ganno S, Nzepang Tankwa M, Soares B,
Ntem Complex (Congo Craton) in the Meyomessi Area. Southern Ghosh M, Kankeu R, Nzenti BJP (2020) Tectonic setting of the
Cameroon Resour Geol 68(3):287–302 Bipindi greenstone belt, northwest Congo craton, Cameroon:
Ghosh R, Baidya TK (2017) Mesoarchean BIF and iron ores of the implications on BIF deposition. J Afr Earth Sc 171:103971
badampahar greenstone belt, iron ore group, East Indian shield. J Mvondo H, den Brok SWJ, Mvondo Ondoa J (2003) Evidence for sym-
Asian Earth Sci 150:25–44 metric extension and exhumation of the Yaounde nappe (Pan-
González PD, Sato AM, Llambías EJ, Petronilho LA (2009) Petrology and African fold belt, Cameroon). J Afr Earth Sci 36:215–231
geo-chemistry of the banded iron formation in the Eastern Sierras Ndema MJL, Mbonjoh TM (2020) Assessment of banded iron forma-
Pampeanas of San Luis (Argentina): implications for the evolution tions around gouap area as potential high-grade iron ore (Nyong
of the Nogolí Metamorphic Complex. J S Am Earth Sci 28:89–112 Serie, Congo Craton-South Cameroon). Int J Progressive Sci
Gross GA (1980) A classification of iron formations based on Technol 22(2):87–110
depositional environments. Can Mineral 18:215–222 Ndime EN, Ganno S, Soh Tamehe L, Nzenti JP (2018) Petrography,
Gurvich EG (2006) Metalliferous sediments of the world ocean: funda- lithostratigraphy and major element geochemistry of Mesoar-
mental theory of deep-sea hydrothermal sedimentation. Springer, chean metamorphosed banded iron formation-hosted Nkout iron
Berlin, p 416p ore deposit, north western Congo craton, Central West Africa. J
Gutzmer J, Chisonga CB, Beukes NJ, Mukhopadhyay J (2008) The Afr Earth Sci 148:80–98
geochemistry of ironformation-hosted high-grade hematite-mar- Nga Essomba TP, Ganno S, Tanko Njiosseu EL, Ndema Mbongue JL,
tite iron ores. Rev Econ Geol 15:157–183 Kamguia Woguia B, Soh Tamehe L, Takodjou Wambo JD, Nzenti
Hamade T, Konhauser KO, Raiswell R, Goldsmith S, Morris RC JP (2020) Geochemical constraints on the origin and tectonic
(2003) Using Ge/Si ratios to decouple iron and silica fluxes in setting of the serpentinized peridotites from the Paleoproterozoic
Precambrian banded iron formations. Geology 31:35–38 Nyong series, Eseka area. SW Cameroon Acta Geochimica
Hatton O, Davidson G (2004) Soldiers Cap Group iron-formations, Mt. 39(3):404–422
Isa Inlier, Australia, as windows into the hydrothermal evolution Nkoumbou C, Barbey P, Yonta-Ngoune C, Paquette JL, Villiéras F
of a base-metal-bearing Proterozoic rift basin. Australian J Earth (2015) Pre-collisional geodynamic context of the southern mar-
Sci 51:85–106 gin of the Pan-African Fold Belt in Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sc
Hirst DM (1962) The geochemistry of modern sediments from the 99:245–260
Golf of Paria, 2. The location and distribution of trace elements. Nzepang Tankwa M, Ganno S, Akindeji Okunlola O, Tanko Njiosseu
Geochim Cosmochim Acta 26(1147–1187):1962 EL, Soh Tamehe L, Kamguia Woguia B, Motto Mbita AS, Nzenti
Horstmann UE, Halbich IW (1995) Chemical composition of ¨ banded JP (2020) Petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the Paleoprotero-
iron-formations of the Griqualand West Sequence, Northern Cape zoic Kelle Bidjoka iron formations, Nyong group greenstone belts,
Province, South Africa, in comparison with other Precambrian southwestern Cameroon. Constraints from petrology, geochemis-
iron formations. Precamb Res 72:109–145 try, and LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb geochronology. Int Geol Rev
Ilouga DCI, Ndong Bidzang F, Bidias Ziem ALA, Olinga JB, Tata E, Owona S (2008) Archaean, Eburnean and Pan-African features and
Minyem D (2017) Geochemical characterization of a stratigraphic relationships in their junction zone in the South of Yaounde
log bearing iron ore in the Sanaga prospect, Upper Nyong Unit (Cameroon). Ph.D. Thesis. University of Douala, Cameroon,
of Ntem Complex. Cameroon J Geosci Geomatics 5(5):218–228 p.232
13
Owona S, Mvondo-Ondoa J, Tichomirowa M, Kodeck GE (2020) The Suh CE, Cabral AR, Shemang EM, Mbinkar L, Mboudou GGM (2008)
petrostructural characteristics and 207Pb/206Pb zircon data from Two contrasting iron-ore deposits in the Precambrian mineral belt
the Ngomedzap-Akongo area (Nyong complex, SW-Cameroon). of Cameroon, West Africa. Explor Min Geol 17:197–207
J Geosci 65:201–219 Teutsong T, Bontognali TRR, Ndjigui P-D, Vrijmoed JC, Teagle D,
Owona S, Ratschbacher L, Nsangou Ngapna M, Gulzar AM, Mvondo- Cooper M, Derek V (2017) Petrography and geochemistry of the
Ondoa J, Emmanuel Ekodeck G (2021) How diverse is the source? Mesoarchean Bikoula banded iron formation in the Ntem complex
Age, provenance, reworking, and overprint of Precambrian meta- (Congo craton), Southern Cameroon: implications for its origin.
sedimentary rocks of West Gondwana, Cameroon, from zircon Ore Geol Rev 80:267–288
U-Pb geochronology. Precambr Res 359:106220 Tchameni R, Mezger K, Nsifa EN, Pouclet A (2000) Neoarchean evolu-
