Designation: D 2435 – 03

Standard Test Methods for

One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using
Incremental Loading 1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D 2435; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope* requesting agency may specify Test Method B wherein the time-
deformation readings are taken on all load increments.
1.1 These test methods covers procedures for determining
the magnitude and rate of consolidation of soil when it is 1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
restrained laterally and drained axially while subjected to standard. The values stated in inch-pound units are approxi-
incrementally applied controlled-stress loading. Two alterna- mate and given for guidance only. Reporting of test results in
tive procedures are provided as follows: units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance
1.1.1 Test Method A—This test method is performed with with this test method.
constant load increment duration of 24 h, or multiples thereof. 1.4.1 In the engineering profession it is customary practice
Time-deformation readings are required on a minimum of two to use, interchangeably, units representing both mass and force,
load increments. unless dynamic calculations (F = Ma) are involved. This im-
1.1.2 Test Method B—Time-deformation readings are re- plicitly combines two separate systems of units, that is, the
quired on all load increments. Successive load increments are absolute system and the gravimetric system. It is scientifically
applied after 100 % primary consolidation is reached, or at undesirable to combine two separate systems within a single
constant time increments as described in Test Method A. standard. This test method has been written using SI units;
however, inch-pound conversions are given in the gravimetric
NOTE 1—The determination of the rate and magnitude of consolidation
system, where the pound (lbf) represents a unit of force
of soil when it is subjected to controlled-strain loading is covered by Test
Method D 4186. (weight). The use of balances or scales recording pounds of
mass (lbm), or the recording of density in lb/ft3 should not be
1.2 This test method is most commonly performed on regarded as nonconformance with this test method.
undisturbed samples of fine grained soils naturally sedimented 1.5 Observed and calculated values shall conform to the
in water, however, the basic test procedure is applicable, as guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in
well, to specimens of compacted soils and undisturbed samples Practice D 6026, unless superceded by this test method, unless
of soils formed by other processes such as weathering or superceded by this test method.
chemical alteration. Evaluation techniques specified in this test 1.5.1 The method used to specify how data are collected,
method are generally applicable to soils naturally sedimented calculated, or recorded in this standard is not directly related to
in water. Tests performed on other soils such as compacted and the accuracy to which the data can be applied in design or other
residual (weathered or chemically altered) soils may require uses, or both. How one applies the results obtained using this
special evaluation techniques. standard is beyond its scope.
1.3 It shall be the responsibility of the agency requesting 1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the
this test to specify the magnitude and sequence of each load safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
increment, including the location of a rebound cycle, if responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
required, and, for Test Method A, the load increments for priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
which time-deformation readings are desired. bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
NOTE 2—Time-deformation readings are required to determine the time
for completion of primary consolidation and for evaluating the coefficient 2. Referenced Documents
of consolidation, cv. Since cv varies with stress level and load increment 2.1 ASTM Standards:
(loading or unloading), the load increments with timed readings must be D 422 Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils2
selected with specific reference to the individual project. Alternatively, the
D 653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
Fluids2
1 D 854 Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils2
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil
and Rock and is the direct responsibility of subcommittee D18.05 on Structural
Properties of Soil .
Current edition approved June 10, 2003. Published June 2003. Originally
2
approved in 1965. Last previous edition approved in 2002 as D 2435 – 02. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.08.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 D 2435 – 03
D 1587 Practice For Thin-Walled Tube Geotechnical Sam- 5.3 Consolidation test results are dependent upon the mag-
pling of Soils2 nitude of the load increments. Traditionally, the load is doubled
D 2216 Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water for each increment resulting in a load-increment ratio of 1. For
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock2 undisturbed samples, this load procedure has provided data
D 2487 Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes2 from which estimates of the preconsolidation pressure also
D 2488 Practice for Description and Identification of Soils referred to as the maximum past pressure, using established
(Visual-Manual Procedure)2 evaluation techniques, compare directly with field measure-
D 3550 Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils2 ment. Other load schedules may be used to model particular
D 3740 Practice for Minimum Requirements for Agencies field conditions or meet special requirements. For example, it
Engaged in the Testing or Inspection, or both, of Soil and may be desirable to inundate and load the specimen in
Rock as Used in Engineering Design and Construction2 accordance with the wetting or loading pattern expected in the
D 4186 Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation field in order to best simulate the response. Smaller than
Properties of Soils Using Controlled-Strain Loading2 standard load increment ratios may be desirable for soils that
D4220 Practice for Preserving and Transporting Soil are highly sensitive or whose response is highly dependent on
Samples2 strain rate. The test method specified to estimate the precon-
D 4318 Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and solidation pressure provides a simple technique to verify that
Plasticity Index of Soils2 one set of time readings are taken after the preconsolidation
D 4452 Methods for X-Ray Radiography of Soil Samples2 pressure. Several other evaluation techniques exist and may
D 4546 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Settle- yield different estimates of the preconsolidation pressure.
ment Potential of Cohesive Soils2 Therefore, the requesting agency may specify an alternate
D 6026 Practice for Using Significant Digits in Geotechni- technique to estimate the preconsolidation pressure.
cal Data3 5.4 Consolidation test results are dependent upon the dura-
tion of each load increment. Traditionally, the load duration is
3. Terminology the same for each increment and equal to 24 h. For some soils,
3.1 Definitions—The definitions of terms used in this test the rate of consolidation is such that complete consolidation
method shall be in accordance with Terminology D 653. (dissipation of excess pore pressure) will require more than 24
h. The apparatus in general use does not have provisions for
4. Summary of Test Method formal verification of pore pressure dissipation. It is necessary
4.1 In this test method a soil specimen is restrained laterally to use an interpretation technique which indirectly determines
and loaded axially with total stress increments. Each stress that consolidation is complete. This test method specifies two
increment is maintained until excess pore water pressures are techniques, however the requesting agency may specify an
completely dissipated. During the consolidation process, mea- alternative technique and still be in conformance with this test
surements are made of change in the specimen height and these method.
data are used to determine the relationship between the 5.5 The apparatus in general use for this test method does
effective stress and void ratio or strain, and the rate at which not have provisions for verification of saturation. Most undis-
consolidation can occur by evaluating the coefficient of con- turbed samples taken from below the water table will be
solidation. saturated. However, the time rate of deformation is very
sensitive to degree of saturation and caution must be exercised
5. Significance and Use regarding estimates for duration of settlements when partially
5.1 The data from the consolidation test are used to estimate saturated conditions prevail. The extent to which partial
the magnitude and rate of both differential and total settlement saturation influences the test results may be a part of the test
of a structure or earthfill. Estimates of this type are of key evaluation and may include application of theoretical models
importance in the design of engineered structures and the other than conventional consolidation theory. Alternatively, the
evaluation of their performance. test may be performed using an apparatus equipped to saturate
5.2 The test results can be greatly affected by sample the specimen.
disturbance. Careful selection and preparation of test speci- 5.6 This test method uses conventional consolidation theory
mens is required to minimize disturbance. based on Terzaghi’s consolidation equation to compute the
coefficient of consolidation, cv. The analysis is based upon the
NOTE 3—Notwithstanding the statement on precision and bias con-
tained in this standard, the precision of this test method is dependent on following assumptions:
the competence of the personnel performing the test and suitability of the 5.6.1 The soil is saturated and has homogeneous properties;
equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice 5.6.2 The flow of pore water is in the vertical direction;
D 3740 generally are considered capable of competent and objective 5.6.3 The compressibility of soil particles and pore water is
testing. Users of this test method are cautioned that compliance with
Practice D 3740 does not assure reliable testing. Reliable testing depends
negligible compared to the compressibility of the soil skeleton;
on many factors, and Practice D 3740 provides a means of evaluation 5.6.4 The stress-strain relationship is linear over the load
some of these factors. increment;
5.6.5 The ratio of soil permeability to soil compressibility is
constant over the load increment; and
3
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.09. 5.6.6 Darcy’s law for flow through porous media applies.

