SAPEM Chapter 12 Appendix 2nd Edition 2014

SOUTH AFRICAN
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL
Chapter 12
Construction Equipment and

Method Guidelines
AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

AFRICAN NATIONAL ROADS AGENCY SOC LTD
Date of Issue: October 2014
Second Edition
South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
© 2013 South African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd. All rights reserved.
First edition published 2013

Second edition published 2014
Printed in the Republic of South Africa
SET: ISBN 978-1-920611-00-2

CHAPTER: ISBN 978-1-920611-12-5
www.nra.co.za
[email protected]
SOUTH AFRICAN
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL
Chapter 12
Construction Equipment and Method

Guidelines
AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

AFRICAN NATIONAL ROADS AGENCY SOC LTD
Date of Issue: October 2014
Second Edition
BACKGROUND
1. Introduction
2. Pavement Composition and Behaviour
TESTING AND LABORATORY
3. Materials Testing
4. Standards
5. Laboratory Management
INVESTIGATION
6. Road Prism and Pavement Investigations
7. Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations
8. Material Sources
DESIGN
9. Materials Utilisation and Design
10. Pavement Design
DOCUMENTATION AND TENDERING
11. Documentation and Tendering
IMPLEMENTATION
You are
here
 12. Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
13. Acceptance Control
POST CONSTRUCTION
14. Post-Construction
SCOPE
The South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) is a reference manual for all aspects of pavement
engineering. SAPEM is a best practice guide. There are many relevant manuals and guidelines available for
pavement engineering, which SAPEM does not replace. Rather, SAPEM provides details on these references, and
where necessary, provides guidelines on their appropriate use. Where a topic is adequately covered in another
guideline, the reference is provided. SAPEM strives to provide explanations of the basic concepts and terminology
used in pavement engineering, and provides background information to the concepts and theories commonly used.
SAPEM is appropriate for use at National, Provincial and Municipal level, as well as in the Metros. SAPEM is a
valuable education and training tool, and is recommended reading for all entry level engineers, technologists and
technicians involved in the pavement engineering industry. SAPEM is also useful for practising engineers who would
like to access the latest appropriate reference guideline.
SAPEM consists of 14 chapters covering all aspects of pavement engineering. A brief description of each chapter is
given below to provide the context for this chapter, Chapter 12.
Chapter 1: Introduction discusses the application of this SAPEM manual, and the institutional responsibilities,
statutory requirements, basic principles of roads, the road design life cycle, and planning and time scheduling for
pavement engineering projects. A glossary of terms and abbreviations used in all the SAPEM chapters is included in
Appendix A. A list of the major references and guidelines for pavement engineering is given in Appendix B.
Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and Behaviour includes typical pavement structures, material
characteristics and pavement types, including both flexible and rigid pavements, and surfacings. Typical materials
and pavement behaviour are explained. The development of pavement distress, and the functional performance of
pavements are discussed. As an introduction, and background for reference with other chapters, the basic principles
of mechanics of materials and material science are outlined.
Chapter 3: Materials Testing presents the tests used for all material types used in pavement structures. The
tests are briefly described, and reference is made to the test number and where to obtain the full test method.
Where possible and applicable, interesting observations or experiences with the tests are mentioned. Chapters 3 and
4 are complementary.
Chapter 4: Standards follows the same format as Chapter 3, but discusses the standards used for the various
tests. This includes applicable limits (minimum and maximum values) for test results. Material classification systems
are given, as are guidelines on mix and materials composition.
Chapter 5: Laboratory Management covers laboratory quality management, testing personnel, test methods,
and the testing environment and equipment. Quality assurance issues, and health, safety and the environment are
also discussed.
Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement Investigation discusses all aspects of the road prism and pavement
investigations, including legal and environmental requirements, materials testing, and reporting on the investigations.
The road pavement investigations include discussions on the investigation stages, and field testing and sampling
(both intrusively and non-intrusively), and the interpretation of the pavement investigations. Chapters 6 and 7 are
complementary.
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations covers the investigations into fills, cuts,
structures and tunnels, and includes discussion on geophysical methods, drilling and probing, and stability
assessments. Guidelines for the reporting of the investigations are provided.
Chapter 8: Material Sources provides information for sourcing materials from project quarries and borrow pits,
commercial materials sources and alternative sources. The legal and environmental requirements for sourcing
materials are given. Alternative sources of potential pavement materials are discussed, including recycled pavement
materials, construction and demolition waste, slag, fly ash and mine waste.
Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design discusses materials in the roadbed, earthworks (including cuts and
fills) and all the pavement layers, including soils and gravels, crushed stones, cementitious materials, primes, stone
precoating fluids and tack coats, bituminous binders, bitumen stabilized materials, asphalt, spray seals and micro
surfacings, concrete, proprietary and certified products and block paving. The mix designs of all materials are
discussed.
Preliminary Sections
Page ii
Chapter 10: Pavement Design presents the philosophy of pavement design, methods of estimating design traffic
and the pavement design process. Methods of structural capacity estimation for flexible, rigid and concrete block
pavements are discussed.
Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering covers the different forms of contracts typical for road pavement
projects; the design, contract and tender documentation; the tender process; and the contract documentation from
the tender award to the close-out of the Works.
Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines presents construction equipment and controls,
construction process guidelines, and the construction of trial sections. The construction equipment section includes
discussion on crushing and screening plant, asphalt production plant, concrete mixing plant, bituminous binder
distributors, cementitious agent tankers, milling machines, recycling machines, paving equipment, compaction
equipment and nuclear testing apparatus. The construction process guidelines cover roadbed preparation,
compaction of soils and gravels, cementitious stabilization, bitumen stabilization, modification of materials, cold
recycling, crushed stone base, waterbound macadam base, surfacing seals, asphalt, concrete and block pavements,
and proprietary products. Guidelines for the construction of trial sections for almost all layer types are also given.
Chapters 12 and 13 are complementary, with Chapter 12 covering the proactive components of road construction,
i.e., the method of construction. Chapter 13 covers the reactive components, i.e., checking the construction is done
correctly.
Chapter 13: Quality Management includes acceptance control processes, and quality plans. All the pavement
layers and the road prism are discussed. The documentation involved in quality management is also discussed, and
where applicable, provided.
Chapter 14: Post-Construction incorporates the monitoring of pavements during the service life, the causes and
mechanisms of distress, and the concepts of maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
FEEDBACK
SAPEM is a “living document”. The first edition was made available in electronic format in January 2013, and a
second edition in October 2014. Feedback from all interested parties in industry is appreciated, as this will keep
SAPEM relevant.
To provide feedback on SAPEM, please email [email protected].
Page iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This compilation of this manual was funded by the South African National Road Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). The
project was coordinated on behalf of SANRAL by Kobus van der Walt and Steph Bredenhann. Professor Kim Jenkins,
the SANRAL Chair in Pavement Engineering at Stellenbosch University, was the project manager. The Cement and
Concrete Institute (C&CI) and Rubicon Solutions provided administrative support.
The following people contributed to the compilation of Chapter 12:

 Task Group Leader: Joe Grobler, SMEC South Africa
 Dave Collings, UCD Technologies/Loudon International
 Theuns Lewis, SNA Civil and Structural Engineers
 Bryan Perrie, The Concrete Institute
 Dennis Rossmann, SANRAL
 Arthur Taute, SMEC South Africa
 Gerrie van Zyl, MyCube Asset Management
This SAPEM manual was edited by Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions.
Photos for this chapter were provided by:

 Dave Collings, UCD Technologies/Loudon International
 Joe Grobler and the team from SMEC South Africa
 Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions
 Dr Phil Paige-Green, Tshwane University of Technology
 Bryan Perrie, The Concrete Institute
 Dennis Rossmann, SANRAL
 Corné Roux, SANRAL
 Gerrie van Zyl, MyCube Asset Management
Page iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Construction Equipment and Controls ............................................................................................... 2
2.1 Crushing and Screening ........................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Types of Crushers ......................................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Screening and Washing Operation .................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Combined Crushing and Screening ................................................................................. 6
2.1.4 Stockpiling and Loading ................................................................................................ 7
2.1.5 Sampling and Testing ................................................................................................... 9
2.1.6 Crushing Problem Solving ............................................................................................ 10
2.2 Asphalt Production Plants ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Types of Production Plants .......................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Processes and Equipment for Batch and Drum Mixers .................................................... 13
2.2.3 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 16
2.2.4 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Concrete Mixing Plant ............................................................................................................ 19
2.3.2 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Bituminous Binder Distributors ............................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Distributor Components............................................................................................... 20
2.4.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Cementitious Agent Tankers .................................................................................................. 26
2.6 Milling Machines ................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Types of Milling Machines ............................................................................................ 28
2.6.2 Features of Milling Machines ........................................................................................ 29
2.6.3 Milling Operation ........................................................................................................ 34
2.6.4 Production ................................................................................................................. 36
2.6.5 Reuse of Asphalt Millings ............................................................................................. 38
2.6.6 Practicalities ............................................................................................................... 40
2.7 Recycling Machines ............................................................................................................... 40
2.7.1 Types of Recycling Machines ....................................................................................... 42
2.7.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 48
2.8 Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Machines ........................................................................................... 50
2.8.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 54
2.9 Concrete Paving Equipment ................................................................................................... 56
2.9.1 Placing Equipment ...................................................................................................... 56
2.9.2 Pavers ....................................................................................................................... 56
2.9.3 Vibrators and Compactors ........................................................................................... 58
2.9.4 Dowel Bar Inserters .................................................................................................... 58
2.9.5 Screeding and Finishing Devices .................................................................................. 58
2.9.6 Tining and Brushing .................................................................................................... 59
2.10 Compaction Equipment .......................................................................................................... 62
2.10.1 Type of Rollers ........................................................................................................... 62
2.10.2 Selection of Compaction Equipment.............................................................................. 64
3. Construction Process Guidelines...................................................................................................... 68
3.1 Roadbed Preparation ............................................................................................................. 68
3.1.1 Minimum Preparation .................................................................................................. 68
3.1.2 Special Preparation ..................................................................................................... 68
3.2 Fills ..................................................................................................................................... 71
3.2.1 Earth Fills................................................................................................................... 71
3.2.2 Rock Fills ................................................................................................................... 72
3.2.3 Roadbed Preparation for Fills ....................................................................................... 73
3.2.4 Drainage of Fills ......................................................................................................... 73
Page v
3.2.5 Side Slopes ................................................................................................................ 74

3.3 Compaction of Soils, Gravels and Sands .................................................................................. 74
3.3.1 Soil Type ................................................................................................................... 75
3.3.2 Moisture Condition ...................................................................................................... 76
3.3.3 Compactive Effort ....................................................................................................... 77
3.3.4 Compaction of Cohesionless Sands ............................................................................... 78
3.4 Cementitious Stabilization ...................................................................................................... 78
3.4.1 Types of Cements ....................................................................................................... 78
3.4.2 Process Control .......................................................................................................... 79
3.4.3 Safety Measures ......................................................................................................... 83
3.5 Bitumen Stabilization ............................................................................................................. 83
3.6 Modification of Materials ........................................................................................................ 84
3.6.1 Natural Modification .................................................................................................... 84
3.6.2 Chemical Modification ................................................................................................. 84
3.7 Cold Recycling ...................................................................................................................... 84
3.7.1 Types of Cold Recycling .............................................................................................. 85
3.7.2 Process Control .......................................................................................................... 85
3.8 Crushed Stone Base .............................................................................................................. 88
3.8.1 Process Control .......................................................................................................... 88
3.8.2 Waterbound Macadam Base ........................................................................................ 96
3.9 Primes and Tack Coats .......................................................................................................... 97
3.9.1 Prime Coats ............................................................................................................... 98
3.9.2 Tack Coats ................................................................................................................. 99
3.9.3 Environmental Issues ................................................................................................ 100
3.10 Surfacing Seals ................................................................................................................... 100
3.10.1 Seal Types ............................................................................................................... 101
3.10.2 Safety...................................................................................................................... 101
3.10.3 Environment ............................................................................................................ 102
3.10.4 Traffic Accommodation.............................................................................................. 102
3.10.5 Design Alterations and Application ............................................................................. 102
3.10.6 Surface Preparation Checks ....................................................................................... 102
3.10.7 Weather Conditions .................................................................................................. 102
3.10.8 Process Control ........................................................................................................ 103
3.11 Hot Mix Asphalt .................................................................................................................. 115
3.11.1 Process Control ........................................................................................................ 116
3.12 Concrete Pavements ........................................................................................................... 119
3.12.1 Subbase Construction ............................................................................................... 119
3.12.2 Formwork ................................................................................................................ 119
3.12.3 Guide Wires or Stringlines ......................................................................................... 121
3.12.4 Working with Concrete .............................................................................................. 122
3.12.5 Compaction .............................................................................................................. 124
3.12.6 Steel ....................................................................................................................... 124
3.12.7 Joints ...................................................................................................................... 125
3.12.8 Finishing .................................................................................................................. 127
3.12.9 Texturing ................................................................................................................. 128
3.12.10 Curing ................................................................................................................. 128
3.12.11 Joint Sealing ........................................................................................................ 128
3.13 Block Paving ....................................................................................................................... 129
3.13.1 Paving Blocks ........................................................................................................... 130
3.13.2 Laying Patterns ........................................................................................................ 130
3.13.3 Edge Restraint .......................................................................................................... 132
3.13.4 Joint Filling Material .................................................................................................. 132
3.13.5 Bedding Sand Layer .................................................................................................. 132
3.14 Proprietary Products ............................................................................................................ 133
4. Trial Sections .................................................................................................................................. 134
4.1 Asphalt Pavement Layers ..................................................................................................... 134
4.2 Stone Seals ........................................................................................................................ 139
4.2.1 Binder Application Rate ............................................................................................. 139
4.2.2 Aggregate Spread Rate ............................................................................................. 139
4.3 Crushed Stone Layers.......................................................................................................... 142
4.4 Cementitious Stabilized Layers ............................................................................................. 144
Page vi
4.5 Bitumen Stabilized Materials ................................................................................................ 146