Owona S, Schulz B, Minyem D, Ratschbacher L, Tchamabe BC, Olinga tion in the Congo Craton: evidence from K. rich granitoids of the
JB, Mvondo Ondoa J, Ekodeck GE (2022) Eburnean/Trans-Ama- Ntem complex Southern Cameroon. J Earth Sci 30(1):113–147
zonian orogeny in the Nyong complex of southwestern Cameroon: Tchameni R, Mezger K, Nsifa NE, Pouclet A (2001) Crustal origin of
meta-basite geochemistry and metamorphic petrology. J Afr Earth early Proterozoic syenites in the Congo craton (Ntem complex).
Sc 190:104515 South Cameroon Lithos 57(1):23–42
Pecoits E, Gingras MK, Barley ME, Kappler A, Posth NR, Konhauser Toteu SF, Van Schmus WR, Penaye J, Nyobe JB (1994) U-Pb and
KO (2009) Petrography and geochemistry of the Dales Gorge Sm-Ndevidence for Eburnean and Pan-African high-grade meta-
banded iron formation: paragenetic sequence, source and implica- morphism in cratonic rocks of Southern Cameroon. Precambrian
tions for palaeo-ocean chemistry. Precambrian Res 172:163–187 Res 67:321–347
Penaye J, Toteu SF, Tchameni R, Van Schmus WR, Tchakounte J, Toteu SF, Yongue Fouateu R, Penaye J, Tchakounte J, Seme Mouangue
Ganwa A, Miyem D, Nsifa EN (2004) The 2.1 Ga West Central AC, Van Schmus WR, Deloule E, Stendal H (2006) U-Pb dating
African Belt in Cameroon: extension and evolution. J Afr Earth of plutonic rocks involved in the nappe tectonic in Southern Cam-
Sc 39:159–164 eroon: consequence for the Pan-African orogenic evolution of the
Schenk O, Urai JL, Van der Zee W (2007) Evolution of boudins under central African fold belt. J Afr Earth Sc 44:479–493
progressively decreasing pore pressure–a case study of pegmatites Toth JR (1980) Deposition of submarine crusts rich in manganese and
enclosed in marble deforming at high grade metamorphic condi- iron. Geo Soc Am Bull 91(1):44–54
tions, Naxos, Greece. Am J Sci 307:1009–1033 Van Schmus WR, Oliveira EP, Da Silva Filho AF, Toteu SF, Penaye
Schoenherr J, Reuning L, Kukla PA, Littke R, Urai JL, Siemann M, J, Guimarães IP (2008) Proterozoic links between the Borborema
Rawahi Z (2009) Halite cementation and carbonate diagenesis province, NE Brazil, and the central-African Fold belt. Geol Soc
of intra-salt reservoirs from the Late Neoproterozoic to Early London 294:69–99
Cambrian Ara Group (South Oman Salt Basin). Sedimentology Von Hagke C, Bamberg B, Virgo S, Urai JL (2018) Outcrop-scale
56:567–589 tomography: insights into the 3D structure of multiphase boudins.
Soh Tamehe L, Nzepang Tankwa M, Wei CT, Ganno S, Ngnotue J Struct Geol
T, Kouankap Nono GD, Simon SJ, Zhang JJ, Nzenti JP (2018) Wang CL, Zhang LC, Lan CY, Dai YP (2014) Petrology and geochem-
Geology and geochemical constrains on the origin and deposi- istry of the Wangjiazhuang banded iron formation and associated
tional setting of Kpwa-Atog Boga banded iron formations (BIFs), supracrustal rocks from the Wutai greenstone belt in the North
northwestern Congo craton. Southern Cameroon Ore Geol Rev China Craton: implications for their origin and tectonic setting.
95:620–638 Precambrian Res 255:603–626
Soh Tamehe L, Chongtao W, Ganno S, Jeremia Simon S, Kouankap West African Minerals Corporation (2017) Scoping study indicates
NGD, Nzenti JP, Brice Lemdjou Y, Htun Lina N (2019) significant economic potential for the Sanaga iron ore project,
Geology of the Gouap iron deposit, Congo craton, Southern Cameroon, 12 May 2017. Report RNS Number: 9172E, 7p
Cameroon: implications for iron ore exploration. Ore Geol Rev Wonder J, Spry P, Windom K (1988) Geochemistry and origin of man-
107:1097–1128 ganese-rich rocks related to iron-formation and sulfide deposits,
Soh Tamehe L, Wei C, Ganno S, Rosiere CA, Nzenti JP, Ebotehouna western Georgia. Econ Geol 83(5):1070–1081
CG, Lu G (2021) Depositional age and tectonic environment of Yang XQ, Zhang ZH, Duan SG, Zhao XM (2015) Petrological and
the Gouap banded iron formations from the Nyong group, SW geochemicalfeatures of the Jingtieshan banded iron formation
Cameroon: insights from isotopic, geochemical and geochrono- (BIF): a unique type of BIF from theNorthern Qilian Orogenic
logical studies of drillcore sample. Geosci Front 12:549–572 Belt, NW China. J Asian Earth Sci 113:1218–1234.
Spier CA, Oliveira SMB, Sial AN, Rios FJ (2007) Geochemistry and
genesis of the banded iron formations of the cauê formation, Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under
Quadrilátero Ferrífero Minas Gerais. Brazil Precambrian Res a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s);
152:170–206 author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article
Strozyk F, Urai JL, Van Gent H, De Keijzer M., Kukla PA (2014) is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and
Regional variations in the structure of the Permian Zechstein 3 applicable law.
intrasalt stringer in the northern Netherlands: 3D seismic interpre-
tation and implications for salt tectonic evolution. Interpretation
2, SM101-SM117
13