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 D 2435 – 03
6. Apparatus NOTE 8—The use of tapered disks is recommended, with the larger
diameter in contact with the soil.
6.1 Load Device—A suitable device for applying vertical
loads or total stresses to the specimen. The device shall be 6.3.2 Thickness—Thickness of the disks shall be sufficient
capable of maintaining specified loads for long periods of time to prevent breaking. The top disk shall be loaded through a
with a precision of 6 0.5 % of the applied load and shall permit corrosion-resistant plate of sufficient rigidity to prevent break-
quick application of a given load increment without significant age of the disk.
impact. 6.3.3 Maintenance—The disks shall be clean and free from
NOTE 4—Load application generally should be completed in a time
cracks, chips, and nonuniformities. New porous disks should
corresponding to 0.01 t100 or less. For soils where primary consolidation be boiled for at least 10 minutes and left in the water to cool to
is completed in 3 min, load application should be less than 2 s. ambient temperature before use. Immediately after each use,
6.2 Consolidometer—A device to hold the specimen in a clean the porous disks with a nonabrasive brush and boil to
ring that is either fixed to the base or floating (supported by remove clay particles that may reduce their permeability. It is
friction on periphery of specimen) with porous disks on each recommended that porous disks be stored in a jar with deaired
face of the specimen. The inside diameter of the ring shall be water between tests.
determined to a tolerance of 0.075 mm (0.003 in.). The 6.4 Specimen Trimming Device—A trimming turntable or a
consolidometer shall also provide a means of submerging the cylindrical cutting ring may be used for trimming the sample
specimen, for transmitting the concentric vertical load to the down to the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with a
porous disks, and for measuring the change in height of minimum of disturbance. A cutter having the same inside
specimen. diameter as the specimen ring shall attach to or be integral with
6.2.1 Minimum Specimen Diameter—The minimum speci- the specimen ring. The cutter shall have a sharp edge, a highly
men diameter shall be 50 mm (2.00 in.). polished surface and be coated with a low-friction material.
6.2.2 Minimum Specimen Height—The minimum initial Alternatively, a turntable or trimming lathe may be used. The
specimen height shall be 12 mm (0.5 in.), but shall be not less cutting tool must be properly aligned to form a specimen of the
than ten times the maximum particle diameter. same diameter as that of the ring.
6.5 Deformation Indicator—To measure change in speci-
NOTE 5—If large particles are found in the specimen after testing, men height, with a readability of 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in.).
include in the report this visual observation or the results of a particle size
6.6 Miscellaneous Equipment—Including timing device
analysis in accordance with Method D 422 (except the minimum sample
size requirement shall be waived). with 1 s readability, distilled or demineralized water, spatulas,
knives, and wire saws, used in preparing the specimen.
6.2.3 Minimum Specimen Diameter-to-Height Ratio—The 6.7 Balances, in accordance with Method D 2216.
minimum specimen diameter-to-height ratio shall be 2.5.
6.8 Drying Oven, in accordance with Method D 2216.
NOTE 6—The use of greater diameter-to-height ratios is recommended. 6.9 Water Content Containers, in accordance with Method
To minimize the effects of friction between the sides of the specimen and D 2216.
ring, a diameter-to-height ratio greater than four is preferable. 6.10 Environment—Tests shall be performed in an environ-
6.2.4 Specimen Ring Rigidity—The rigidity of the ring shall ment where temperature fluctuations are less than 6 4°C (6
be such that, under hydrostatic stress conditions in the speci- 7°F) and there is no direct exposure to sunlight.
men, the change in diameter of the ring will not exceed 0.03 %
of the diameter under the greatest load applied. 7. Sampling
6.2.5 Specimen Ring Material—The ring shall be made of a
7.1 Practices D 1587 and D 3550 cover procedures and
material that is noncorrosive in relation to the soil tested. The
apparatus that may be used to obtain undisturbed samples
inner surface shall be highly polished or shall be coated with a
generally satisfactory for testing. Specimens may also be
low-friction material. Silicone grease or molybdenum disulfide
trimmed from large undisturbed block samples fabricated and
is recommended; polytetrafluoroethylene is recommended for
sealed in the field. Finally, remolded specimens may be
nonsandy soils.
prepared from bulk samples to density and moisture conditions
6.3 Porous Disks—The porous disks shall be of silicon
stipulated by the agency requesting the test.
carbide, aluminum oxide, or similar noncorrosive material. The
7.2 Undisturbed samples destined for testing in accordance
grade of the disks shall be fine enough to prevent intrusion of
with this test method shall be preserved, handled, and trans-
soil into the pores. If necessary, a filter paper (see Note 7) may
ported in accordance with the practices for Group C and D
be used to prevent intrusion of the soil into the disks; however,
samples in Practices D 4220. Bulk samples for remolded
the permeability of the disks, and filter paper, if used, must be
specimens should be handled and transported in accordance
at least one order of magnitude higher than that of the
with the practice for Group B samples.
specimen.
7.3 Storage—Storage of sealed samples should be such that
NOTE 7—Whatman No. 54 filter paper has been found to meet no moisture is lost during storage, that is, no evidence of partial
requirements for permeability and durability. drying of the ends of the samples or shrinkage. Time of storage
6.3.1 Diameter—The diameter of the top disk shall be 0.2 to should be minimized, particularly when the soil or soil mois-
0.5 mm (0.01 to 0.02 in.) less than the inside diameter of the ture is expected to react with the sample tubes.
ring. If a floating ring is used, the bottom disk shall have the 7.4 The quality of consolidation test results diminishes
same diameter as the top disk. greatly with sample disturbance. No sampling procedure can