4.6 Concrete Pavements ........................................................................................................... 150
4.7 Block Pavements ................................................................................................................. 152
5. Production Rates ............................................................................................................................ 153
References and Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 154
Page vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Asphalt Mix Problem Solving ....................................................................................................... 18
Table 2. Spraying Problem Solving ........................................................................................................... 25
Table 3. Production Adjustment Factor ..................................................................................................... 36
Table 4. Production Example for Small Milling Machine ............................................................................... 37
Table 5. Production Example for Large Milling Machine .............................................................................. 38
Table 6. Recycler Problem Solving ............................................................................................................ 49
Table 7. HMA Paving Problem Solving....................................................................................................... 55
Table 8. Selection of Compaction Equipment ............................................................................................. 65
Table 9. Prime Checklist ......................................................................................................................... 100
Table 10. Compaction Factors................................................................................................................... 116
Table 11. Asphalt Paving Trial Section Checklist ......................................................................................... 136
Table 12. Stone Seals Trial Section Checklist .............................................................................................. 140
Table 13. Crushed Stone Base: Checklist for Site Operations ...................................................................... 143
Table 14. Chemical Stabilization: Checklist for Site Operations .................................................................... 145
Table 15. In Situ Recycling with BSM: Checklist .......................................................................................... 147
Table 16. In Situ Recycling: Foamed Bitumen Checklist .............................................................................. 148
Table 17. In Situ Recycling: Bitumen Emulsion Checklist ............................................................................. 148
Table 18. In Plant Treatment: Foamed Bitumen Checklist .......................................................................... 149
Table 19. Concrete Paving Trial Checklist ................................................................................................... 151
Table 20. Block Paving Trial Checklist ........................................................................................................ 152
Table 21. Typical Production Rates............................................................................................................ 153
Page viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Crushing Operation ...................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2. Jaw Crusher ................................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 3. Cross Section Through a Horizontal Impact Crusher ........................................................................ 3
Figure 4. Schematic Diagram of Cone Crusher .............................................................................................. 4
Figure 5. Aggregate Screens ....................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 6. Screw Classifiers .......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 7. Cyclone Crusher Plant .................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 8. Mobile Jaw & Cone Crusher with Screens ....................................................................................... 6
Figure 9. Mobile Crushing and Screening Plant ............................................................................................. 7
Figure 10. Aggregate Stockpiles .................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 11. Sampling from Stockpile ............................................................................................................... 9
Figure 12. Belt Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 13. Batch Plant Layout ..................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 14. Drum Plant Layout ..................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 15. Parallel-flow Drum Mixer ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 16. Counter–flow Drum Mixer ........................................................................................................... 13
Figure 17. Flow Bath Plant Drier ................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 18. Aggregate Bins .......................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 19. Cold Feed Bins with Conveyer ..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 20. Bitumen Binder Storage Tanks .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 21. Hot Mix Storage Bins .................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 22. Tilting Drum Mixer ..................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 23. Binder Distributor ....................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 24. Spray Bar .................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 25. Spray Nozzles ............................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 26. Spray Bar Height Test ................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 27. Bucket/”Bakkie” Test .................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 28. Streaky Sprays (Tram Lining) ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 29. Cementitious Agent Tanker ......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 30. Canvas Mat Test ........................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 31. Example of Milling Machine ......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 32. Small Milling Machine ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 33. Large Milling Machine ................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 34. Milling Drum .............................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 35. Spacing of Cutting Tools ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 36. Cutting Tools ............................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 37. Scraper Blades on Milling Machine (shown in red) ......................................................................... 32
Figure 38. Conveyer Belt for Milling Machine ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 39. Control Systems on Milling Drum ................................................................................................. 33
Figure 40. Milling Drums ............................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 41. Grading Curves Showing Effects of Increasing Cut Depth and Advance Speed ................................. 39
Figure 42. Recycling Machine Pulverising, Mixing and Placing ........................................................................ 41
Figure 43. Example Tyre Mounted Recycler Showing Recycling Wheel Paths ................................................... 42
Figure 44. Cutters on a Tyre Mounted Recycler ............................................................................................ 43
Figure 45. Example of a Track Mounted Recycler .......................................................................................... 44
Figure 46. Standard Milling Drum Fitted to a Large Machine .......................................................................... 44
Figure 47. Recycling Machine Fitted with On-Board Mixing Unit ..................................................................... 46
Figure 48. HMA Paver ................................................................................................................................ 50
Figure 49. Hopper ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 50. Screed on Asphalt Paver ............................................................................................................. 52
Figure 51. Concrete Placing Equipment ........................................................................................................ 56
Figure 52. Fixed Form Paver ....................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 53. Slipform Paver ........................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 54. Vibrators ................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 55. Dowel Bar Inserters ................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 56. Surcharge in Front of Beam ........................................................................................................ 59
Figure 57. Methods of Initial Finishing ......................................................................................................... 60
Figure 58. Tining ....................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 59. Burlap Drag ............................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 60. Vibrator Trails ............................................................................................................................ 61
Page ix
Figure 61. Single Wheel Padfoot Roller ........................................................................................................ 63

Figure 62. Double Drum Rollers .................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 63. Three Wheel Rollers ................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 64. Pneumatic Rollers ...................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 65. Impact Roller ............................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 66. Rock Fill .................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 67. Erosion of Dispersive Soil Type .................................................................................................... 71
Figure 68. Earth Fill ................................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 69. Rock Embankment ..................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 70. Removal of Stormwater by a Large Culvert ................................................................................... 74
Figure 71. Side Slope Erosion due to Inadequate Compaction ........................................................................ 74
Figure 72. Moisture Content versus Density Curve to Determine OMC ............................................................ 76
Figure 73. Bag Placement and Spreading ..................................................................................................... 80
Figure 74. Example of Incorrect Spreading of Cement Prior to Stabilization ..................................................... 80
Figure 75. Dumping and Spreading of Crushed Stone ................................................................................... 89
Figure 76. Segregated Material in Stockpile .................................................................................................. 90
Figure 77. Suitable Stockpile with No Sign of Segregation ............................................................................. 90
Figure 78. Mixing Crushed Stone ................................................................................................................. 91
Figure 79. Compacting Crushed Stone ......................................................................................................... 92
Figure 80. Segregated Material ................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 81. Well-knitted Crushed Stone Surface ............................................................................................. 94
Figure 82. Glass Plate Test ........................................................................................................................ 103
Figure 83. Fish Plate Position ..................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 84. Transverse Distribution Bakkie/Bucket Test ................................................................................. 106
Figure 85. Flair Interference Due to Wrong Angle Settings ........................................................................... 106
Figure 86. Effect of Poor Nozzle Alignment.................................................................................................. 106
Figure 87. Poor Transverse Distribution due to Incorrect Bar Height .............................................................. 107
Figure 88. Adjusting Spray Bar to Correct Height ......................................................................................... 107
Figure 89. Poor Distribution Due to Low Bar Pressure .................................................................................. 108
Figure 90. Binder Not Fully Covered by Aggregate ....................................................................................... 108
Figure 91. Target Matrix by Hand Packing................................................................................................... 109
Figure 92. Measurement of Aggregate Spread Rate ..................................................................................... 109
Figure 93. Z-Type Drag Broom .................................................................................................................. 111
Figure 94. Slurry Placed By Hand ............................................................................................................... 112
Figure 95. Slurry Spreader Box .................................................................................................................. 112
Figure 96. Slurry Setting as Emulsion Breaks ............................................................................................... 113
Figure 97. Levelling Beam for Level Control ................................................................................................ 117
Figure 98. Side Forms ............................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 99. Keyway Strip ............................................................................................................................ 120
Figure 100. Setting of Forms ....................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 101. Stringlines ................................................................................................................................ 121
Figure 102. Strike-off Beam......................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 103. Installation of Dowel Bars .......................................................................................................... 125
Figure 104. Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................... 126
Figure 105. Vertical Interface between Asphalt and Concrete Pavements......................................................... 127
Figure 106. Common Laying Patterns of Paving Blocks .................................................................................. 131
Figure 107. Excessive Openings in an Area Paved with Type S-C Blocks .......................................................... 131
Page x
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with typical construction plant used in road building, including aspects of the equipment that need
to be checked during construction to ensure a good finished product. The construction processes, and related
control factors to ensure quality, are also discussed.
The discussion focuses on typical generic equipment that is widely used at the date of publication of this document.
It is meant for general information, rather than as a manual on how to use specific equipment. The intention is not
to replace any specification and related requirements, but to assist practitioners to expand their knowledge and
ensure that specified requirements are met.
The chapter is divided into three sections:

 Construction equipment and controls
 Construction process guidelines
 Trial sections
The appendix contains all the checklists included in the chapter, and a few extras, in a ready to print format.
Standard Specifications
Note that when this chapter was written and updated,
the 1998 version of the COLTO Standard Specifications
was being used. However, these specifications are
currently being reviewed. A revised version of the
Standard Specifications is likely to be published in 2015
and is likely to be issued either by SANS or COTO.
In this chapter, reference is only made to the Standard

Specifications, which currently refers to the 1998
COLTO version.
Section 1: Introduction
Page 1
2. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS

The section provides useful information, tips and checklists on construction equipment in general use, to ensure the
equipment operates correctly and effectively. The information is intended to supplement the plant manufacturers’
guidelines that are not always available on site, and to assist in identifying and solving problems.
2.1 Crushing and Screening

A crushing plant is used to crush rock or gravel to produce material broken down to specific sizes and shapes to be
used in granular layers, concrete, asphalt and surfacing seals. Normally a set of screens accompany the crushing
plant to enable the stone sizes to be separated into the various fractions and gradings required for different material
types. A typical crushing and screening plant is shown in Figure 1. Crushing is also discussed in Chapter 8: 3.2.2
and Chapter 9: 5.3 with respect to the utilisation of materials.
There are 3 stages in most crushing operations:

 Primary crushing, which is generally the first stage in any crushing operation. Mass reduction in rock fragment
size takes place during this stage.
 Secondary crushing, during which the size of the crushed rock is reduced to the required size.
 Tertiary crushing, during which the shape of the aggregate is improved.
Figure 1. Crushing Operation
2.1.1 Types of Crushers

The following 3 main types of crushers are used to process solid rock masses into usable aggregate sizes, for all
three stages of crushing:
 Jaw crusher
 Impact crusher
Aggregate Shapes Produced
 Cone crusher
 Jaw crushers produce elongated shaped aggregates.
2.1.1.1 Jaw Crusher  Impact crushers produce cubical shaped aggregates.
The jaw crusher is used to crush most rock 
Cone crushers produce elongated shaped aggregates.
fragments into smaller sizes, which are then
crushed in other types of crushers. It is not cost The elongation of the particles can be reduced by good
effective to crush very hard rock with a jaw operating processes.
crusher. In simple terms, the crusher operates
like a human jaw. These crushers have a high volume throughput and generally produce an average quality shaped
aggregate, which tends to be elongated. This crusher type is sensitive to the maximum size of the rock to be
crushed.
The crusher consists of a fixed jaw plate and a moving jaw plate that is coupled to an eccentric shaft. The moving
jaw plate moves up and down through the rotation of the eccentric shaft, resulting in the opening size between the
fixed and moving jaw plate continuously changing. This action results in the rock fragments being crushed in the
crushing chamber to a smaller size, and discharged through the outlet at the bottom of the crusher. This process is
schematically illustrated in Figure 2.
Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Page 2
Fixed Jaw
Schematic Cross-section
Figure 2. Jaw Crusher
2.1.1.2 Impact Crusher

The impact crusher is used to process high volumes of raw aggregate that are close to the final size. This type of
crusher utilises impact energy to crush the aggregate. The crusher generally produces a cubical shaped aggregate.
There are two different types of impact crushers; vertical and horizontal impacters, depending on whether the rotor
is vertical or horizontal.
 In the vertical impacter, the material is fed from the top of the machine and centrifugal forces cause the
material to thrust outwards. The aggregate particles crush against each other. This process is also known as
attrition crushing.
 In the horizontal impacter, illustrated in Figure 3, the material is fed from the front of the machine. The
horizontal shaft with blow bars rotates at a speed, which reduces the size of the aggregate, with a further
reduction in the aggregate size through particle collision.
Blow bars
Figure 3. Cross Section Through a Horizontal Impact Crusher
2.1.1.3 Cone Crusher

The cone crusher relies on cone shaped liners in the machine to reduce the size of the aggregate. The aggregate is
crushed between the working surfaces of the fixed and moving cones. This type of crusher is more advanced and
efficient than the jaw crusher.
The crusher, shown in Figure 4, consists of a cone shaped bowl liner that crushes the aggregate against the mantel
liner. The mantel liner has a pre-set closed side gap setting, to control the size of the aggregate produced. The
head of the shaft is positioned eccentrically from the vertical plane, which results in one face being against the
mantel at all times, while the aggregate is fed from above. As the cone shaped bowl liner moves to the mantel liner,
the aggregate is crushed. As the bowl liner moves away from the mantel liner, the aggregate is discharged from the
outlet.

Page 3
Mantel Liner
Bowl Liner
Figure 4. Schematic Diagram of Cone Crusher
2.1.2 Screening and Washing Operation

Screening of the crushed aggregate is an essential part of the production process of graded crushed stone, to ensure
a quality product is obtained.
From the primary crusher, the crushed rock material is normally transported to a screen that removes the minus
50 mm fraction. The oversized material is returned to the crusher for re-crushing. The screen vibrates for the
particles to move upward and forward, which greatly increases the output rate. The crushed material moves down
the screen on a covered screen deck, with screen mesh of a desired aperture. A screening plant can have as many
as three different screen decks to extract three different aggregate sizes. An example of a set of screens is shown in
Figure 5.
Horizontal and Inclined Vibrating Screens Double Deck Screens
Figure 5. Aggregate Screens

Screening efficiency depends on how well the materials are fed onto the screen, and how quickly it passes over the
screen mesh. When the material feeding process is inadequate, pegging and blinding reduce the effectiveness of the
screen, which is reflected in the grading achieved.
 Pegging occurs when aggregate becomes stuck in the woven mesh due to slow movement of the particles.
 Blinding occurs when too many moist fines stick together and clog the screens.

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If the crushed material has a high dust content, washing of the aggregate is required to remove any inherent dust
clinging to the particles. Special screens are used to wash the aggregate in its final stages.
Classifiers are also used to separate different particle sizes in the crushed material. This is a wet process where the
material is drenched with pressurised water. The classifier creates an upward flow enabling the lighter finer particles
to be extracted at the top. The heavier coarser particles move to the lowest end for extraction. The wet finer
particles (sand) need to be de-watered by allowing it to drain freely, or is processed through a de-watering plant.
Another example of a classifier is based on an inclined Archimedean Screw device, as illustrated in Figure 6. The
material is forced upward by the screw, while being washed. The screw has a gap setting, allowing coarser particles
to move up and out for re-processing.
Figure 6. Screw Classifiers
A cyclone can also be used to wash the aggregate. In a cyclone, shown in Figure 7, the material is subjected to
centrifugal forces to remove the water.
Figure 7. Cyclone Crusher Plant

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2.1.3 Combined Crushing and Screening

Combined mobile crushing and screening plants have the capacity to crush, screen and recycle material. They are,
unfortunately, not as accurate in screening as a fixed plant, but provide high production rates. The process is
illustrated in the schematic diagram and photograph of a mobile crusher in Figure 8.
Triple
Feeder Box Deck
Jaw Crusher Screens
Cone Crusher
Figure 8. Mobile Jaw & Cone Crusher with Screens

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Secondary
Crusher Jaw
Crusher
Screening
Plant
Figure 9. Mobile Crushing and Screening Plant
2.1.4 Stockpiling and Loading

Typical aggregate stockpiles are shown in Figure 10. When stockpiling and loading aggregates, the following
guidelines should be followed:
 Choose an area for stockpiles where material is close to where it will be used, but not exposed to excessive
dust.
 Clear the area to ensure that no debris, grass, mud or dirt contaminates the aggregate.
 Provide a hard clean platform, by compacting the in situ material.
 Slope the area slightly to allow for drainage.
 Keep access roads to stockpiles clean, so that equipment such as front-end loaders do not track dirt into the
stockpile.
 Provide ample separation between stockpiles or bays to avoid intermingling.
 If slight segregation occurred during transporting aggregate to site, remix before stockpiling.
 Use signboards to clearly identify aggregate product to assist in loading correct materials for various
applications, such as concrete.
 Build up stockpiles in layers, and do not over-tip, i.e., avoid aggregate rolling down long slopes and
segregating.
 Mixing and correct stockpiling for base materials is essential to ensure a homogenous product. The crushed
aggregate should be offloaded on the stockpile and shaped in layers. The base of the stockpile should be large
enough to prevent new material being dumped on the stockpile too close to the edge of the stockpile. If material
is dumped and falls beyond the edge of the stockpile, it segregates and the coarse material accumulates along
the perimeter at the bottom of the stockpile.
 The loading shall be done with a front end loader. The material shall be loaded from the bottom upwards to
ensure that the different material layers in the stockpile are sampled to ensure remixing of the material and to
minimizing segregation. During loading there should be no undercutting of the stockpiles platforms, which
leads to contamination of the material with the underlying soil.