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2022) 15:1518

Petrology, geochemistry and structural analysis of the Kopongo

Received: 28 June 2022 / Accepted: 27 August 2022

Introduction in both West Africa and NE Brazil (Feybesse et al. 1998;

Fig. 5 Field photographs of

Fig. 6 Photographs showing the

Fig. 7 Structural features of

Fig. 9 Photos illustring geologi-

This deformation stage marks the early stage of D n+3 Discussion

Fig. 11 Photos illustring geo-

Fig. 12 Photos illustring

Al2O3 with V (r ˂ 0.8), N a2O with CaO (r ˂ 0.7), A

Fig. 13 a Ternary Fe–Mn-Al

Fig. 14 a Fe/Ti vs. Al/

You might also like

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AbououAngoetal 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2022) 15:1518

Petrology, geochemistry and structural analysis of the Kopongo

Received: 28 June 2022 / Accepted: 27 August 2022

Introduction in both West Africa and NE Brazil (Feybesse et al. 1998;

Fig. 5 Field photographs of

Fig. 6 Photographs showing the

Fig. 7 Structural features of

Fig. 9 Photos illustring geologi-

This deformation stage marks the early stage of D ­ n+3 Discussion

Fig. 11 Photos illustring geo-

Fig. 12 Photos illustring

­Al2O3 with V (r ˂ 0.8), N ­ a2O with CaO (r ˂ 0.7), A

Fig. 13 a Ternary Fe–Mn-Al

Fig. 14 a Fe/Ti vs. Al/

You might also like

This deformation stage marks the early stage of D n+3 Discussion

Al2O3 with V (r ˂ 0.8), N a2O with CaO (r ˂ 0.7), A