3
 D 2435 – 03
ensure completely undisturbed samples. Therefore, careful 9.4 Fibrous soils, such as peat, and those soils that are easily
examination of the sample is essential in selection of speci- damaged by trimming, may be transferred directly from the
mens for testing. sampling tube to the ring, provided that the ring has the same
NOTE 9—Examination for sample disturbance, stones, or other inclu- diameter as the sample tube.
sions, and selection of specimen location is greatly facilitated by x-ray 9.5 Specimens obtained using a ring-lined sampler may be
radiography of the samples (see Methods D 4452). used without prior trimming, provided they comply with the
requirements of Practice D 3550 and this test method.
8. Calibration
9.6 Trim the specimen flush with the plane ends of the ring.
8.1 The measured vertical deformations must be corrected The specimen may be recessed slightly below the top of the
for apparatus flexibility whenever the calibration correction ring, to facilitate centering of the top stone, by partial extrusion
determined in 8.4 exceeds 5 % of the measured deformation and trimming of the bottom surface. For soft to medium soils,
and in all tests where filter paper disks are used. a wire saw should be used for trimming the top and bottom of
8.2 Assemble the consolidometer with a copper or hard steel the specimen to minimize smearing. A straightedge with a
disk of approximately the same height as the test specimen and sharp cutting edge may be used for the final trim after the
1 mm (0.04 in.) smaller in diameter than the ring, in place of excess soil has first been removed with a wire saw. For stiff
the sample. Moisten the porous disks. If filter papers are to be soils, a sharpened straightedge alone may be used for trimming
used (see 6.3), they should be moistened and sufficient time (a the top and bottom. If a small particle is encountered in any
minimum of 2 min.) allowed for the moisture to be squeezed surface being trimmed, it should be removed and the resulting
from them during each increment of the calibration process. void filled with soil from the trimmings.
8.3 Load and unload the consolidometer as in the test and
measure the deformation for each load applied. When filter NOTE 11—If, at any stage of the test, the specimen swells beyond its
initial height, the requirement of lateral restraint of the soil dictates the use
papers are used it is imperative that calibration be performed
of a recessed specimen or the use of a specimen ring equipped with an
following the exact loading and unloading schedule to be used. extension collar of the same inner diameter as the specimen ring. At no
This is due to the inelastic deformation characteristics of filter time should the specimen extend beyond the specimen ring or extension
paper. Recalibration for tests without filter paper need be done collar.
only on an annual basis, or after replacement and reassembly of 9.7 Determine the initial wet mass of the specimen, MTo, in
apparatus components. the consolidation ring by measuring the mass of the ring with
8.4 At each load applied, plot or tabulate the corrections to specimen and subtracting the tare mass of the ring.
be applied to the measured deformation of the test specimen. 9.8 Determine the initial height, Ho, of the specimen to the
Note that the metal disk will deform also; however, the nearest 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) by taking the average of at least
correction due to this deformation will be negligible for all but four evenly spaced measurements over the top and bottom
extremely stiff soils. If necessary, the compression of the metal surfaces of the specimen using a dial comparator or other
disk can be computed and applied to the corrections. suitable measuring device.
9. Specimen Preparation 9.9 Compute the initial volume, Vo, of the specimen to the
9.1 Reduce as much as practical any disturbance of the soil nearest 0.25 cm3 (0.015 in.3) from the diameter of the ring and
or changes in moisture and density during specimen prepara- the initial specimen height.
tion. Avoid vibration, distortion, and compression. 9.10 Obtain two or three natural water content determina-
9.2 Prepare test specimens in an environment where soil tions of the soil in accordance with Method D 2216 from
moisture change during preparation is minimized. material trimmed adjacent to the test specimen if sufficient
material is available.
NOTE 10—A high humidity environment is usually used for this 9.11 When index properties are specified by the requesting
purpose.
agency, store the remaining trimmings taken from around the
9.3 Trim the specimen and insert it into the consolidation specimen and determined to be similar material in a sealed
ring. When specimens come from undisturbed soil collected container for determination as described in Section 10.
using sample tubes, the inside diameter of the tube shall be at
least 5 mm (0.25 in.) greater than the inside diameter of the 10. Soil Index Property Determinations
consolidation ring, except as noted in 9.4 and 9.5. It is 10.1 The determination of index properties is an important
recommended that either a trimming turntable or cylindrical adjunct to but not a requirement of the consolidation test. These
cutting ring be used to cut the soil to the proper diameter. When determinations when specified by the requesting agency shall
using a trimming turntable, make a complete perimeter cut, be made on the most representative material possible. When
reducing the specimen diameter to the inside diameter of the testing uniform materials, all index tests may be performed on
consolidation ring. Carefully insert the specimen into the adjacent trimmings collected in 9.11. When samples are
consolidation ring, by the width of the cut, with a minimum of heterogeneous or trimmings are in short supply, index tests
force. Repeat until the specimen protrudes from the bottom of should be performed on material from the test specimen as
the ring. When using a cylindrical cutting ring, trim the soil to obtained in 11.6, plus representative trimmings collected in
a gentle taper in front of the cutting edge. After the taper is 9.11.
formed, advance the cutter a small distance to form the final 10.2 Specific Gravity—The specific gravity shall be deter-
diameter. Repeat the process until the specimen protrudes from mined in accordance with Test Method D 854 on material from
the ring. the sample as specified in 10.1. The specific gravity from