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Building
the
Stockpile in
Horizontal
Layers
Completed
Stockpiles
Labelled
Stockpiles
Figure 10. Aggregate Stockpiles

Page 8
2.1.5 Sampling and Testing

To ensure that the aggregate in the stockpiles or bins is within specification, the laboratory should take and test
representative samples. The relevant specification for aggregate compliance determines the tests required. The
sample size is affected by the aggregate type and the number of tests to be conducted. SANS method 825 describes
sampling methods to give a reasonable probability that the sample obtained is representative of the lot sampled.
Sampling is done from either a stockpile or conveyor belt. The following guidelines should be followed:
 From Stockpiles. Take at least ten increments from different parts of the stockpile, working from the base of
the stockpile upwards, as shown in Figure 11. Avoid sampling in segregated areas, or from the surface of the
stockpile.
 From Belts. Stop the conveyor and remove a one meter length of aggregate along the length of the belt using
the special apparatus shown in Figure 12.
Representative sample taken from bottom of the Collect representative samples from dumped
bigger stockpile with a front-end loader. material.
Figure 11. Sampling from Stockpile
Figure 12. Belt Sampling
Some of the most common laboratory tests carried out on crushed aggregate are listed below. Many of these tests,
and the associated standards, are discussed in Chapter 3: 3 and Chapter 4: 3.
 10% Fines aggregate crushing value (10% FACT)
 Aggregate crushing value (ACV)
 Alkali aggregate (silica) reaction (ASR)
 Average least dimension (ALD)

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 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

 Clay particle indicator using the Methylene Blue test
 Shrinkage of aggregates (SABS SM 836: Effect of fine and coarse aggregate on the shrinkage and expansion of
cement: aggregate mixes (mortar prism method))
 Dust content, i.e., the percent passing the 0.075 mm fraction
 Fines modules (FM)
 Flakiness index (FI)
 Gradings, i.e., the particle size distribution
 Grading modulus (GM), calculated from the gradings
 Linear shrinkage (LS)
 Liquid limits (LL)
 Organic impurities. Important as it can lead to retardation of setting time and staining of concrete.
 Plasticity Index (PI)
 Polished stone value (PSV)
 Presence of sulphates and sulphides, which can lead to expansion and efflorescence, resulting in reduced density
of the concrete.
 Soundness, i.e., chemical durability
 Voids content, determined by the shape of material and grading
 Water absorption (WA)
All aggregates are tested for compliance with either the SANS specifications, the Standard Specifications or
contractual specifications.
2.1.6 Crushing Problem Solving

Crushing is a robust operation, and is generally done by the aggregate producer. Therefore, problem solving is not
discussed in this chapter.
2.2 Asphalt Production Plants

Asphalt production plants are used to mix hot aggregates and hot bituminous binders, to provide a homogeneous hot
asphalt mix. There are two main types of plant facilities in use in South Africa for producing hot mix asphalt (HMA)
paving mixtures: batch plants and drum plants. In each type of facility, the aggregates are proportioned according
to the requirements of the mix formula, dried and heated, and then mixed with the required asphalt binder. With
both types of facilities, fine aggregate can be supplemented, liquid additives can be added, and reclaimed asphalt
(RA) can substitute a portion of the aggregate fractions to make recycled mixes.
2.2.1 Types of Production Plants
2.2.1.1 Batch Plants

Batch plant mixers involve conveying hot aggregate, heated in a rotating drum heater, and piping hot binder into a
mixer, which mixes the two through the rotating action of a number of steel blades. These mixers were developed in
the early 1900s and many are still in use today in South Africa. A typical batch plant layout is shown in Figure 13.
In the batch plant process, individual aggregates are proportioned from the cold feed bins onto a single collector
belt, and sent to the dryer to be dried and heated through a hot gas stream. The dried and heated aggregates flow
into a bucket elevator and are carried to the top of the batch tower. From there, it is deposited onto multiple screen
decks, which separate the aggregate into different sizes and direct the fractionated aggregate into hot bins. The
screens in the tower determine the size of the aggregates in the hot bins, and how the blended aggregate mixture is
fractionated and readied for proportioning according to the specified asphalt mixture. The mixture is made by
weighing the fractionated aggregates stored in the hot bins with an accumulative aggregate weigh hopper,
positioned below the hot bins. Each predetermined material fraction is individually weighed in the aggregate weigh
hopper, until the entire batch is weighed.

Page 10
Figure 13. Batch Plant Layout
In a separate action, the bitumen binder is weighed in a weighing device, typically called a bitumen weigh bucket or
bitumen scale.
After the aggregate and the binder are weighed, the aggregates are dropped into the pugmill mixer and blended
together, in what is called a dry-mix cycle. This 2 to 5 second cycle blends the aggregates thoroughly, before the
bitumen binder is added. When the dry-mix cycle is completed, the bitumen is dropped into the mixer and the wet-
mix cycle starts. The wet-mix cycle lasts between 25 and 45 seconds. The cycle time is determined by the time
required to produce a homogenous, well-coated mix. The uniform coating of large aggregate mixes typically takes
longer than fine aggregate mixes. The time is usually determined subjectively by visual inspection.
Batch plants were originally designed to accept a combined crushed aggregate product and sand. The screens at the
top of the batch tower were used to separate the aggregate into the individual fractions so that different mixes could
be produced. Currently, mixes can also be produced utilising different percentages of sized aggregates, at ratios
blended directly through the individual (single sized) cold feed bins. This eliminates some of the requirements of a
batch tower. Therefore, in modern batch plant production, the aggregate proportions for the specified mixtures are
usually first established/calibrated for the cold feed bins in order to obtain the target aggregate proportions for the
mixture, just like a drum-mix plant. The determined ratios of the individual hot bins then become the proportions
used to manufacture the final mix (job mix formula) with the batching plant.
2.2.1.2 Drum Mixers

In drum mixers, the aggregate heating drum is combined with a bitumen inlet, so it also acts as a mixer. These
mixers consist of a large rotating drum, provided with a burner at the one end to heat aggregates loaded into the
drum at that end. Bitumen is pumped into the drum nearer the other end, away from the burner, to avoid burning
the binder. Mixing occurs from where the bitumen enters the drum, until the mix is poured out of the end of the
drum. These mixers were introduced during the 1970s and are generally the more popular mixers in use today. An
example is shown in Figure 14.
Drum Mixers
Drum mixers are generally
the more popular mixers in
use today.

Page 11
Binder Storage Hot Mix Storage
Baghouse Filter
Aggregate bins
Drum Mixer
Figure 14. Drum Plant Layout
The continuous flow of a drum mix plant requires the availability of very uniform stockpiled aggregate materials that
meet the specifications when proportioned, without rescreening. The individual aggregate materials are proportioned
directly from the cold feed bins to the final proportioning of the asphalt mix (job mix formula). The materials are
then sent to the drum to be dried and heated. If reclaimed asphalt is introduced into the mix, measures must be
taken to ensure that it is not brought into contact with the burner. En route to the drum, the blended aggregate
passes over a belt scale, which is a continuous-weighing device. The plant's control system uses the reading from the
belt scale to calculate the bitumen and other additives required.
The first drum mixers were parallel-flow dryers, meaning that the aggregate and the process gas flow in the same
direction, illustrated in Figure 15. The wet aggregates at ambient temperature are introduced to the entrance and
high end of the dryer drum where the burner is located, and the aggregate is dried as it moves away and down from
the burner. The binder is introduced near the exit and cooler part of the drum, just prior to discharge of the mix.
Drum mixers have evolved since this early parallel-flow configuration. Recent mixers include several different types
of continuous processing, such as counter flow mixers (Figure 16), dryers with a separate continuous mixer, and
dryers with continuous mixers fitted together in two concentric barrels (double–barrel mixer). The counter–flow
dryer also contains a mixing zone. Aggregate flow is still from high to low or right to left as shown in Figure 16. The
burner is inserted further into the drum to provide a mixing area behind the flame. In a flow bath plant drier, shown
in Figure 17, aggregate enters the uphill end of the dryer or on the right. Moisture is driven off and the aggregate
temperature increases. Note the direction of aggregate versus gas stream.
The driving force behind the latest designs is the desire to create a drum-mix facility that is more environmentally
friendly. By introducing the binder outside of the main gas stream used to dry and heat the aggregate, the
hydrocarbon particles released are smaller, reducing air pollution and reducing premature ageing of the binder during
the batching process.

Page 12
Figure 15. Parallel-flow Drum Mixer
Figure 16. Counter–flow Drum Mixer
Figure 17. Flow Bath Plant Drier
2.2.2 Processes and Equipment for Batch and Drum Mixers

The main differences between the two types of mixers are their proportioning and mixing styles. Most other
processes and equipment are common to both types of plant and are summarised below.
2.2.2.1 Aggregate Stockpiling

Aggregates delivered to plant sites are stockpiled on site and then fed into the cold feed bins with a front end loader,
illustrated in Figure 18 and Figure 19. The different aggregate sizes are separated by spacers or dividers, before
being loaded into the cold feed bins.
When cold feed bins are changed, care should be taken to prevent contamination of the aggregate with underlying
materials, and to prevent segregation or grading changes.

Page 13
Stockpiles should preferably be located on smooth, well drained concrete surfaces, and be covered with roofs to
avoid major changes in moisture content when it rains. Changes in moisture content are catered for by longer
heating times, to drive off the moisture.
2.2.2.2 Aggregate Cold Feed Bins

Aggregate cold feed bins, illustrated in Figure 18 and Figure 19, are similar for both batch and drum mix plants. The
same style of conveyors is used to transfer the material from the cold feed bins to the drying drum. These
conveyors have variable speed motors located below the cold feed bins, to regulate the flow of materials to the
drying drum. These variable speed belts are consistent and repeatable, and therefore easy to calibrate. The ton per
hour output is determined for different belt speeds, and the required speed setting is calculated for a given mix and
production rate. Gate openings should be proportional to the amount of aggregate added, to ensure uniform loading
of the belt. This process is usually computerized.
2.2.2.3 Aggregate Drier Unit

The aggregate drier unit ensures the consistent temperature of the produced mix. The drier unit is a long mixing
drum, which is inclined and rotates. Driers have a burner and fan fitted at entrance end of the drum to create a hot
gas stream through the drum that dries and heats the aggregate. Inside the drum are steel flights or lifters that pick
up and drop the aggregate into the hot gas stream as the drum rotates. This is known as parallel-flow type mixing.
Figure 18. Aggregate Bins
Figure 19. Cold Feed Bins with Conveyer

Page 14
2.2.2.4 Dust Collection Equipment

The gas velocity in an aggregate dryer is quite significant, and removes the fine aggregate fractions from the dried
aggregate mixture. Dust collectors are installed on hot mix plants primarily to collect the dust for environmental
reasons. Captured dust is often reused, depending on the type of equipment installed at the plant.
There are two stages of dust collection on plant systems:

 Primary collectors gather the larger dust particles.
 Secondary collectors, such as wet washers or fabric filter collectors (baghouses), gather the smaller particles.
The collected dust can either be returned to the mix-production process or removed from the system. If the dust is
returned, it is essential to ensure that it is reintroduced volumetrically through a calibrated feeder valve.
Alternatively, it can be weighted back into the production process.
2.2.2.5 Bituminous Binder Storage Tanks

Bituminous binders are generally stored in insulated and heated tanks located next to the other equipment in the
facility. The tanks are kept heated to maintain the binder at the proper mixing temperature. An example of binder
storage tanks is shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20. Bitumen Binder Storage Tanks
The pipes that transfer the binder to the mixing unit must be insulated, and surrounded with an outer pipe or
“jacket”, containing hot oil, to keep the binder at the correct temperature throughout the entire process.
2.2.2.6 Hot Mix Storage Silo

Storage silos for the asphalt mix allow the plant to run continuously, whether or not trucks are available to load the
mix. The silos are either surge or storage type:
 Surge silos are typically not insulated and are open topped bins.
 Storage silos are fully enclosed and are heavily insulated, an example of which is given in Figure 21. They
generally have heated cones and some have sidewall heating mechanisms. Storage silos thus allow additional
storage times for mixes, without significant heat loss or oxidation of the mix.

Page 15
Figure 21. Hot Mix Storage Bins
2.2.3 Equipment Control Measures

It is essential that quality control measures are exercised at an asphalt production plant.
2.2.3.1 Aggregate Stockpiles

The following measures for aggregate stockpiles should be followed:
 The surface under the stockpile area should be solid, to prevent contamination of the aggregates with
underlying materials during the loading operation of the aggregates into the aggregate cold feed bins.
 Moisture drastically affects the production of the plant, as the mix temperature fluctuates if the moisture
content of the aggregate changes. The aggregate stockpiles should therefore be kept dry by covering the
stockpiles with roofs or plastic sheets during rainy weather. It is common practice to provide roofing over the
stockpiles at many plant facilities overseas. A sloped, smooth, well-drained surface under the stockpile area, also
greatly helps to control the moisture content.
 The different aggregate sizes should be kept separate by space, or by dividers to prevent mixing of the
different sizes.
 Segregation is a major concern in stockpile management at a hot mix asphalt plant. Care should be taken
when aggregates are dropped from a significant height, such as from a stacked conveyer, or if the aggregates
are allowed to flow down the face of a stockpile.
 Haul trucks or stockpiling equipment should not be allowed to drive over, or to work on, the stockpile. This
could cause breaking down of some aggregates, resulting in a grading change.
2.2.3.2 Aggregate Cold Feed Bins

The following quality control measures should be observed for aggregate cold feed bins:
 The calibrated output of the conveyor belt feeders must be checked periodically for maximum mix
accuracy. Changes to the speed and output occur because of build-up inside the feed bins or fatigue of the
motor/drive unit.
 The outlet of the cold feed bins should be checked for blockages, which reduce the quantity of aggregate
from the composite blend going into the drier.
 Dry aggregates in the bins make the whole operation more predictable, and less energy intensive.

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2.2.3.3 Aggregate Drier Unit

The drier drum is responsible for producing a mix with a constant
temperature. Retention time of the aggregate in the drier drum is Identifying Problems in the
varied by changing the incline of the drum. The steel flights can be Drier Unit
configured for different materials, to ensure maximum heat transfer The drying effectiveness of the unit
into the aggregate. should be monitored during production,
by recording the surface temperature
The drying effectiveness of the unit should be monitored during along the length of the drier shell using
production, by recording the surface temperature along the length of an infrared temperature gun. The
the drier shell using an infrared temperature gun. The temperature recorded temperature reading should be
readings taken at regular intervals along the drier drum should be plotted at regular intervals along the
recorded and plotted. The temperature plot should increase drier drum. The temperature plot should
uniformly along the length of the drier shell, to confirm that the drier increase uniformly along the length of
is working properly. Hot and cold spots along the length of the drier the drier shell, to confirm that the drier
indicate where problems, such as worn flights, are located inside the is working properly. Hot and cold spots
drier. along the length of the drier indicate
where problems, such as worn flights,
If the temperature reduces significantly (more than 25 to 30 C), are located inside the drier.
between drying the aggregate and loading the mix into the truck, the
aggregate is either not completely dry, or not heated all the way through. Mixes with a high percentage of large
aggregate, often require elevated drier exit temperatures to compensate for the longer time it takes for the colder
centre of the stone to heat stabilize. A temperature drop may also indicate that the stone is not completely dry.
When significant temperature drops are encountered, moisture retention tests are needed. If no moisture is present,
the uncoated stone can be overheated to compensate for the eventual temperature drop.
2.2.3.4 Dust Collection Equipment

It is essential that if dust is returned to the plant process, the dust return must be constant.
The baghouse cleaning and dust return must stop when the drier stops. This prevents large quantities of dust
transferring to the mixing area when the aggregate feed stops.
Large and rapid increases in production rate should be avoided. It takes time for the dust to be collected on the
bags, cleaned off the bags and returned to the mixing area. A mix produced during a large and rapid increase in
production will be short in fines, and thus have high voids. A mix produced
during a large and rapid decrease in production will have the opposite
result.
Binder Temperatures
2.2.3.5 Bituminous Binder Storage Silos The binder storage temperature
The storage temperature should be monitored regularly to ensure that the should be monitored regularly and
binder is kept at the proper temperature. Binder temperature affects should be maintained throughout
pumping and metering efficiency, and coating of the aggregate. It is the production process.
essential that the binder temperature is maintained throughout the
production process.
The heating elements on the silo walls should not be hotter than the mix temperature, as this may damage the mix
by overheating at the point of contact. Excessively high temperatures cause the asphalt binder to build up and
harden around the heating elements. Excessively high temperatures
can also prematurely age the binder.
2.2.3.6 Hot Mix Storage Tanks Asphalt Mix Production

As with the binder storage tanks, if the sidewalls of the hot mix storage A successful asphalt mix production
tanks are heated, the heating elements on the silo walls must not be set requires a diligent approach to both
at higher temperatures than the mix. This damages the mix by the calibration process and the daily
overheating it at the point of contact, and may also cause build up on operational best practices. A mix
the silo walls. The build-up ultimately acts as an insulator, reducing the must have an accurate and consistent
long term storage capability of the silo. aggregate grading, binder content
and temperature. The entire
production process should run
2.2.4 Problem Solving
smoothly and consistently, as starts
A successful asphalt mix production requires a diligent approach to both and stops affect the quality of the mix
the calibration process and the daily operational best practices. A mix produced.