4
 D 2435 – 03
another sample judged to be similar to that of the test specimen 11.4 The specimen is to be subjected to increments of
may be used for calculation in 12.2.5 whenever an accurate constant total stress. The duration of each increment shall
void ratio is not needed. conform to guidelines specified in 11.5. The specific loading
10.3 Atterberg Limits—The liquid limit, plastic limit and schedule will depend on the purpose of the test, but should
plasticity index shall be determined in accordance with Test conform to the following guidelines. If the slope and shape of
Method D 4318 using material from the sample as specified in a virgin compression curve or determination of the preconsoli-
10.1. Determination of the Atterberg limits are necessary for dation pressure is required, the final pressure shall be equal to
proper material classification but are not a requirement of this or greater than four times the preconsolidation pressure. In the
test method. case of overconsolidated clays, a better evaluation of recom-
10.4 Particle Size Distribution—The particle size distribu- pression parameters may be obtained by imposing an unload-
tion shall be determined in accordance with Method D 422 reload cycle after the preconsolidation pressure has been
(except the minimum sample size requirement shall be waived) defined. Details regarding location and extent of an unload-
on a portion of the test specimen as obtained in 11.6. A particle reload cycle is the option of the agency requesting the test (see
size analysis may be helpful when visual inspection indicates 1.3), however, unloading shall always span at least two
that the specimen contains a substantial fraction of coarse decrements of pressure.
grained material but is not a requirement of this test method. 11.4.1 The standard loading schedule shall consist of a load
increment ratio (LIR) of one which is obtained by doubling the
11. Procedure pressure on the soil to obtain values of approximately 12, 25,
11.1 Preparation of the porous disks and other apparatus 50, 100, 200, etc. kPa (250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, etc.
will depend on the specimen being tested. The consolidometer lbf/ft 2).
must be assembled in such a manner as to prevent a change in 11.4.2 The standard rebound or unloading schedule should
water content of the specimen. Dry porous disks and filters be selected by halving the pressure on the soil (that is, use the
must be used with dry, highly expansive soils and may be used same increments of 11.4.1, but in reverse order). However, if
for all other soils. Damp disks may be used for partially desired, each successive load can be only one-fourth as large as
saturated soils. Saturated disks may be used when the specimen the preceding load, that is, skip a decrement.
is saturated and known to have a low affinity for water. 11.4.3 An alternative loading, unloading, or reloading
Assemble the ring with specimen, porous disks, filter disks schedule may be employed that reproduces the construction
(when needed) and consolidometer. If the specimen will not be stress changes or obtains better definition of some part of the
inundated shortly after application of the seating load (see stress deformation (compression) curve, or aids in interpreting
11.2), enclose the consolidometer in a loose fitting plastic or the field behavior of the soil.
rubber membrane to prevent change in specimen volume due to
NOTE 13—Small increments may be desirable on highly compressible
evaporation.
specimens or when it is desirable to determine the preconsolidation
NOTE 12—In order to meet the stated objectives of this test method, the pressure with more precision. It should be cautioned, however, that load
specimen must not be allowed to swell in excess of its initial height prior increment ratios less than 0.7 and load increments very close to the
to being loaded beyond its preconsolidation pressure. Detailed procedures preconsolidation pressure may preclude evaluation for the coefficient of
for the determination of one-dimensional swell or settlement potential of consolidation, cv, and the end-of-primary consolidation as discussed in
cohesive soils is covered by Test Method D 4546. Section 12.