Page 17
must have an accurate and consistent aggregate grading, binder content and temperature. The entire production
process should run smoothly and consistently as starts and stops affect the quality of the mix produced. A problem
solving guide for drum and batch mix plant production is provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Asphalt Mix Problem Solving

Problem Possible Cause
Grading Shift:  Cold feed bin flow restriction or change.
Aggregates  Cold feed bin calibration shift.
 Grading change in feed aggregates.
 Improper loader management on stockpiled material.
Grading Shift:  Drastic change in production rate (low to high), takes time for baghouse fines to catch up to the cold
Coarser on feed change. Over-drafting the dryer causes less fines in the mix, due to a more open damper,
0.075 mm relative to the previous or typical production rate, together with wasting or only partial return of
baghouse fines.
sieves
 Baghouse dust return or mineral filler additive malfunction, causing reduced baghouse dust return or
mineral filler additive.
 Grading change in feed aggregates (see above).
Grading Shift:  Drastic change in production rate (high to low) takes time for baghouse fines to catch up to cold
Finer on feed change. Under-drafting the dryer results in more fines in mix from a less open damper, relative
0.075 mm Sieve to previous or typical production rate, together with wasted or partially returned baghouse fines.
 Baghouse dust return or mineral-filler additive malfunction, causing increased baghouse dust return
or excess mineral additive.
Voids in Mix  Dust-return or dust-additive malfunction (see above).
(VIM): Low  Production-rate change, high to low with immediate sampling.
 Lack of draft in dryer, resulting in retained fines in dryer or primary baghouse.
 Binder content high (see below).
 Specific gravity change in aggregates.
Voids in Mix:  Dust-return or dust-additive malfunction (see above).
High  Production rate change (low to high with immediate sampling).
 Over-drafting dryer, more fines to baghouse versus in dryer, and wasted or partially used baghouse
fines.
 Grading change feed aggregates (see above).
 Binder content low (see below).
 Specific gravity change in aggregates.
Binder Content:  Calibration of belt scale: reading high.
High  Binding belt scale: reading high.
 Wind effect on belt scale: reading high.
 Calibration of binder meter: reading low.
 Improper moisture setting: too low.
 Incorrect binder weight or litres entry with litres meter: too low.
 Inadequate drying of aggregate, drying efficiency low.
 Mixing flights inadequate, mix not homogenous.
Binder Content:  Calibration of belt scale: reading low.
Low  Binding belt scale: reading low.
 Wind effect on belt scale: reading low.
 Calibration of binder meter: reading high.
 Improper moisture setting: too high.
 Incorrect binder weight or litres entry with litre meter: too high.
 Mixing flights inadequate, mix not homogenous.
Binder Content:  Malfunction in flow-control mechanism: difficulty in regulating, mechanical issue typically.
Varies  Improper moisture settings: not changing entry with moisture changes.
 Inadequate drying of aggregate: drying efficiency varies and ignition oven binder test method
removes water in addition to binder.
 Inaccurate binder weight or litre entry with litre meter: not changing entry with binder changes.
 Mixing flights inadequate: not tall enough, caked, need different design.
Inadequate  Asphalt content low: not enough asphalt binder.
Coating  Binder injection point too close to discharge: inadequate mixing time.
 Mixing flights inadequate: not tall enough, caked, needs different design.
 Temperature of liquid-asphalt binder too low.
 Insufficient moisture in aggregate.
Temperature  Worn dryer flights: incapable of drying aggregates sufficiently at all production rates.
Fluctuations  Moisture fluctuations in feed aggregates: burner or dryer cannot rapidly adjust to rapidly adjusting
moisture variations.
 Excessive storage time: mix cooling off from extended storage.
 Mix thermocouple malfunctioning or not reading correctly.
 Mix thermocouple covered with material and/or not properly positioned in material stream.

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2.3 Concrete Mixing Plant

Concrete mixing plants are used to manufacture wet concrete by mixing sand, gravel, cement, water and other
materials. The mix is either centrally mixed or truck mixed. There are various types of central mixing plants in use
such as pan mixers, split drum mixers and tilting drum mixers, illustrated in Figure 22. The mixing technique is the
same for all three mixers, the differences are in the transferal of the mix to the truck. Selecting the one to use is
typically based on equipment availability.
Figure 22. Tilting Drum Mixer
One of the key aspects of modern concrete road paving practice is to

mix continuously during construction of the layer. It is, therefore,
important that the overall concrete operations from batching to final
Readymix Concrete
completion of the concrete layer are optimised and balanced.
Nowadays, most concrete
It is of utmost importance that adequate quality control measures are construction is done using readymix
implemented, to ensure that the end product conforms to the concrete, which is brought to site in
specifications. trucks. Concrete is, therefore, not
typically mixed on site.
The following need to be considered, to achieve continuity of mixing and paving:
 Masses of aggregates are within 3% of required amounts, and systems are checked to ensure this.
 Cement weighing is accurate to at least 2%, and is checked using a known mass.
 Water volume measurements are within 2%. This is checked daily by filling a container of known volume.
 Admixture delivery systems are capable of ensuring that the mass is within 2% of the required amount.
 There is no leakage of water, mortar, cement or admixtures at the plant.
 The flutes and tines in the mixer meet the manufacturer’s specifications.
 Segregation does not occur at any point in the movement of concrete from the mixer to the transporter.

The equipment for mixing concrete is robust. The essential part of mixing is using the correct mix proportions.
Stiffening of concrete begins as soon as the cement and water are mixed, and increases with time. Under normal
conditions, the degree of stiffening that occurs in the first 30 minutes is not significant. However, high temperatures
can accelerate stiffening, and concrete must be kept cool during hot weather.
Concretes with a low water/cement ratio tend to stiffen more quickly than those with higher water/cement ratios. If
concrete stiffens to the extent that it cannot be placed or adequately compacted, workability can often be restored
by remixing. This should not be done if the concrete is more than two hours old.

Page 19
Concrete should be designed to have a workability which allows it to be fully compacted by the paving plant. If
allowed to dry out during transportation or placing, the concrete loses workability and full compaction may not be
possible. Where drying out is a problem, richer, more workable mixes can be used.
Segregation occurs when unsuitable vehicles are used to transport or place the concrete. Jolting and vibration of
transport vehicles should be minimized to avoid segregation.
2.4 Bituminous Binder Distributors

Bituminous binder distributors are used to transport the bituminous binder from the refinery or the supplier, to the
construction site and to spray the binder at a specified application rate during priming, tack and sealing operations.
A typical binder distributor is shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23. Binder Distributor
The binder distributor consists of a number of components that each need to be in a good working order, to ensure
the required application rate is consistent and uniform.
2.4.1 Distributor Components

The distributor components for a conventional binder distributor are listed below.
(i) Vehicle
The vehicle should be in a roadworthy condition at all times. It should have sufficient power to accelerate fast
enough from a standing start, with the tank filled to capacity, to reach and maintain the speed required to apply the
specified application rate.
(ii) Binder Tank

The tank is constructed or mounted on the vehicle in such a way that it can be completely emptied when the
distributor is standing on level ground. The tank is normally covered with suitable non-combustible insulation, of
adequate thickness to ensure the temperature drop of a full load of binder at a temperature of 150 °C does not
exceed 10 °C in any one hour, without circulating and heating the product.
The tank must be fitted with sufficient heating flues, symmetrically arranged to heat the contents of the tank using
adjustable burners.
Two suitable thermometers are fitted to the tank, one which can be read from the cab of the vehicle and the other
that is read at the back of the vehicle. These thermometers provide an accurate indication of the temperature of the
binder as it is circulated prior to, and during, spray operations.
A manhole with a readily removable cover is mounted on top of the tank. The safety aspects related to opening this
cover and inspecting the tank contents must be complied with at all times, to avoid fume inhalation and burns.

Page 20
The tank is fitted with a gimbal and dipstick guide to maintain the dipstick in a vertical position. The dipstick is
constructed in the form of a T-piece, which is the fixed reference point for the dipstick readings. Dipstick readings
may also be affected by foam in the guide when bitumen emulsions are used. In this case, the foam can be settled
by decanting about 100 ml of paraffin down the guide before the dipstick is inserted. The formation of froth on
bitumen emulsions can be considerably reduced if the outlet of the pipe discharging into the tank is as near the
bottom of the tank as possible.
(iii) Pump and Pipe Work

The pump fitted on the distributor is a positive displacement gear pump, which means that the quantity of
bituminous binder delivered is directly proportional to the speed of the pump. The pump is driven by an independent
engine, or by power taken from the gearbox of the vehicle. The manufacturer supplies charts to determine the
discharge in litres per minute for each nozzle size, as well as the speeds required for various application rates.
Corrections for temperature-viscosity variations are also included. Distributors must be equipped with a high
pressure pump when non-homogeneous binders, such as bitumen-rubber are used, because of the higher viscosity.
(iv) Spray Bar

The spray bar, illustrated in Figure 24 is one of the most important parts of the distributor. The required quantity of
binder must be sprayed through the spray nozzles to ensure that the bituminous binder is spread uniformly on the
road surface. The spray bar and related binder delivery pipe work are designed to minimize pressure loss over the
length of the spray bar, and to ensure that an equal quantity of binder is delivered through each of the nozzles.
Figure 24. Spray Bar

The prescribed nozzles for a particular job must be used to ensure even transverse and longitudinal spreading of the
binder. Typical nozzles range from small nozzles to spray prime coats and diluted emulsions, to medium nozzles for
conventional and polymer modified binders, to large nozzles for more viscous modified binders, such as bitumen
rubber.
The spray bar has a height adjustment mechanism to set the height to deliver an exact overlap pattern of the nozzle
sprays.

It is essential that the following control measures be implemented on site before the tanker is allowed to commence
with the spray operations.
2.4.2.1 Calibration Certificate

Each distributor should have a credible and valid Calibration Certificate, not more than 12 months old. This provides
confidence that the binder distributor is operative and capable of delivering the required application rate, within the
prescribed tolerances.
The Calibration Certificate, as well as the calibration parameters such as road speed and pump output, must be
available for inspection purposes, and to assess the extent to which site tests are carried out.

Page 21
2.4.2.2 Nozzles
The spray nozzles are shown in Figure 25. All the nozzles must be checked to ensure that they are all the same size
and type. The site staff should inspect all nozzles for blockages or wear and tear, and also visually check the angles
of the nozzles relative to the spray bar for uniformity.
Figure 25. Spray Nozzles
2.4.2.3 Spray Bar Height

The site staff should carry out a simple test to ensure the proper height setting of the spray bar. This involves
closing off the second and third, fifth and sixth, eighth and ninth, etc., nozzles and using the centre section of the
bar only, as illustrated in Figure 26. The distributor is then operated at the correct pump speed or pressure with the
spray bar height changed not more than 20 mm at a time to produce a single film of binder on the surface with no
overlaps and no gaps between the strips. At that point, an exact triple overlap is produced when all nozzles are
opened. For best results, the height of the spray bar above the surface to be sprayed should not vary by more than
15 mm. Hence, the site staff must check the measures put in place to limit the height variation as the tank empties.
The height of the spray bar should be checked after each run and any necessary adjustment made.
Nozzle: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X X X X X X
Correct
spray bar
height
No overlap,
no gap
Figure 26. Spray Bar Height Test
2.4.2.4 Transverse Distribution Test (Bucket or “Bakkie” Test)

This standard test determines conformance of the transverse distribution of the spray bar. The test is done by
placing buckets below the nozzles, as illustrated in Figure 27. Binder is directly discharged from sets of 3 nozzles
into the buckets. The buckets are weighed and should contain the same weight of binder. It is important that the
project binder and applicable pump parameters are used. The test is often carried out at the depot, where
equipment is readily available to clean and weigh the buckets and site staff can attend the test. It can, however,
also be done on site. This test is discussed in more detail in Section 3.10.8.1 with surfacing seals.

Page 22
Figure 27. Bucket/”Bakkie” Test
2.4.2.5 Road Speed Indicator Test

This test is used to check the distributor speed indicator, to confirm it is within the specified tolerance. The speed
indicator may be of any suitable kind, such as a fifth wheel or radar, but should be calibrated as follows:
 Drive the distributor over a 150 metre test section of road with a 50 metre acceleration run-up. Drive at a
series of uniform speeds from 60 m/min to 300 m/min at increments of 60 m/min.
 Time each run using an accurate stopwatch. Calculate the actual speed from the stopwatch readings.
 Plot a graph showing indicated road speeds against actual road speeds.
 Any trends in respect of speed differentials should be detected and assessed for rectification by the
distributor owner. The difference between the actual speed and the speed reading from the speed indicator may
not be more than ± 5 percent.
2.4.2.6 Repeat Visits

The next time the equipment and operator arrive on site, the site staff need to assess whether any problems
occurred during the previous check assessment, and whether the equipment could have deteriorated or been
modified since its last visit to site. Based on this, selected checks should be carried out again to re-assess whether a
suitable product can be delivered. Binder distributors are required to keep all records of tests on the vehicle for
examination by site staff.
2.4.2.7 Longitudinal Joints

Longitudinal joints between different spray runs always present difficulties. The width of the spray bar should be
adjusted so that a minimum number of longitudinal joints are required. The spray pattern leaves a 100 to 150 mm
wide edge with less binder, which must be overlapped with the following pass of the distributor, to provide the
correct application rate and a neat and tidy joint. Much depends, however, on the skill of the distributor driver in
achieving a proper overlap.
2.4.2.8 Trial Section

Before construction of surfacing commences, the distributor owner should demonstrate that the binder distributor
has sufficient power to maintain the required constant speed up the steepest incline to be sprayed, and to obtain a
uniform distribution of binder. This is done by spraying a trial section of 700 m2, or at least 500 litres, of the specified
binder, on-site, on the steepest incline.
The optimal spray bar height should be adjusted accordingly before each spray.
2.4.2.9 Spray Rate

It is essential that the spray rate is as accurate as possible. To ensure an accurate spray rate, take note of the
following:
 To obtain the required spray rate, adjust the pump output to the recommended setting for the appropriate
spray bar length, and determine the necessary road speed from the chart supplied. If the required spray rate is
obtained, keep to the same settings, road speed and binder temperature for further work with the same binder
type.

Page 23
 The pump output calibration is carried out using a special oil with a viscosity that approximates a 150/200
penetration bitumen at spraying temperature. In practice, therefore, the pump output at a certain setting may
vary with changes in binder type and temperatures, and even with the same type of binder received from
different suppliers.
 If the required spray rate is not obtained using the recommended settings, and there is an area that can be
used to test the actual spray rate, then the road speed can be adjusted as follows:
 Note the settings for pump and road speed, as well as the temperature of the binder, for at least two short
trial runs. Road speed errors due to operator inefficiency can be checked by stopwatch. Plot the actual spray
rate against the road speed on the chart and draw a new line parallel to the calibration line. From this new
line, determine the corrected road speed for the particular binder type and temperature.
 Repeat the above as required, for any change in binder type.
 Alternatively, use a stopwatch and the “bakkie” test to measure the output rate and adjust the speed
accordingly. Note, however, that this only delivers a small quantity of binder and may require refinement
using the above trial run procedure.
 For a consistent spray rate, the three variables are controlled:
 Road speed: dependant on operator efficiency
 Pump output: affected by changes in viscosity
 Viscosity: affected by changes in temperature
 By keeping the temperature and the setting for pump output constant for any particular binder, only the road
speed should be adjusted. The operator efficiency can easily be checked by stopwatch.
 The spray rate should be confirmed at the end of each run. This is done by taking a dipstick reading from the
tanker parked on level ground and calculating the spray rate as a function of the bitumen applied and the surface
area sprayed.

If a distributor functions satisfactorily for a time and then starts giving problems with the spray rate, the cause
should be identified immediately. Typical problems experienced with spray rates, and possible causes, are shown in
Table 2. Further discussion, with particular application to surfacing seals, is included in Section 3.10.8.1.

Page 24
Table 2. Spraying Problem Solving

Problem Possible Cause
High spray rates  Pump output too high. Check setting of pump output against spray bar length.
 Binder temperature may be too high resulting in lower viscosity and thus
higher throughput. Check thermometer.
 Relief valve pressure may be too high, i.e., too much pressure in the system.
 Blocked filter screen on return system.
 Road speed may be too slow. Check against stopwatch.
 Check all tachometers and pressure gauges for faults (e.g., do they return to
the zero setting?)
Low spray rates  Pump output too low. Check setting of pump output against spray bar length.
 Binder temperature may be too low resulting in higher viscosity, and thus lower
throughput. Check the thermometer.
 Relief valve setting may be too low. Too little pressure in the system, and the
binder returns to the tank.
 Road speed may be too high. Check against stopwatch.
 Pump may be worn out. Check output against stopwatch using a “bakkie” test,
or any other method of measuring output rate.
 Check all tachometers and pressure gauges for faults (e.g., do they return to
the zero setting?).
Streaky sprays  Nozzle partially or completely blocked.
(tram lining),
illustrated in Figure 28
 Spray bar too high or low above the surface of the road, i.e., not at the correct
height for the triple overlap of nozzle spays.
 Nozzles not set at the correct angle to the spray bar. This is normally 32° for
slotted nozzles.
 Leakage on the suction side of the pump, resulting in air being pumped into
the system.
 Spray rate too low for adequate transverse distribution.
 Temperature of binder too low, i.e., binder viscosity too high.
Erratic spray rates  Belt drive or clutch between the auxiliary engine and the pump may be slipping.
 Faulty dipstick reading. This happens if the guide is a narrow pipe and the
dipstick is inserted too rapidly. The binder in the pipe will rise and a number of
check dips may give different results. Bring the contents of the tank to rest and
insert the dipstick slowly.
Figure 28. Streaky Sprays (Tram Lining)

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2.5 Cementitious Agent Tankers

Bulk spreading of cementitious stabilizers is done with tankers fitted
with spray bars, as illustrated in Figure 29, although this is seldom used
in South Africa. The tanker works on the principle that air is pumped
Spreading Cement
into the tank causing the stabilizer to become like a liquid. The
stabilizer is then pumped out under pressure through the spray bar. Spreading cement through a tanker is
seldom done in South Africa.
Generally cement is spread by placing
bags on the road and spreading by
hand. See Section 3.4.2.2.
Figure 29. Cementitious Agent Tanker
The spray bar normally distributes the stabilizing agent over a width between 2.1 and 2.8 metres. The amount of
stabilizing agent distributed on the road is controlled by adjusting the air pressure in the tank and the speed of the
tanker. It is essential that the stabilizer be spread carefully and uniformly over the area to be treated. The
uniformity obtained during the spreading operation affects the amount of mixing necessary, and possibly also the
standard of mixing finally achieved.