11.2 Place the consolidometer in the loading device and 11.5 Before each pressure increment is applied, record the
apply a seating pressure of 5 kPa (100 lbf/ft2). Immediately height or change in height, df , of the specimen. Two alternative
after application of the seating load, adjust the deformation procedures are available that specify the time sequence of
indicator and record the initial zero reading, do. If necessary, readings and the required minimum load duration. Longer
add additional load to keep the specimen from swelling. durations are often required during specific load increments to
Conversely, if it is anticipated that a load of 5 kPa (100 lbf/ft2) define the slope of the characteristic straight line secondary
will cause significant consolidation of the specimen, reduce the compression portion of the deformation versus log of time
seating pressure to 2 or 3 kPa (about 50 lbf/ft2) or less. graph. For such increments, sufficient readings should be taken
11.3 If the test is performed on an intact specimen that was near the end of the pressure increment to define this straight
either saturated under field conditions or obtained below the line portion. It is not necessary to increase the duration of other
water table, inundate shortly after application of the seating pressure increments during the test.
load. As inundation and specimen wetting occur, increase the 11.5.1 Test Method A—The standard load increment dura-
load as required to prevent swelling. Record the load required tion shall be 24 h. For at least two load increments, including
to prevent swelling and the resulting deformation reading. If at least one load increment after the preconsolidation pressure
specimen inundation is to be delayed to simulate specific has been exceeded, record the height or change in height, d, at
conditions, then inundation must occur at a pressure that is time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and
sufficiently large to prevent swell. In such cases, apply the 30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h (or 0.09, 0.25, 0.49, 1, 4, 9 min
required load and inundate the specimen. Take time deforma- etc. in using 12.3.2 to present time-deformation data), mea-
tion readings during the inundation period as specified in 11.5. sured from the time of each incremental pressure application.
In such cases, note in the test report the pressure at inundation Take sufficient readings near the end of the pressure increment
and the resulting changes in height. period to verify that primary consolidation is completed. For