It is essential that the following control measures be implemented before, and during, bulk spreading of cementitious
materials.
2.5.1.1 Stabilizer Quantity

Before bulk spreading takes place, the required mass of stabilizer per square metre and the length of road which can
be covered by the particular load are calculated. The minimum quantities of stabilizers that can be efficiently mixed
with a grader are:
 Cement: 2.0 percent by mass
 Lime: 1.0 percent by mass (lower because lime has a lower specific gravity than cement)
2.5.1.2 Marking
The length of the road to be covered by the load of stabilizer must be clearly marked. A true line at the material
layer edges should be maintained with a string line.
2.5.1.3 Pipe Spreader Width

The width of the pipe spreader, and/or the number of spray runs, must be determined so the full width of the section
can be covered with three or four passes and with minimum overlap or gaps occurring between the strips of
stabilizer. The stabilizer is discharged close to the road through several short lengths of pipes. The pressure and
truck speed can be adjusted to ensure accurate distribution of the stabilizer.

Page 26
2.5.1.4 Wind
Bulk spreading of cementitious material agent should not be carried out in strong windy conditions, as this leads to
poor distribution and contamination of the environment.
Wind action, created by fast moving vehicles adjacent to the section being treated, should be taken care of by
enforcing speed restrictions until the stabilizer is mixed into the material.
2.5.1.5 Stabilizer Density

If a blend of two stabilizers is used, e.g., lime and milled blast furnace slag, the denser of the two should be sprayed
first. Mixing should take place only after both stabilizers have been spread.
2.5.1.6 Spread Rate

The spread rate should be checked to confirm the consignment of stabilizer covered the required length of the
section, without a shortfall or surplus. The following two methods can be used to check the correctness of the
spread rate of the stabilizer:
 Canvas Mat Test. This test, illustrated in Figure 30, is carried out by placing a canvas mat of 1 square metre in
the spreading path and measuring the mass of stabilizer deposited, as detailed in Equation 1. The spread rates
measured is recorded and checked against the allowable deviation from the specified spread rate (± 10%). The
correct mass of stabilizer should be replaced on the road once the mat has been removed.
Figure 30. Canvas Mat Test
(1)
where M = Mass on the canvas

L = Length of canvas, in m
W = Width of canvas, in m
T = Thickness of compacted layer, in mm
D = Density of soil, in kg/m³
P = Percentage stabilizer (e.g., for 3%, P = 3)
 Ordinary Calculation. A secondary check on the spread rate is that the consignment of stabilizer should cover
the required length of road without a shortfall or surplus. It is most important that this length be calculated
correctly, and that this requirement is met.
2.6 Milling Machines

The term “milling machine” is used in the road construction industry to describe a purpose-built machine that
removes (“mills off”) asphalt from an existing pavement. These machines can also mill non-asphalt materials, such
as thin layers of concrete, or thick layers of crushed stone base material.

Page 27
The heart of these machines is the “milling drum” that is equipped with many individual cutting tools. The rotating
drum is lowered to the required depth in an existing pavement and the machine then advances along the road with
the drum rotating (normally) upwards relative to the direction of advance. As the machine moves forward, the
material within the milling horizon is broken up and windrowed to the centre. From there it is either lifted onto a
conveyor belt that feeds an attendant tipper truck moving at the same speed as the milling machine (see Figure 31),
or remains on the milled road surface, usually as a windrow (thereby facilitating pick up).
Figure 31. Example of Milling Machine
Milling machines are used extensively to maintain and rehabilitate existing pavements, where the upper layers
consist of asphalt. Milling machines work at ambient temperatures and are used in all climatic conditions, including
wet weather. Milling machines should not be confused with hot recyclers, known in the industry as “remixers”, which
recover asphalt from an existing pavement after it has been pre-heated.
2.6.1 Types of Milling Machines

A wide range of types and sizes of milling machines are available,
each with its own specific capabilities. Different machines are suited Milling Machine
to the various types of milling work undertaken. Machine size, width The term “milling machine” is used in
of cut, cut depth and the required production output are the primary the road construction industry to
considerations. Milling machines are classified into two basic groups: describe a purpose-built machine that
 Small machines: maximum cut width of 1000 mm removes (“mills off”) asphalt from an
 Large machines: cut width in excess of 1000 mm existing pavement.
The appropriate machine for a specific job is dependent on the type of work to be undertaken, and the conditions
prevailing on site. This is influenced mainly by the size of the project, i.e., amount of milling undertaken, the time
scale, and the number of obstructions that will be encountered. Traffic accommodation and lane closure
requirements also influence the decision.
2.6.1.1 Small Machines

These are relatively small, compact machines that are highly manoeuvrable. The majority of these models have the
milling drum mounted at the rear of the machine, between the rear wheels, as shown in Figure 32. Larger models in
this class are often fitted with tracks for improved stability.
Small machines have numerous application possibilities, including:

 Localised rut removal
 “Dig outs” for wheel path patching
 Milling around obstacles, such as circular manhole covers
 Cutting transverse joints
 Edge tapers
 Industrial applications, where the work is usually both confined and restricted. Most of this type of work
involves the repair of concrete floors.

Page 28
Figure 32. Small Milling Machine
The configuration of the drum and right rear wheel allows these machines to “flush cut” up against kerbs and other
obstacles. These machines are often used for production milling on smaller jobs, and as a secondary milling machine
on larger sites, thereby allowing the larger milling machines to concentrate on production.
In addition to standard milling drums, several different types of drum can be fitted to these machines for various
applications. For example:
 Narrow drums, < 500 mm wide, are fitted to cut channels in the asphalt for trench excavations.
 Drums with special tool configurations are used on smaller machines to remove road markings.
 Large diameter cutting wheels or saw blades, 20 mm to 80 mm wide, can be fitted for the installation of loops
and cables.
Small machines, with a cut width more than 500 mm, are capable of cutting to depths of up to 300 mm. Machines
with a maximum cut width of less than 500 mm are relatively light, and are limited to a maximum cut depth of 100
mm. Most models are, or can be, fitted with a conveyor at the rear of the machine for loading the milled asphalt
onto a truck, as shown in Figure 32. The truck reverses to keep pace with the milling machine. The larger models in
this class are equipped with a front-loading conveyor for increased production.
2.6.1.2 Large Milling Machines

Large, heavy milling machines, equipped with milling drums that have a cut width in excess of 1000 mm, ranging up
to a 2200 mm on standard machines, and up to 4000 mm for specialised (full lane width) applications. All machines
with a cut width in excess of 1300 mm are track mounted and the milling drum is fitted in the centre of the machine,
between the front and rear tracks, as shown in Figure 33. This architecture puts the full weight of the machine on
the milling drum, allowing deep lifts of asphalt (up to 350 mm) to be removed in a single pass.
These machines are used for production milling, where large areas of existing asphalt are removed, typically on
major roads and airport projects. The amount of reclaimed asphalt (RA) removed per working hour is dependent on
the size of machine deployed, the quality (hardness) of asphalt, and the efficiency of the site. Larger machines are
capable of removing in excess of 250 tons/hour. This makes them ideal tools for runway and highway work when
the working window is limited to a few hours, usually at night. See Section 2.6.4 for estimating the production.
2.6.2 Features of Milling Machines

The following sections describe the main features of milling machines. These are not exhaustive and cover only
those aspects that are of primary importance when considering the use of these machines on a specific project.
2.6.2.1 Milling Drum

The milling drum is the most important part of a milling machine, since it does the work of breaking down
(pulverising) the material encountered in the recycling horizon. Milling drums are manufactured from special steel, in
a process that ensures trueness and balance. As shown in Figure 34, cutting tools are attached to the drum in a
helical pattern to promote material movement towards the centre where it is lifted onto a discharge conveyor by
“lifters” (the plates that can be seen on the middle of the drum).

Page 29
Figure 33. Large Milling Machine
Figure 34. Milling Drum
Milling drums generally rotate upwards relative to the direction of advance, as shown in Figure 34. The speed of
rotation varies, normally between 100 and 200 rpm, to suit the hardness of material encountered, the depth of cut
and the speed of advance, which are all important features for prolonging the life of the cutting tools.
The milling drum rotates within an enclosed chamber manufactured from abrasion-resistant steel. To cool the
cutting tools and reduce dust emission, a fine spray of water is injected into the chamber through a multiple-nozzle
spray bar attached to the front face of the chamber. The water is stored in a tank on the machine.
The standard milling drum is equipped with cutting tools attached at regular intervals to achieve a spacing of
15 mm between the cut made by each tool, as shown in Figure 35.
Figure 35. Spacing of Cutting Tools

Page 30
Different drums, with variations in the number of tools, are used for different milling applications, classified by the
different cut spacing achieved:
 > 15 mm for removing thick lifts of asphalt in a single pass, known as the “Eco cutter”.
 8 mm for fine milling, normally followed by the application of a thin surfacing layer, often a slurry.
 4 mm for micro milling or texturing, normally followed by the application of a fog spray.
2.6.2.2 Cutting Tools

Cutting tools, also known as point-attack tools or picks, are precision
tools manufactured from expensive materials. As shown Figure 36a, References
the body of the tool is forged steel with a tungsten carbide tip, which The following is a valuable reference
does the cutting. Equally important is the base of the tool, which is for milling:
fitted with a pre-tensioned sleeve that slides into the tool holder Manual for the Application of Cold
mounted on the drum. The sleeve allows the tool to rotate within the Milling Machines. Wirtgen. 2004.
holder, thereby allowing the tool to wear symmetrically, as shown in
Figure 36c.
(a) Structure of Cutting Tool (b) Asymmetrical Wear of Cutting Tool
(c) Symmetrical Wear of Cutting Tool
Figure 36. Cutting Tools
If the tool is prevented from rotating, wear concentrates on one side only and the life of the tool is drastically
reduced. The wear pattern shown in Figure 36b develops rapidly, within a few revolutions of the drum. If not
detected early, the tool will be ground away, exposing the tool holder to
rapid deterioration and, eventually, the tool holder mounting and the drum
itself are damaged. Regular checks on the condition of the cutting tools are,
therefore, one of the most important procedures on a milling job. Cutting Tool
Regular checks on the condition
Several types of tool holders are available, ranging from simple inexpensive of the cutting tools are one of
weld-on types to complex “quick-change” models that bolt on to mountings the most important procedures
positioned on the drum. Since it is the angle-of-attack that is largely on a milling job.

Page 31
responsible for rotating the tool within the holder, precise positioning of the tool holder is critical to ensure longevity
of the tools.
Cutting tools are expensive items. The cost of one standard all-purpose milling tool is around R30 at 2010 prices.
Special-purpose tools, e.g., abrasion-resistant tools, cost more. Cutting tools, therefore, play a major role in the cost
of milling, and all facets of the operation influencing tool wear need constant attention. In addition to tool wear, the
speed of rotation of the drum, the effectiveness of the water spraying system and advance speed of the machine
need monitoring.
2.6.2.3 Scraper Blades

The rear of the milling chamber consists of a thick steel plate that is lifted and lowered by a hydraulic cylinder,
thereby allowing the pressure exerted on milled surface to be varied. Wear resistant “scraper blades” are attached
to the base of the rear plate, shown in red in Figure 37. These blades pick up and blade forward any milled material
that is not lifted on to the discharge conveyor. Both the pressure exerted by the hydraulic cylinder and the condition
of the blades, are important determinants of the amount of material, normally fines and dust, that remain on the
milled surface after the machine has passed. Such material must be removed before the milled surface can be
overlaid with new asphalt.
Figure 37. Scraper Blades on Milling Machine (shown in red)
The amount of pressure exerted on the scraper blades also influences the regularity of the milled surface, by
removing high ridges caused by irregular wear of individual cutting tools, especially when fine or micro-milling. This
practice increases the rate at which the blades wear. Preference should be given to maintaining the condition of the
cutting tools, rather than relying on the scraper blades to level off poorly cut surfaces.
Where a conveyor belt is not employed to remove the milled material, the rear plate is lifted to allow the material to
exit as a layer of uniform thickness. Some machines, including most of the large models, are equipped with a door in
the centre of the rear plate that allows the material to exit as a windrow, thereby making it easier to pick up using a
loader.
2.6.2.4 Conveyor Belt

The conveyor belt is a critical determinant of production potential, particularly for the larger machines fitted with a
two-belt system. A two-belt system has a short receiving belt directly in front of the milling chamber that receives
the milled material and feeds it on to the main delivery belt. The width of the belts and speed of travel are key
features. Varying the delivery belt speed facilitates the filling of long trucks, as shown in Figure 38a. A large slewing
angle (Figure 38b) allows the feed to be directed from one receiving truck to another, without stopping the
operation.

Page 32
FAST FAST
SLOWSLOW
(a) Varying Speed of Conveyer Belt Facilitates Filling of Long (b) Change of Slewing Angle to
Trucks Redirect between Trucks
Figure 38. Conveyer Belt for Milling Machine
Some of the more modern large machines are equipped with a dust extractor that operates using the same principal
as a vacuum cleaner. The milling chamber is subjected to negative pressure that allows dust particles to be
collected, fed forward and deposited on the delivery conveyor. Water sprays directly onto the material as it
discharges off the delivery conveyor ensure a dust free operation.
2.6.2.5 Level Control Systems

Unless milling is undertaken solely for the purpose of removing asphalt from an abandoned pavement, milling work is
always carried out using a control system that assists in achieving a specific cut profile. This requires the depth of
cut to vary continuously, both longitudinally in the direction of travel, and transversely across the cut width. Control
systems allow the milling drum to cut to a defined horizon (line, level and cross-slope) by constantly adjusting the
height of each leg connecting the machine and the ground, as shown in Figure 39. Whilst the machine follows the
existing surface, regardless of the number of dips and bumps it traverses, the cutting drum is locked on to the
required horizon.
Figure 39. Control Systems on Milling Drum
Several different control systems are available, which all do the same job, but with varying degrees of accuracy:
 The simplest system works on a wire rope sensor connected to the side plates of the milling chamber that run
on the surface of the existing pavement, sliding up and down relative to the cut depth. The long side plate acts
as a skid, levelling out minor local unevenness in the “reference surface” (the existing pavement surface). This
system is normally set up with the sensor measuring on one side of the machine only, and the transverse cut
slope set to a predetermined value, e.g., 2% on cambered sections.
 Ultrasonic sensors use high frequency waves to reflect off a reference surface. Such sensors are contact-free
and are, therefore, more reliable. Several different reference surfaces can be employed, ranging from the side
plate of the drum housing to pre-surveyed string lines and long skids often used for paving operations. The use
of multiple sensors can even out roughness.

Page 33
 Rotating lasers define the reference surface. Sensors on the machine continuously feed data to an on-board
computer, which compares the existing and reference surfaces, and adjusts the height of each leg accordingly.
 3D systems based on an advanced survey system, for example total station or DGPS, measure the absolute
position of the machine in three dimensions and automatically regulate the height and slope to meet the required
digital model, which is preloaded in to the on-board computer. These systems achieve the highest degree of
milling accuracy and are popular on large projects where multiple cuts are required to cover a wide pavement,
such as on multi-lane highways and airport runways.
Regardless of the control system employed, the limitations imposed by wear on the cutting tools must be recognised
when searching for accuracy. Specifying tight tolerances for milling, e.g., less than 5 mm, is impractical, since the
normal wear over the life of a cutting tool is more than 10 mm (see Section 2.6.2.2). However, where such accuracy
is deemed necessary, the milling drum needs to be in excellent condition and all tools changed at regular intervals,
not only those showing advanced wear. Such a requirement has a major impact on the cost of the project, especially
when using a micro-milling drum fitted with more than 200 tools.
2.6.2.6 Grading Control Beam

Milling operations are generally carried out on old pavements, where the asphalt may be suffering from several
different types of distress. Since milling drums normally up-cut, it is not unusual for the layer of asphalt to “slab out”
and be pushed along the surface to the front of the milling chamber. This often occurs where relatively thin asphalt
layers have delaminated and/or where the asphalt exhibits advanced crocodile cracking. This tendency is
significantly reduced with a gradation control beam, which is a standard feature on most large machines.
A gradation control beam is a sturdy steel skid-type of frame, mounted on a swing-arm immediately in front of the
milling chamber. The beam is lowered hydraulically and locked in position to run on top of the pavement, thereby
preventing slabs of asphalt from lifting in front of the machine. The alternative is to turn the machine around and
mill in reverse, thereby achieving a down-cut. This practice, however, is not popular due to increased wear and tool
usage.
2.6.3 Milling Operation

Milling machines are primarily used in the following applications to remove asphalt from existing pavements:
 Bulk asphalt removal. The most common milling operation is the removal of asphalt wearing courses that
have reached the end of their service lives, usually milling a 40 mm thick layer. Deep milling is undertaken to
rehabilitate pavements with thick layers of asphalt with full-depth cracking.
 Address asphalt surfacing deficiencies, e.g., to improve skid resistance.
 Special-purpose applications, e.g., removing the asphalt for trench excavations.
2.6.3.1 Bulk Asphalt Removal

The focus of the type of work is production, achieving maximum output from the resources deployed on the site. As
with most production intensive construction operations, the success of a milling operation is a function of experience,
coupled with the amount and quality of planning undertaken before the work begins. The following are the most
important considerations:
 Project characteristics that determine the appropriate milling machine, drum type and the anticipated output
in terms of tons of milled material generated per working hour.
 Number of obstructions and their characteristics influence the decision to deploy two or more different
types of milling machines. For example, small machines for milling around manholes, and cutting tapers at
intersections and accesses.
 Time frame and limitations on working hours. For example, night work only and the area milled must be
repaved prior to opening to traffic.
 Details for closing off the working area, dealing with public traffic and access details for the trucks carrying
the milled material to the dump site.
 Logistics in terms of the location of, distance and routing to, and general arrangements at the site where the
milled material is offloaded. This dictates the logistics necessary for achieving production, and is often the
limiting factor.
 Compiling a production plan including details of how the work will be tackled. Such a plan must include the
number and sequence of cuts required to achieve the specified horizon, i.e., depth and width to be milled.

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 Work required before production milling can commence. In addition to closing off the working area, this
includes dealing with obstructions and, where required, establishing the necessary survey controls for accurate
milling.
 Locating and dealing with hidden obstructions. This usually involves using a metal detector to locate,
investigate and, where necessary, remove obstacles such as buried manhole covers.
 Work required after milling. In addition to sweeping and removing material remaining on the milled surface,
this work often involves the provision of temporary access to properties.
 Clearing the site at the end of the shift. This may call for all plant and equipment to be transported to a
temporary holding area, that may be distant from the site.
 Compiling a detailed list of all plant and equipment required on site, including details of when each item is
needed, the duration of deployment and any necessary back-up provision.
 Deployment of personnel with suitable expertise, together with a detailed delegation of specific
responsibilities.
Logistics always play a leading role in determining the production rate achievable on site. Often a bottleneck is
encountered in disposing of the milled material. This may be caused by factors beyond the control of those
responsible for the project, e.g., traffic congestion. Material removal then becomes the primary factor to consider
when planning the work. It makes little sense to deploy a large milling machine and plan on removing 250 tons of
milled material per hour, when it is only possible to transport 50 tons per hour away from the site.
2.6.3.2 Addressing Surface Deficiencies

Milling operations generally focus on achieving quality rather than quantity. Pavements that are structurally sound,
but suffer from defects in the asphalt surfacing, can often be treated by milling. Texture problems, i.e., poor skid
resistance, and minor deformation, such as shallow ruts, can often be addressed by removing the uppermost portion
of the asphalt, normally less than 20 mm, before applying a new surfacing. Depending on the specific pavement,
such a new surfacing may call for an asphalt overlay on major roads, or a simple fog spray on low volume roads.
Where an asphalt overlay follows the milling, a standard drum is often used. However, where the milled surface is to
be trafficked or where a micro-surfacing or surface treatment is envisaged, a fine milling drum or micro-texturing
drum is preferred. Figure 40 shows the difference between a standard milling drum, Figure 40a, with tools
positioned to produce cuts at 15 mm spacing, and a fine milling drum, Figure 40b, producing cuts spaced at 8 mm.
The texture of the milled surface achieved with a fine milling drum is shown in Figure 40c.
(c) Texture from Fine Milling

(a) Standard Milling Drum (b) Fine Milling Drum
Drum
Figure 40. Milling Drums
For special applications, micro texturing drums that cut a 3 mm spacing are also available. The number of tools
fitted to a 2000 mm wide drum increases from 146 on a standard drum, to 274 on a fine milling drum, and 672 on a
micro milling drum.
2.6.3.3 Special Purpose Applications

Small machines are also used for the following “special application” milling work:
 Removal of road markings for less than 500 mm cut widths, using a fine milling or micro texturing drum.
 Removal of the asphalt portion of the pavement for trenching, less than 1000 mm cut widths.
 Removing the asphalt around obstructions, less than 500 mm cut widths.
 Creating rumble strips in the asphalt, using a fine milling drum and less than 200 mm cuts widths. For this
application, the rear right wheel of the machine is exchanged for a five-sided wheel, to facilitate a constant cut
interval.

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 Cutting slots in the asphalt for cables and loops. For these applications, special cutting wheels or blades
vary in width from 20 mm to 80 mm.
These applications use a standard machine fitted with a special-purpose drum, cutter or wheel. Although they can all
be carried out using other tools, for example, a concrete saw and breaker for trench cutting, using a milling machine
increases the utilisation of a machine that is often already on site, thereby reducing the overall cost of the project.
2.6.4 Production
The output of a milling machine is influenced by the following primary parameters:
 Type and condition of the milling machine, especially the drum
 Milling requirements, such as thickness and relative hardness of the asphalt to be removed
 Site conditions, i.e., open, obstructions, restricted, or confined
 Climate, especially the anticipated temperature range of the asphalt
 Expected weather conditions, such as clear, raining, or misty
 Trucking capacity for transporting the milled asphalt
 Site access and traffic accommodation constraints
 Competence and experience of work crew
These factors all need to be considered in estimating the anticipated production on a specific milling project.
Production estimates are normally based on performance data obtained from the manufacturer of the milling
machine, reduced to realistic expectations by applying a “production adjustment factor” that takes account of the
above parameters. The suggested parameters, and effective range of influence that each has on production, are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Production Adjustment Factor
Parameter Factor Values

Old, poor condition: 0.3.
Milling machine condition
New or reconditioned: 1.0
Urban, obstructions: 0.5.
Site conditions
Open (e.g., runways): 1.0
Climate (surface temperature) 1.0 plus/minus the temperature in °C above/below 15 °C
Dry, sunny: 1.0.
Weather conditions
Raining, misty: 0.5
1.0 minus anticipated time waiting ratio. For example, if trucks have
Trucking capacity
30% waiting time, then 1 – 0.3 = 0.7
Site access 1.0 minus time lost due to limited access ratio
“Inexperienced”: 0.4 ranging to
Site crew
“Very experienced”: 1.1
Production adjustment factor Product of all the above factors multiplied together
The procedure used to estimate production is best explained by means of examples in Table 4 and Table 5.

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Table 4. Production Example for Small Milling Machine

Project
This example is for a rear loading milling machine with a standard drum (cut width of
Description
1000 mm) operating in an urban environment. Output is based on the performance
graph obtained from the manufacturer.
Details Mill and remove 0.040 m asphalt (moderate hardness) from 5 000 m² of urban street.
Calculate the Production Adjustment Factor
Parameter Factor
Milling machine condition: Recently reconditioned 1.0
Site conditions: Urban street with manholes 0.5
Hot climate: Average daily surface temperature > 45 °C 1.3
Weather conditions: Clear and dry, no rain forecast 1.0
Trucking capacity: Sufficient trucks in attendance 1.0
Site access: Single lane closure, 20% delays 0.8
Site crew: Experienced team 1.0
Production adjustment factor 0.52
Total Quantities for Project
Volume: 5 000 x 0.04 = 200 m³
Mass: (assumed density 2400 kg/m³) 480 000 kg = 480 tons
Theoretical Output
Theoretical output (from graph) 1000 m²/hour

Production Rate
Volume: 1000 x 0.52 x 0.04 = 20.8 m³/hour
Mass (density 2 400 kg/m³) = 49.9 tons/hour
Time Required
Working hours: 480 tons / 49.9 tons/hour = 9.6 hours

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Table 5. Production Example for Large Milling Machine

Project
This example is for a milling machine with a standard drum (cut width of 2000 mm)
Description
operating in a rural environment. Output is based on the performance graph obtained from
the manufacturer.
Mill and remove an 80 mm thick layer of hard, aged asphalt from 10 km of the slow lane
Details
(3.7 m wide) of one carriageway on a heavily-trafficked highway between two towns.
Calculate the Production Adjustment Factor
Parameter Factor
Milling machine condition: Reasonable Condition (4 000 hours) 0.8
Site conditions: Rural, no obstructions 1.0
Warm climate: Expected surface temperature > 35 °C 1.2
Weather conditions: 30% probability of rain showers 0.9
Trucking capacity: Long haul, expect 20% delays 0.8
Site access: Lane closure: 10% delays 0.9
Site crew: Team well experienced 1.0
Production adjustment factor 0.62
Total Quantities for Project
Volume: 37 000 x 0.08 = 2 960 m³
Mass: (assumed density 2350 kg/m³) = 6 956 tons
Theoretical Output
Theoretical output (from graph) 1 200 m²/hour

Production Rate
Volume: 1 200 x 0.62 x 0.08 = 59.5 m³/hour
Mass (density 2350 kg/m³) = 139.8 tons/hour
Time Required
Working hours: 6 956 tons / 139.8 tons/hour = 49.8 hours
2.6.5 Reuse of Asphalt Millings

Asphalt is one of the most recycled materials in the world, primarily as an aggregate substitute in hot mix asphalt,
mostly for use in base layers. Recent advances in both cold-mix technology and bitumen stabilization have resulted
in an increased demand for reclaimed asphalt (RA), since it provides an ideal parent material, particularly where a
superior quality base material is required. However, for all applications, the grading of the RA is of paramount
importance, influenced by numerous factors, the primary two are:
 Machine factors: The method of reclaiming the asphalt from the existing pavement.
 Asphalt factors: The composition, uniformity and condition of the existing asphalt material.

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2.6.5.1 Machine Factors

The machine factors influencing the reuse of asphalt millings include:
Recycled Asphalt (RA)
 Type of milling machine used. Large milling machines are
RA is discussed in more detail in:
used on larger projects where high production rates are required
and/or thick layers of asphalt are removed with each cut. Smaller  Chapter 3: Materials Testing,
machines are normally used on smaller projects and to remove Section 4.2.4
asphalt from confined areas where production output is not of  Chapter 9: Material Utilisation
primary importance. As shown in Figure 41, the advance speed of and Design, Section 10.1
the milling machine, and the depth of cut, have a significant
influence on the grading of the milled RA. High production rates demand increased speed. Research undertaken
on RA material in Brazil (Bonfim, 2008) showed that advance speed and production rate play an increasingly
significant role on the coarseness of the RA as the milling depth is increased. When milling thin lifts, i.e., depth
of cut < 50 mm, increasing the speed of advance from “slow” (3 m/min) to “fast” (10 m/min) has little effect on
the grading. Newer machines generally produce a more consistent product, thanks to advances in technology
incorporated in their design. Such technological advances include engine management systems and gradation
control mechanisms.
25mm / 100mm CUT DEPTH VARIATION IN ADVANCE SPEED

100.0
90.0
80.0
Percentage passing
70.0 100mm cut SLOW
60.0
100mm cut FAST
25mm cut SLOW
50.0
25mm cut FAST
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 Sieve size (mm)
Figure 41. Grading Curves Showing Effects of Increasing Cut Depth and Advance Speed
 Type of milling drum. The type of milling drum fitted to the machine significantly influences the grading of the
RA. Micro-texturing drums with closely spaced cutting tools produce a much finer RA than a standard milling
drum.
 Direction of cut. When the direction of rotation of the milling drum lifts the asphalt (up-cutting), a coarser
product results than that obtained when down-cutting, where the cutting tools impact on the pavement from
above as the machine advances.
 Condition of the machine, milling drum and cutting
tools. Poorly maintained machines invariably produce a RA
material with an inconsistent grading. In particular, the cutting
tools play a major role in determining the grading of the milled Condition of the Milling
material; a drum fitted with a new set of tools produces a more Machine, Drum and Cutting Tools
uniform product, compared with one where some of the tools Poorly maintained machines invariably
are new and some are worn. produce a RA material with an
 Condition of the scraper blades. The condition of the inconsistent grading. In particular, the
scraper blades and, to a lesser extent, the lifting plates on the cutting tools play a major role in
drum, influence the maximum particle size and amount of determining the grading of the milled
material that remains on the milled surface, by escaping under material. A drum fitted with a new set of
the rear door as the machine advances. This material, later tools produces a more uniform product,
picked up by a sweeping and cleaning team, is usually disposed compared to one where some of the tools
of separately and not added back to the RA. Since most of this are new and some are worn.
material is composed of fines less than 5 mm, the effect on the
grading curve is significant.