5
 D 2435 – 03
some soils, a period of more than 24 h may be required to reach small wedge shaped section of the specimen. The remaining
the end-of-primary consolidation (as determined in 12.3.1.1 or undried material should be used for the specified index testing.
12.3.2.3). In such cases, load increment durations greater than
24 h are required. The load increment duration for these tests 12. Calculation
is usually taken at some multiple of 24 h and should be the
12.1 Calculations as shown are based on the use of SI units.
standard duration for all load increments of the test. The
Other units are permissible, provided the appropriate conver-
decision to use a time interval greater than 24 h is usually based
sion factors are used to maintain consistency of units through-
on experience with particular types of soils. If, however, there
out the calculations. See 1.4.1 for additional comments on the
is a question as to whether a 24 h period is adequate, a record
use of inch-pound units.
of height or change in height with time should be made for the
initial load increments in order to verify the adequacy of a 24 12.2 Specimen Properties:
h period. Load increment durations other than 24 h shall be 12.2.1 Obtain the dry mass of the total specimen, Md, by
noted in the report. For pressure increments where time versus direct measurement or for the case where part of the specimen
deformation data are not required, leave the load on the is used for index testing, calculate the dry mass as follows:
specimen for the same length of time as when time versus MTf
deformation readings are taken. Md 5 1 1 w
fp
11.5.2 Test Method B—For each increment, record the
height or change in height, d, at time intervals of approximately
where:
0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h (or
MTf = moist mass of total specimen after test, g or Mg,
0.09, 0.25, 0.49, 1, 4, 9, min, etc. if using 12.3.2 to present time and
deformation data), measured from the time of each incremental wfp = water content (decimal form) wedge of specimen
pressure application. The standard load increment duration taken after test.
shall exceed the time required for completion of primary
12.2.2 Calculate the initial and final water content, in
consolidation as determined by 12.3.1.1, 12.3.2.3 or a criterion
percent, as follows:
set by the requesting agency. For each increment where it is
impossible to verify the end of primary consolidation (for MTo 2 Md
initial water content: w0 5 Md 3 100
example, low LIR or rapid consolidation), the load increment
duration shall be constant and exceed the time required for
primary consolidation of an increment applied after the pre- M Tf 2 M d
final water content: wf 5 3 100
consolidation pressure and along the virgin compression curve. Md
Where secondary compression must be evaluated, apply pres-
sures for longer periods. The report shall contain the load
where:
increment duration for each increment. Md = dry mass of specimen, g or Mg, and
NOTE 14—The suggested time intervals for recording height or change MTo = moist mass of specimen before test, g or Mg.
in height are for typical soils and load increments. It is often desirable to 12.2.3 Calculate the initial dry density of the specimen as
change the reading frequency to improve interpretation of the data. More follows:
rapid consolidation will require more frequent readings. For most soils,
primary consolidation during the first load decrements will be complete in Md
rd 5 V
less time (typically one-tenth) than would be required for a load increment o
along the virgin compression curve, however, at very low stresses the
rebound time can be longer.
where:
11.6 To minimize swell during disassembly, rebound the rd = dry density of specimen, g/cm3 or Mg/m3, and
specimen back to the seating load (5 kPa). Once height changes Vo = initial volume of specimen, cm 3 or m 3.
have ceased (usually overnight), dismantle quickly after releas- 12.2.4 Calculate the dry unit weight of the specimen as
ing the final small load on the specimen. Remove the specimen follows:
and the ring from the consolidometer and wipe any free water
g d 5 9.8 3 rd, in kN/m3
from the ring and specimen. Determine the mass of the
specimen in the ring and subtract the tare mass of the ring to
obtain the final wet specimen mass, MTf . The most accurate g d 5 62.43 3 rd, in lbf/ft3
determination of the specimen dry mass and water content is
found by drying the entire specimen at the end of the test. If the 12.2.5 Compute the volume of solids as follows:
soil sample is homogeneous and suffıcient trimmings are Md
available for the specified index testing (see 9.11), then Vs 5 Gr
w
determine the final water content, wf, in accordance with
Method D 2216 and dry mass of solids, Md, using the entire
specimen. If the soil is heterogeneous or more material is where:
required for the specified index testing, then determine the final G = specific gravity of the solids, and
rw = density of water, 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3
water content, wfp, in accordance with Method D 2216 using a

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 D 2435 – 03
12.2.6 Since the cross-sectional area of the specimen is 12.3.1 Referring to Fig. 2, plot the deformation readings, d,
constant throughout the test, it is convenient for subsequent versus the log of time (normally in minutes) for each increment
calculations to introduce the term “equivalent height of solids,” of load.
defined as follows: 12.3.1.1 First draw a straight line through the points repre-
Vs senting the final readings which exhibit a straight line trend and
Hs 5 A constant slope (C). Draw a second straight line tangent to the
steepest part of the deformation-log time curve (D). The
intersection represents the deformation, d100, and time, t100,
where:
corresponding to 100 % primary consolidation (E). Compres-
A = specimen area, cm2 or m 2.
sion in excess of the above estimated 100 % primary consoli-
12.2.7 Calculate void ratio before and after test as follows:
dation is defined as secondary compression.
Ho 2 Hs
void ratio before test: eo 5 12.3.1.2 Find the deformation representing 0 % primary
Hs
consolidation by selecting any two points that have a time ratio
of 1 to 4. The deformation at the larger of the two times should
Hf 2 Hs
void ratio after test: ef 5 be greater than 1⁄4 , but less than 1⁄2 of the total deformation for
Hs
the load increment. The deformation corresponding to 0 %
primary consolidation is equal to the deformation at the smaller
where: time, less the difference in deformation for the two selected
Ho = initial specimen height, cm or m, and times.
Hf = final specimen height, cm or m. 12.3.1.3 The deformation, d50, corresponding to 50 % pri-
12.2.8 Calculate the degree of saturation, in percent, before mary consolidation is equal to the average of the deformations
and after test as follows: corresponding to the 0 and 100 % deformations. The time, t50,
M To 2 Md required for 50 % consolidation may be found graphically from
initial degree of saturation: So 5 3 100 the deformation-log time curve by observing the time that
Arw~Ho 2 Hs!
corresponds to 50 % of the primary consolidation on the curve.
M Tf 2 M d 12.3.2 Referring to Fig. 3, plot the deformation readings, d,
final degree of saturation: Sf 5 3 100 versus the square root of time (normally in minutes) for each
Arw~Hf 2 Hs!
increment of load.
12.3 Time-Deformation Properties—From those increments 12.3.2.1 First draw a straight line through the points repre-
of load where time-deformation readings are obtained, two senting the initial readings that exhibit a straight line trend.
alternative procedures (see 12.3.1 or 12.3.2) are provided to Extrapolate the line back to t = 0 and obtain the deformation
present the data, determine the end-of-primary consolidation ordinate representing 0 % primary consolidation.
and compute the rate of consolidation. Alternatively, the 12.3.2.2 Draw a second straight line through the 0 %
requesting agency may specify a method of its choice and still ordinate so that the abscissa of this line is 1.15 times the
be in conformance with this test method. The deformation abscissa of the first straight line through the data. The inter-
readings may be presented as measured deformation, deforma- section of this second line with the deformation-square root of
tion corrected for apparatus compressibility or converted to time curve is the deformation, d90, and time, t90, corresponding
strain (see 12.4). to 90 % primary consolidation.