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 Machine operation.
 The machine set up and operation has a direct influence of the grading of the milled RA. As illustrated by
the grading curves in Figure 41, the depth of cut and speed of advance are primary factors. For example,
milling a 100 mm thick layer of asphalt in two 50 mm cuts produces a finer RA material than that produced
from a single 100 mm thick cut. In addition, drum rotation speed influences the grading; the faster the speed
of rotation, the finer the milled product.
 Where the existing asphalt has severe crocodile cracks, maintaining the depth of cut within the body of
the cracked layer encourages pulverisation, rather than lifting chunks of asphalt from the pavement. When
such conditions are encountered, the use and positioning of a gradation control beam has a significant effect
on the grading of the product.
 Another important factor is the consistency of the milling operation. The RA produced from a steady
continuous operation is different from that produced when numerous interruptions are encountered.
 Maintaining a constant application rate of water sprayed into the milling chamber also influences the
amount of finer material that adheres to the coarser particles, and are thus included with the RA and not left
on the milled road surface.
2.6.5.2 Asphalt Factors

The asphalt factors that influence the reuse of asphalt millings include:
 Composition and nature of the asphalt material in the existing pavement.
 Where the milling depth encounters several layers constructed from different asphalt mixes, e.g., a
coarse dense base macadam overlaid with a binder layer and surfacing, the grading of the RA reflects all
constituent mixes. Where the existing pavement is relatively consistent, each layer can be milled off
separately in an endeavour to obtain a uniformly graded RA material. However, where the pavement includes
patches, overlays and other relics of maintenance interventions, the grading and composition of the milled RA
will vary.
 The extent of ageing of the bitumen binder and the binder type used in the asphalt mix always plays
a leading role in determining the grading of milled RA. Asphalt manufactured with polymer modified bitumen
and bitumen rubber is tough to mill and produces a relatively coarse RA. Surface treatments applied on top
of asphalt also have a significant influence on the grading of the milled RA, often as a consequence of
bitumen stripping from the aggregate in the underlying asphalt.
 Other materials used to maintain pavements, for example, strips of bitumen rubber from crack sealing,
reinforcing layers and stress absorbing membranes that incorporate thick geotextile materials, have a
significant effect on the nature of the milled RA, and may even eliminate its potential for reuse in a new
pavement layer.
 Type of distress in the asphalt material. The grading of milled RA material emanating from severely cracked
asphalt differs from that produced when milling an asphalt layer that is badly deformed, but intact, e.g., wheel
path ruts. Where cracking is intense, for example, closely spaced crocodile cracks and the thickness of the
asphalt is relatively thin, chunks of material (> 50 mm) in the milled RA material are unavoidable.
 Extent of distress. The grading of milled RA varies with the type of distress affecting the asphalt. Where
cracking is confined to isolated sections in the wheel paths, the grading of the milled RA varies, influenced by the
proportion of cracked to uncracked asphalt encountered across the width of cut, at any specific location.
2.6.6 Practicalities
It is important to recognise that the grading of milled RA material is always influenced by the purpose of the milling
exercise. Where a contractor is milling for the sole purpose of removing asphalt from the road, the focus is on
production at the lowest possible cost, not on the grading of the RA material. However, when the focus changes to
milling to recycle the RA, the attention is entirely different, since the grading of the milled product assumes greater
importance.
2.7 Recycling Machines

A recycling machine is a large purpose-built machine that recovers and simultaneously re-uses material from the
upper portion of an existing pavement for the express purpose of constructing a new layer. These machines are also
called “in situ recyclers”. The heart of the machine is the “cutter” that is a large cylindrical drum equipped with a
multitude of cutting tools. The rotating cutter is lowered to the required depth in the pavement and the machine
then advances along the road with the cutter normally rotating upwards relative to the direction of advance.
As the machine advances, the material encountered within the recycling horizon is pulverised, including previously
bound material, such as asphalt. Simultaneously, water and other fluids, for example, bitumen emulsion or foamed
bitumen, are accurately metered and injected into the recovered material inside the cutter housing or “mixing

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chamber”. All materials are mixed together by the rotating action of the cutter to form a homogeneous mix. The
mixed material is then placed back on the road at the rear of the machine where it is shaped and compacted to form
the new layer. This process is termed the single-pass cold recycling process and is illustrated schematically in
Figure 42.
Where the material recycled from an existing pavement is not of sufficient quality for re-use, additional fresh material
can be imported, spread and shaped on top of the road surface prior to recycling. In this way, the in situ material is
blended together with the new material, to achieve the required quality.
Figure 42. Recycling Machine Pulverising, Mixing and Placing
The depth to which a specific pavement is recycled, and the requirements for stabilizers, are determined in the
pavement design process. Although most modern in situ recyclers can operate efficiently at cut depths between 100
mm and 500 mm, the normal depth of cut for most recycling projects is between 150 and 300 mm. This range is
used mainly due to difficulties compacting thicker layers.
Recyclers have introduced pavement engineers to a whole new range of possibilities, the most important being the
ability to construct thick monolithic layers of a stabilized material. This was not previously possible using
conventional road building machines, due to the sheer volume of material that had to be mixed, placed and
compacted within a limited period of time. From a structural perspective, a single 300 mm thick layer of stabilized
material has a higher load-carrying capability than two separate 150 mm thick layers constructed one on top of the
other, due to possible slippage on the interface between the layers.
In situ recyclers are designed to recover and mix the material from all types of flexible pavements whilst pushing
(and/or pulling) bulk tankers containing the required additives. They are, therefore, heavy machines equipped with a
large engine to deliver sufficient power for this purpose. They also have micro-processor controlled pumping
systems and spray bars to regulate the flow rate of stabilizers relative to the volume of material in the mixing
chamber. They should not be confused with lighter, less powerful machines that are used to mix relatively soft
material, known in the industry as “stabilizers” or “pulvimixers”. In situ recyclers can, however, be used as stabilizers
but stabilizers are neither capable, nor are they equipped, to recycle pavement layers.
The term “recycler” is sometimes used for off-site mixing plants capable of mixing a variety of materials, including
those recovered from pavement layers and placed in temporary stockpile. Where these units are specifically
designed to treat materials recovered from existing pavements, usually recovered asphalt millings, with stabilizer
(especially foamed bitumen), they are often referred to as “recycling units”. This is a misnomer because these
machines are actually sophisticated mixing units that treat a range of materials, as well as recycling those recovered
from existing pavements.

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Two reference documents relevant to recycling machines that can be downloaded at no cost are:
 Wirtgen “Cold Recycling Manual” (2010): www.wirtgen.de
 Asphalt Academy’s TG2 “Technical Guideline: Bituminous Stabilised Materials – A Guideline for the Design and
Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Materials”: www.asphaltacademy.co.za
2.7.1 Types of Recycling Machines

There are three types of in situ recycling machines, which are described in the following sections together with their
respective capabilities:
 Tyre mounted recyclers
 Track mounted recyclers
 Machines fitted with an on-board mixing unit
2.7.1.1 Tyre Mounted Recyclers

These machines are designed primarily for recycling. All four wheels are fitted with high-flotation tyres, each driven
by a hydraulic motor, providing traction and stability. Different sizes of machines are available, ranging from the
smallest (±20 ton/400 HP) models with a cut width of 2.0 m, up to the largest (±35 ton/800 HP) machines with a cut
width option of 2.5 m or 3.0 m. An example of a tyre mounted recycler is shown in Figure 43.
Figure 43. Example Tyre Mounted Recycler Showing Recycling Wheel Paths
The most popular machines have the cutter housing attached to the main frame. The cutter and its motor are
mounted on an arm that swings downwards as the drum is lowered into the pavement, thereby increasing the
volume of the mixing chamber above the cutter. This feature allows material recovered from varying cut depths, up
to a maximum of 500 mm, to be accommodated and effectively mixed in the chamber. Where the cutter and
housing are both fixed to the main frame of the machine, the depth of cut is constrained by the fixed volume of the
mixing chamber, as is the case with most track mounted machines.
As shown in Figure 44, the point attack tools are positioned in a chevron pattern and mounted on stanchions to
promote mixing. This tool configuration promotes mixing in the vertical plane, but not the horizontal. This means
that the recovered material is not thrown sideways (laterally) or lengthways (longitudinally) over any appreciable
distance from its original location within the pavement. The maximum movement measured from tests is

Page 42
200 mm. Recycled material can, therefore, not be cross-blended with this type of cutter. Localised areas or strips of
different materials in the recycled horizon are returned to the pavement, after recycling, in approximately the same
location. The resulting material, therefore, reflects the original differences.
Figure 44. Cutters on a Tyre Mounted Recycler
Layers of dense unbound material are easily broken apart, returning to their original uncompacted state. The degree
to which layers of bound material, e.g., asphalt, are pulverised and the resulting grading is influenced mainly by the
advance speed of the recycler, but also by the cutter rotation speed. The faster the advance speed, and the slower
the speed of rotation, the coarser the product. Large lumps of material that are not pulverised in the process, tend
to be thrown to the bottom of the layer and are not easily visible.
Since they are mounted on flexible tyres, these recyclers must attack thick layers of hard or well-bound material from
below. The cutter must first penetrate through to the underside of the hard layer before the machine can advance,
pulverising the material. Attempting to work with the cutter lowered only partially into such hard material, e.g., aged
asphalt, causes the machine to bounce, damaging the tools and tool holders.
The rear wheels of these machines are located inside the extremities of the cut width and, therefore, run on the
outer edges of the recycled material. This means that the material in the wheel paths is compacted, whilst the
material between the wheel paths remains in a loose (“fluffed”) state, as illustrated in Figure 43.
In addition to recycling, the inherent stability and traction capabilities make these machines ideal for soil stabilization.
They are also used extensively to pulverise thick layers of bound material in existing pavements, with larger
machines used for thicker layers. Increasing use is also being made of these machines to pre-treat thick layers, up
to 500 mm thick, in the lower portion of the pavement. Such pre-treatment includes breaking down clods of material
or soft rock, with the addition of water to achieve a consistent moisture content that facilitates compaction.
2.7.1.2 Track Mounted Recyclers

These machines, shown in Figure 45, were the first in situ recyclers, preceding the tyre mounted models by several
years. They are essentially large milling machines that have been adapted for recycling. The cutting drum, shown in
Figure 46, is the same as that used for milling asphalt, with point attack tools mounted in a helical pattern that
windrows the material to the centre of the drum.
Instead of being lifted onto a belt and removed, as happens when milling, the recovered material exits through a
door in the rear of the milling chamber and passes between the rear tracks to be spread across the width of cut by
an auger fitted at the back of the machine. A paving screed is usually incorporated to pre-shape and pre-compact
the material spread by the auger. The required surface levels and shape can often be achieved by using such a
screed, thereby eliminating the need for a grader to cut final levels.

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Figure 45. Example of a Track Mounted Recycler
Figure 46. Standard Milling Drum Fitted to a Large Machine
As with the tyre mounted recyclers, micro-processor controlled pumping systems are incorporated. Spray bars
attached to the outside of the drum housing inject fluid additives into the material in the milling chamber.
Unlike tyre mounted recyclers, the windrowing action of the tool pattern promotes blending of the material recovered
by each half-width of the drum. The material is, however, not fully cross-blended as the material tends to exit
through the rear door in the respective halves, and is spread back by the auger over the half where it originated.
Milling machines are designed and built to provide stability when cutting into layers of hard asphalt. Both the drum
housing and the milling drum are attached to the frame of the machine, and the depth of cut is varied by lifting or
lowering the whole machine. This means that:

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 The drum does not have to penetrate to the underside of thick bound layers to be able to recycle the
material. It is, therefore, possible to recycle only the upper portion of thick bound layers.
 The volume of the milling chamber is constant, regardless of the depth of cut. The amount of material
that can be mixed is, therefore, limited, and this restricts the depth of cut that can be recycled. A maximum of
250 mm can be cut when treating with a non-cohesive stabilizer, i.e., cement, or less when applying a cohesive
stabilizer, i.e., foamed bitumen.
These machines are ideal for recycling 100% asphalt material. As with tyre
mounted recyclers, the degree to which the asphalt is pulverised is
influenced by the advance speed of the recycler and the rotation speed of Track Mounted Recyclers
the drum. However, unlike tyre mounted recyclers, there are different
These recyclers are ideal for
milling drums that can be used to vary the extent to which the material is
recycling 100% asphalt material.
broken down. For example, using a fine milling drum with twice the
number of point attack tools will produce a significantly finer material. In
addition, the direction of rotation of the drum can be changed from up-cutting to down-cutting to promote
fragmentation.
Furthermore, since milling drums are interchangeable, the width of cut may be selected by fitting a drum with the
required width. As an example, a 3.8 m wide drum can be fitted to a large milling machine to allow the full width of
a traffic lane to be recycled in a single pass.
2.7.1.3 Machines Fitted with an On-board Mixing Unit

Large track-mounted purpose-built recyclers with a mass in excess of 50 tons are also available in the market, an
example of which is shown in Figure 47. These machines are capable of recycling all types of materials normally
encountered in the upper portion of flexible pavements. However, being oversized and heavy, they are not as easily
transported as the other recyclers. Their application is, therefore, normally confined to projects that include large
volumes of recycling and/or where there is a demand for the special features that only this recycler provides. These
include:
 Partial depths of hard material, e.g., aged asphalt can be recycled in situ up to 200 mm.
 Adjustable working width, ranging between 2.8 m and 4.2 m, which allows the entire width of one traffic lane
to be recycled in a single pass. It also permits the location of longitudinal joints between adjacent cuts to be
selected to fall outside the trafficked wheel paths.
 Width of recycling can be varied whilst working, making it easy to recycle tapering sections often associated
with highway interchanges and toll plazas.
 Material in the recycling horizon is milled and lifted into a twin-shaft pugmill mixer mounted on the
machine. Dual pumping systems allow for the accurate addition of stabilizer and water. The mixing quality
achieved is similar to that of conventional off-site mixing plants.
 Lifting the recovered material off the road and mixing on board the recycler achieves a uniformity of mix
across the full cut width. This means that the material recovered from the width of cut is fully cross-blended.
The treated material is discharged from the pugmill mixer onto the road as a windrow and spread by auger, mounted
on the machine. A variable width paving screed is attached to the rear of the machine for placing the recycled
material true to the required profile. This screed is equipped with both tampers and vibration for pre-compaction.
However, since the machine has limited capacity for material retention, existing road surfaces that are badly out of
shape need to be pre-milled to the required cross-fall and surface elevations before recycling.
Recycling machines with on-board mixing units are not commonly used in South Africa.

The following sections describe the main features and control of in situ recyclers. These are not exhaustive, and
cover only those aspects that are of primary importance when using these machines on a specific project.

Page 45
Figure 47. Recycling Machine Fitted with On-Board Mixing Unit
2.7.2.1 Type, Size and Power of the Machine

The machine selected for a specific recycling task must be capable of
doing the work, and is the most important consideration of any Selecting an In Situ Recycler
recycling project. The various aspects described for the different Selecting the right machine for the job
recycling machines, need to be considered in light of the required work. is the most important consideration
The most important features that influence the suitability of a particular on any recycling project. Key
machine are: considerations are:
 Operating mass of the machine. Is the machine big enough for  Machine operating mass
the job?  Horsepower rating of the engine
 Horsepower rating of the engine. Is there sufficient power to  Width of cut
recycle the material that will be encountered in the pavement?
 Cut depth and mixing capabilities
 Width of cut. How many parallel cuts are required to cover the
 Spray bar configuration
cross-section?
 Cut depth and mixing capabilities. In light of the stabilizer to
 Availability
be added.
 Spray bar configuration. Are they adequate?
 Availability. How many such machines are available in the local industry?
2.7.2.2 Cutter
The cutter (Figure 44) is the most important part of the recycler. It does the hard work of recovering and breaking
down the material encountered in the recycling horizon. It also throws the material around inside the mixing
chamber to achieve a homogeneous mix. The cutter fitted to a tyre mounted recycler is different to that of a milling
drum on track-mounted machines. The main differences are:
 Peripheral speed of the point attack tools. The basic drum diameter on a recycler is larger than that on a
milling machine. In addition, the individual tools on a recycler are fixed on stanchions that are attached to the
drum, thereby increasing the effective diameter of the cutter to almost twice that of a milling machine, where the
tools are fixed directly onto the drum. The peripheral speed of the tools is, therefore, far higher on a recycler
than a milling machine, resulting in better pulverisation of the material. This results in a finer grading, especially
where layers of bound material are recycled.
 Elevating the tools on stanchions provides additional space for mixing the recycled material, especially when
the depth of cut increases.
 The chevron mounting pattern for the tools on a recycler allows all the energy to concentrate on cutting and
mixing the material. The material is not moved sideways (windrowing) as it does with a milling machine where
the tools are mounted in a helical pattern.

Page 46
The cutter must be monitored for wear, and must be capable of rotating consistently at the required speed
throughout the layer being processed.
2.7.2.3 Cutting Tools

Different tools are fitted for different cutting conditions:
 Tools with more tungsten carbide are used to recycle harder materials.
 Tools with thicker steel collars are used for more abrasive materials.
The speed of rotation is changed to influence the grading of the material

obtained from previously bound layers, especially asphalt. The faster the
rotation speed, the finer the material. However, increasing the speed of
rotation increases the rate at which the tools wear down, so there is Cutter and Cutting Tools
always a trade-off between achieving an acceptable grading and The cutter must be monitored for
minimising tool wear. wear and must be capable of
rotating consistently at the required
Tools cost between R30 and R50 each (2010 prices). Therefore, the cost speed throughout the layer being
of replacing all 200 tools on a cutter is a significant component in the processed.
total operating cost of recycling. The norm for the average wear rate for
recycling an “average” pavement in South Africa is 1 tool per 10 m3 of All cutting tools must be checked
material recycled, or replace all the tools for every 2000 m3 of material regularly, to ensure that they are
recycled. replaced before the wear limits
specified by the manufacturer are
All cutting tools must be checked regularly, to ensure that they are reached.
replaced before the wear limits specified by the manufacturer are reached.
2.7.2.4 Mixing Chamber

The different architecture of the machines means that the volume of the mixing chamber on tyre mounted recyclers
increases as the cut depth increases, compared to the fixed volume of the mixing chamber on track mounted
machines.
The mixing chamber on tyre mounted recyclers is fitted with front and rear doors that open outwards (hinged at the
top) by hydraulic cylinders. The front door is kept closed whilst recycling and a “breaker bar” fitted along the base of
the door limits the space between the cutter and the breaker bar. This assists in breaking down oversized lumps of
material. A strike-off plate is fitted to the bottom of the rear door and the pressure applied by the hydraulic cylinders
dictates how long the material is retained in the mixing chamber. This has a significant effect of the quality of mix,
especially where the depth of cut is less than 150 mm. The schematic in Figure 42 illustrates the workings of the
mixing chamber.
Track mounted machines usually have a conventional breaker bar,

mounted immediately in front of the drum housing. It presses down on
the road surface, thereby assisting the chiselling action of the tools and
Depths of Recycling with
preventing large lumps of material (normally distressed asphalt) from
Track Mounted Machine
being lifted. However, where fresh material and/or a stabilizer is spread
on the road in front of the recycler, care must be exercised to ensure The maximum recycling depths are
that the breaker bar mechanism does not act as a dozer. The recycled normally 250 mm when mixing with
material is windrowed to the centre of the mixing chamber where it bitumen emulsion or cement, reducing
exits through a door in the rear of the housing. This windrowing action, to 175 mm when treating with foamed
coupled with the fixed volume of the mixing chamber, exacerbated by bitumen due to the propensity of such
the close mounting of the tools on the drum, places limitations on the material to compact inside the mixing
depth that can be recycled. The maximum depths are normally 250 mm chamber.
when mixing with bitumen emulsion or cement, reducing to 175 mm
when treating with foamed bitumen, due to the propensity of such material to compact inside the mixing chamber.
2.7.2.5 Pumping Systems and Spray Bars

Recyclers are always equipped with at least one spray bar, attached to the leading face of the drum housing for
injecting water into the mixing chamber. The spray bar consists of a feed pipe with a series of injection nozzles
spaced equally along the bar at approximately 150 mm intervals. The injection point of the nozzles protrudes into
the mixing chamber through holes in the housing. A second separate spray bar, mounted to the drum housing
above the first spray bar, is fitted for adding a bituminous stabilizer or other additive.