FIG. 1 Consolidation Test Summary

7
 D 2435 – 03
taken at the intersection of the deformation-square root of time
curve and this deformation ordinate. The deformation, d50,
corresponding to 50 % consolidation is equal to the deforma-
tion at 5⁄9 of the difference between 0 and 90 % consolidation.
12.3.3 Compute the coefficient of consolidation for each
increment of load using the following equation and values
appropriate to the chosen method of interpretation:
TH 2D50
cv 5 t

where:
T = a dimensionless time factor: for method 12.3.1 use
50 % consolidation with T = T50 = 0.197, for
method 12.3.2 use 90 % consolidation with T
= T90 = 0.848,
t = time corresponding to the particular degree of
consolidation, s or min; for method 12.3.1 use
t = t50, for method 12.3.2 use t = t90, and
HD50 = length of the drainage path at 50 % consolidation,
cm or m for double-sided drainage HD50 is half the
specimen height at the appropriate increment and
for one-sided drainage HD50is the full specimen
height.
12.4 Load-Deformation Properties:
12.4.1 Tabulate the deformation or change in deformation,
df , readings corresponding to the end of each increment and, if
FIG. 2 Time-Deformation Curve From Log of Time Method using Test Method B, corresponding to the end-of-primary
consolidation, d100.
12.4.2 Calculate the change in height, DH = d − do, relative
to the initial specimen height for each reading. If necessary,
correct the deformation for the apparatus flexibility by sub-
tracting the calibration value obtained in Section 9 from each
reading.
12.4.3 Represent the deformation results in one of the
following formats.
12.4.3.1 Calculate the void ratio as follows:
DH
e 5 eo 2 H
s

12.4.3.2 Alternatively, calculate the vertical strain, in per-

cent, as follows:
DH
e 5 H 3 100
0

12.4.4 Calculate the vertical stress as follows:

P
sv5A

where:
FIG. 3 Time-Deformation Curve From Square Root of Time P = applied load in N
Method sv = vertical stress in kPa.
12.4.5 Referring to Fig. 4, plot the deformation results (void
12.3.2.3 The deformation at 100 % consolidation is 1⁄9 more ratio or strain) corresponding to the end of each increment and,
than the difference in deformation between 0 and 90 % if using Test Method B, corresponding to the end-of-primary
consolidation. The time of primary consolidation, t100, may be consolidation versus the logarithm of the pressure.

8
 D 2435 – 03
13. Report: Test Data Sheet(s)/Form(s)
13.1 The methodology used to specify how data are re-
corded on the data sheet(s)/form(s), as given below, is covered
in 1.5.
13.2 Record as a minimum the following general informa-
tion (data):
13.2.1 Project name and location, boring number, sample
number, and depth.
13.2.2 Description and classification of the soil in accor-
dance with Practice D 2488 or Test Method D 2487 when
Atterberg limit data are available. Specific gravity of solids,
Atterberg limits and grain size distribution shall also be
reported when available plus the source of such information if
other than measurements obtained on test specimen. Also note
occurrence and approximate size of isolated large particles.
13.2.3 Soil Condition:
13.2.3.1 Average water content of trimmings,
13.2.3.2 Initial and final water content of specimen,
13.2.3.3 Initial and final dry unit weight of specimen,
13.2.3.4 Initial and final void ratio of specimen,
13.2.3.5 Initial and final degree of saturation of specimen,
and
13.2.3.6 Preconsolidation pressure.
13.2.4 Test Procedure:
FIG. 4 Evaluation for Preconsolidation Pressure From
Casagrande Method
13.2.4.1 Preparation procedure used relative to trimming;
state whether the specimen was trimmed using a trimming
turntable, trimmed using a cutting shoe, or tested directly in a
ring from a ring lined sampler.
NOTE 15—In some cases, it may be preferable to present the load-
deformation curve in arithmetic scale.
13.2.4.2 Condition of test (natural moisture or inundated,
pressure at inundation).
12.4.6 Referring to Fig. 4, determine the value of the 13.2.4.3 Method of testing (A or B).
preconsolidation pressure using the following procedure. 13.2.4.4 Test Method used to compute coefficient of con-
NOTE 16—Any other recognized method of estimating preconsolidation solidation.
pressure (see references) may also be used, provided the method is 13.2.4.5 Listing of loading increments and decrements, and
identified in the report. load increment duration, if differing from 24 h; end of
increment deformation results and, for Test Method B, end-of-
12.4.6.1 Estimate the point of maximum curvature on the
primary deformation results and coefficient of consolidation
consolidation curve (B).
(see Fig. 1).
12.4.6.2 Draw the tangent to the consolidation curve at this
13.2.4.6 All departures from the procedure outlined, includ-
point (C), and a horizontal line through the point (D), both
ing special loading sequences.
extended towards increasing values on the abscissa.
13.2.5 Graphical Presentations:
12.4.6.3 Draw the line bisecting the angle between these 13.2.5.1 Graph of deformation versus log time (see Fig. 2)
lines (E). or square root of time (see Fig. 3) for those load increments
12.4.6.4 Extend the tangent to the steep, linear portion of the where time rate readings were taken.
consolidation curve (virgin compression branch) (F) upwards 13.2.5.2 Graph of void ratio versus log of pressure curve or
to intersection with the bisector line (E). The pressure (G) percent compression versus log of pressure curve (see Fig. 4).
(abscissa) corresponding to this point of intersection is the 13.2.5.3 In cases where time rate of deformation readings
estimated preconsolidation pressure. have been taken for several load increments, prepare a graph of
12.4.7 Complete evaluation often includes consideration of the log of coefficient of consolidation versus average void ratio
information not generally available to the laboratory perform- or average percent compression for the respective load incre-
ing the test. For this reason further evaluation of the test is not ments (see Fig. 5). Alternatively, a graph of coefficient of
mandatory. Many recognized methods of evaluation are de- consolidation or log of coefficient of consolidation versus log
scribed in the literature. Some of these are discussed in the of average pressure may be used. If time rate readings were
Refs. (1) through (8).4 obtained for only two load increments, simply tabulate the
values of cvversus the average pressure for the increment.
NOTE 17—The average pressure between two load increments is chosen
4
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of because it is a convenient coordinate for plotting the result. Unless the rate
the text. of pore pressure dissipation is measured, it is not possible to determine the

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 D 2435 – 03
14. Precision and Bias
14.1 Statement of Precision—Due to the nature of the soil
materials tested by this test method it is either not feasible or
too costly at this time to produce multiple specimens which
have uniform physical properties. Any variation observed in
the data is just as likely to be due to specimen variation as to
operator or laboratory testing variation. Subcommittee D18.05
welcomes proposals that would allow for development of a
valid precision statement.
14.2 Statement of Bias—There is no acceptable reference
value for this test method, therefore, bias cannot be deter-
mined.
FIG. 5 Example of Consolidation Test Summary Plots
15. Keywords
15.1 compressibility; compression curves; consolidation;
actual effective pressure at the time of 50 % consolidation. Furthermore, consolidation coefficient; consolidation test; consolidometer;
some ambiguity may arise in cases where the test has been carried through preconsolidation pressure; primary consolidation; rebound;
one or more intermediate load-rebound cycles. secondary compression; settlement; swelling

REFERENCES

(1) Casagrande, A., “The Determination of the Pre-Consolidation Load Foundation Engineering by Leonards, G. A., ed. McGraw-Hill, New
and its Practical Significance,” Proceedings 1st ICSMFE, III, 1936, p. York, NY, 1962.
60. (6) Winterkorn, H. F. and Fang, H. Y. eds. Foundation Engineering
(2) Taylor, D. W., Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Handbook, Chapter 4, Von Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, NY,
New York, NY, 1948. 1975.
(3) Burmeister, D. M. “The Application of Controlled Test Methods in
Consolidation Testing,” ASTM STP 126, p. 83, ASTM 1951. (7) Holtz, R. D. and Kovacs, W. D. An Introduction to Geotechnical
(4) Schmertmann, J. H. “The Undisturbed Consolidation Behavior of Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
Clay” Trans. ASCE, 120, pp. 1201 through 1233, 1955. (8) Yong, R. N. and Townsend, F. C. Eds.“ Consolidation of Soils: Testing
(5) Leonards, G. A. “Engineering Properties of Soils,” Chapter 2 in and Evaluation,” ASTM STP 892, ASTM, 1986.

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

In accordance with Committee D18 policy, this section identifies the location of changes to this standard since the last edition
(2002) that may impact the use of this standard.

(1) The title was changes to reflect the multiple methods Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using
presented in the standard. Controlled-Strain Loading).
(2) The title was change by adding “Using Incremental Load-
ing” to distinguish this standard from D4186 (One-

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