Page 47
The width of application for each spray bar must be independently adjustable. The system must allow individual
nozzles to be selectively closed off, thereby achieving application of the additive only over the required portion of the
cut width. This is important for ensuring that overlaps between adjacent cuts receive the correct treatment. In
addition, having the spray bars operating independently of each other allows different treatments to be applied
across the cut width, for example, water across the full cut width and bitumen emulsion across only half the width of
cut. However, remember that the application rate through a spray bar is constant over the width of treatment,
regardless of the selected width, i.e., each nozzle delivers the same flow rate.
The application rate through the spray bars must be micro-processor controlled with each feed line fitted with a flow
meter, for the system to be able to accurately regulate pump speed relative to the volume of material in the mixing
chamber. A pick-up, normally fitted to the left front tyre or track, constantly feeds the micro-processor with
information on the speed that the machine is advancing. The computer then: calculates the flow rate required for
each pump, using data that is entered into the computer before starting to recycle; checks the metered flow rate;
and, adjusts the pump speed accordingly. The data input includes the average density of the recycled material,
application rates for each spray bar, the width of application and the cut depth. On some recyclers, the width of
application and cut depth are automatically sensed from the machine settings.
Spray bars are supposed to “spray” into the mixing chamber to assist in the dispersion of the additive. This means
that the fluid entering the nozzle must be under sufficient pressure to be able to spray when forced through the
nozzle orifice. Low application rates, coupled with slow advance speeds, result in a poor mix, since the lower the
flow rate, the lower the pressure in the spray bar. When this situation is encountered, it may be necessary to fit
nozzles with smaller openings. To overcome this problem, some manufacturers equip their machines with an
electronic function that prevents the pumping system from operating below a minimum advance speed when the
machine is set to operate in “automatic” mode. Operators and supervisors need to understand these finer details,
since they can affect the uniformity of treatment across lateral joints, particularly at the start and end of cuts where
the advance speed of the machine is necessarily slow.
Equipping the individual spray bar nozzles with a “self-cleansing” function is always recommended. Most
manufacturers use needle and seat valves to operate the nozzles; the self-cleansing function quickly closes and
opens each valve on a regular cycle (usually once a minute), thereby forcibly removing any obstruction lodged on the
seat of the valve. This feature is most important for foamed bitumen spray bars, particularly where the bitumen is
flue-heated in the supply tanker and where small burnt bitumen particles invariably manage to pass through the
openings in the bitumen filter, especially when drawing the last remaining ton from the tanker.
2.7.2.6 Depth of Cut and Inclination Control

Recyclers are set up at the beginning of a cut by lowering the drum into the pavement to the required depth and
lifting or lowering the hydraulic legs supporting each tyre or track to achieve the correct inclination or cross slope.
Although the machine normally maintains these settings while it advances, it is advisable to check the cut depth, on
both sides of the cut, at least once every 100 m and to make any necessary adjustments. However, it must be
appreciated that the machine runs on the existing road surface and, therefore, follows the shape and cross-fall of the
existing road, including any variation in cross slope, as well as dips and bumps that are longer than the distance
between the front and rear tyres or tracks. Such discrepancies in line and level are followed by the bottom horizon
of the cutter, resulting in a variable layer thickness when a grader is used to cut final levels in accordance with a
smoothed design level.

Table 6 covers some of the problems, and remedial actions, that are experienced on recycling projects.

Page 48
Table 6. Recycler Problem Solving

Problem Indicator Cause and Remedial Action
Poorly pulverised  Recycler is inadequate (too light) for the job.
material with variations  Cutter is in a poor condition. If replacing tools does not solve the problem, then the cutter
in the grading across needs to be replaced.
 Speed of rotation of the cutter is too slow.
the width of cut
 Speed advance of the recycler is too fast.
Poor grading with  Breaker bar not properly positioned.
lumps of coarse  Existing pavement includes layer(s) of severely distressed asphalt with closely-spaced
material (normally crocodile cracks. Pre-mill the top 90% of asphalt thickness with a milling machine
operated at slow advance speed and spread and shape the millings over road width. Then
asphalt lumps)
recycle.
 Cutter is in a poor condition. Replace tools or cutter if necessary.
Colour varies uniformly  Depth of cut on the side with a lighter colour is deeper than the side with a darker colour.
from darker to lighter Reset the machine to the correct cut depth, measured on both sides of the cut.
across the width of  Moisture content of the material in the existing pavement varies uniformly across the cut
width. Such a pavement is best pre-pulverised, cross blended and pre-shaped/pre-
treatment
compacted before recycling. The material may need to be dried back before pre-shaping
and pre-compacting.
 Non-uniform application of liquid through the spray bars.
Wet patches in treated  Isolated wet spots are normally caused by tanker or feed pipe leaks. Even a drip will lead
material to a soft spot if the recycler is stationary for a few minutes, as recyclers do not cross blend
material.
 Also caused by spillages on pre-pulverised material.
 Where patches are randomly spaced, the pumping system feeding the spray bar is
probably defective. It can also be caused by air in the feed line causing intermittent flow
to the spray bar.
Temperature of the Nozzle blockages on the spray bar(s):
treated material varies  If only water is added, a rise in temperature normally indicates a lack of water addition.
across the cut width  If foamed bitumen is added, a rise in temperature indicates that a nozzle is not foaming.
A drop in temperature indicates a blocked nozzle.
 If bitumen emulsion is added at the normal application temperature of 60 °C, a drop in
temperature indicates a blocked nozzle.
 Isolate the defective nozzle and either replace or clean out.
 In hot climates, a temperature variation can be caused by a varying thickness of asphalt
across the cut width. Pre-pulverise and cross-blend to achieve a uniform material before
treating.
Poor bitumen  Poor foaming characteristics due to either low bitumen temperature (< 160 °C) or
dispersion when insufficient water added to foam the bitumen.
working with BSM-foam  Bitumen pressure too low (< 3 Bar) due to insufficient advance speed, or nozzles jets too
large for required application rate.
 Contaminated bitumen, including anti-foaming agents.
 Insufficient fines (< 0.075 mm fraction) to provide a home for the bitumen stringers.
 Moisture content of the material is too low, < 50% of OMC, or the material is saturated,
i.e., free water visible.
 Temperature of material being treated is below the acceptable limit (15 °C with an
absolute minimum of 10 °C).
 Mixing chamber of the recycler is choked, i.e., the cut depth exceeds the machine’s
capacity.
Treated material heaves  BSM-foam: Either the moisture content of the in situ material is approaching saturation, or
during compaction too much water added while recycling.
 BSM-emulsion: Added total fluids, i.e., emulsion and water, exceeds the saturation point
of the material.
 Remedial measures should be to re-recycle 80% of the layer thickness and allow to dry
back before re-compacting.
Premature rutting  Poor overlap control. Longitudinal strips either not treated at all or double treated.
and/or “strip ravelling”  Incorrect nozzle configuration selected on either one or both spray bars, resulting in
after opening to traffic longitudinal strips not receiving treatment or receiving double dosage.
 A grader was used to cut surface levels before the material behind the recycler was
compacted to a uniform density, resulting in a transverse density difference across the cut
width. Under-compacted material densifies under traffic loading, forming a longitudinal
rut.
 Remedial measures depend on the type of stabilizer applied and the surfacing to be
applied. The entire layer may need to be replaced.

Page 49
2.8 Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Machines

Hot mix asphalt (HMA) paving machines in use today all have similar operating principles. Examples are shown in
Figure 48. Paving machines are made up of three basic units:
 Tractor: The tractor portion contains the power unit that provides the power needs of all three units.
 Material handling system: The material handling system receives the hot mix asphalt and moves it from the
hopper through the paver to the spreading augers in front of the screed.
 Screed: The screed levels and profiles the laid material, provides some initial compaction, and smooths the
surface ready to be compacted to the final specified density by the compaction equipment.
Figure 48. HMA Paver
Most paving machines can place a layer of asphalt less than 25 millimetres to approximately 250 millimetres in
thickness over a width between 2 and 7 meters. The wider the paving width, the more difficult it is to have sufficient
manufacture, transport and loading equipment to feed the paver with asphalt. Working speeds of paving machines
range from 3 to 20 meters per minute.
In some cases, asphalt pavers are also used to lay layers stabilized with cementitious and bituminous binders.
Pavers either have tracks or tyres, each with different advantages and disadvantages.
Pavers are equipped with levelling systems ranging from simple skid systems, which use the longitudinal profile of
the existing pavement to maintain line and level, to complex string line, sonic and laser systems.
Newer spray pavers have recently come onto the market which spray a tack coat immediately in front of the placed
material. This facilitates laying Ultra-Thin Friction Courses (UTFC).
The main components of an asphalt paving machine are the hopper, augers and screed.
(i) Hopper
The hopper, illustrated in Figure 49, is located in front of the tractor unit and receives the hot asphalt from the
hauling trucks. A conveyer system is used to move the material from the hopper through the tractor unit to the
augers in front of the screed. The volume of material required to match the width, depth and speed of placement is
precisely controlled, either by flow gates mounted at the rear of the hopper, or, by varying the speed of the conveyer

Page 50
system. The flow gates are adjustable metal plates that change the size of the opening at the hopper discharge, and
are used to control the amount of material flowing out of the hopper.
Figure 49. Hopper
When flow gates are not used, the auger and the conveyer are separated and controlled independently, to transfer
the correct volume of material. Split systems use an additional material sensor to control the volume of material
carried by the conveyer into the auger area.
The hopper is equipped with wings on either side to move material from the side to the centre of the hopper and
onto the conveyer.
(ii) Augers
The augers, Figure 48, distribute the material from the conveyers, moving it transversely and uniformly across the
full width of the screed. Material sensors, at the outer ends of the screed, control the volume of material in front of
the screed by speeding up, slowing down or stopping the rotation of the augers. The augers on the right and on the
left are independent of each other and are controlled by separate material-control sensors.
The augers, which are adjusted vertically, should always be 38 to 50 millimetres above the layer thickness being
placed. When paving is done with a screed wider than the basic screed, auger extensions and material confining
plates known as tunnel extensions should be added, to uniformly carry the material to the full width of the screed.
Auger tunnel extensions (slide-out or bolt-on) are located in front of the augers when running at extended widths (4
meters or more). Ideally, the auger tunnel extensions should be 0.3 to 0.5 meters from the edger plate of the
screed, to minimize the chances of material segregating.
(iii) Screed
The screed, shown in Figure 50, is located behind the tractor unit and is the most important component of the
asphalt paver. It is, essentially, a wide flat piece of heated steel that knocks down and smoothes out the mass of
material placed in front of it by the augers. In doing so, it places the material to the proper grade, cross slope and
texture, and provides initial compaction of the material.
The screed width can be extended beyond the width of the main screed to facilitate paving widths wider than the
basic machine width. The asphalt placed by the extension has the same characteristics in terms of texture,
smoothness, and pre-compaction as the material placed by the main screed. The extensions can be angled
differently to the main screed, allowing adjacent lanes and shoulders to be paved at a different cross-slope. In some
pavers, the screed can be extended hydraulically, providing for paving of variable widths.
Free-floating screeds are a standard feature of asphalt paving machines. The basic principle of a free-floating screed
is that, when it is pulled into the material deposited in front of it by the augers, it automatically rides up or down
seeking the level where the path of the flat screed plate is parallel to the direction of pull. At this point, the forces
which act upon the screed are in balance, and the screed lays a uniform mat thickness until one or more of the
forces change.

Page 51
Screed
Figure 50. Screed on Asphalt Paver
Paver screeds have tamper bars at the leading edge of the screed that serve a dual purpose. Firstly, they strike off
the material as it passes under the screed, and, secondly, give a greater initial density than a vibratory screed.
Vibrators on the asphalt screed provide some initial density. The compactive force, which is generated by offset
weights as they spin at high speeds around a central shaft, is applied to the material as it passes under the screed.
The vibrators should not be used when paving a thin lift because the aggregates may be crushed.
At the start of a paving shift, the screed is much colder than the material. To keep the asphalt material from sticking
to the colder metal of the screed, it must be preheated. Diesel, gas or electrical heating systems are used to preheat
the screed before each day's paving. Diesel burners are simple and easy to use, but they require proper operational
procedures so that excess fumes are not produced when air and fuel in the burner chamber are out of balance.
Electrical heating systems have heating elements immediately above the screed plate, surrounded by special heat
transfer oil, that help heat the screed uniformly without hotspots. This system minimizes fumes and provides an
even heat across the entire screed plate. Electrical heating systems operate in a couple of different modes. In one,
the screed is heated to operational temperature and the heating system shuts off. Alternatively, the screed is heated
to the desired temperature and cycles on and off to maintain this temperature throughout the paving operation.

It is important to study the paver manuals prior to laying a trial section, and to inspect all items which are identified
as potential problem areas, e.g., state of wear and setting of screed plates, tamper bars and augers. Many of the
issues and problems related to asphalt paving are contained in the SAT Troubleshooting Guide (SAT, 2005).
Particular equipment adjustments required to obtain satisfactory results are discussed below.
2.8.2.1 Head of Material

The head of material is the depth of material evenly spread in front of
the screed by the augers. Controlling the head of material is the most
important factor in laying a smooth HMA pavement. The head of
material is affected by the volume of the material in the auger chamber. Head of Material in Paver
Ideally, the head of material should be maintained at a height that The head of material is the depth of
exposes one half of the auger, and not varied by more than ±25 material evenly spread in front of the
millimetres. Starving the screed of material results in the screed screed by the augers. Controlling the
settling, and causes a dip in the pavement. Excess material in front of head of material is the most important
the screed guarantees a bump as the screed attempts to crawl over it. factor in laying a smooth HMA
pavement.

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2.8.2.2 Paving Speed

Nonstop paving, at a uniform forward speed, results in the highest quality
and smoothest pavements, and should be the goal of every paving crew.
Changing the paving speed changes the angle of attack on the screed,
Non-stop Uniform Paving
causing a corresponding change in the mat thickness. Manual
adjustments to offset this depth change must be made with the depth Nonstop paving, at a uniform
screws. When equipped with automatic controls, these devices forward speed, results in the highest
immediately sense the change in depth caused by speed changes and quality and smoothest pavements,
make the appropriate adjustments to maintain the required depth. and should be the goal of every
Normal operations require that the paver be stopped occasionally. When paving crew.
the paver must be stopped, a rapid stop-start method should be used.
This means that the paver should be stopped and started as quickly as possible, without a gradual slowdown or
speed-up period, limiting the fall or rise of the screed.
2.8.2.3 Screed Weight

The screed weight is usually translated into kilograms per square meter, or the vertical force applied by the screed
onto the asphalt mixture. This unit weight is constant, except when extending or retracting the variable-width
screed. Care must be taken to keep the head of material from fluctuating when extending the screed. When the
screed is operated manually, a slight change in the angle of attack may need to be made, by using the screed-depth
controls, to maintain the desired layer thickness. When extending the screed width, the augers should be controlled
manually to supply a constant volume of material in front of the screed extension. When the extension is retracted,
the auger should be manually shut off to reduce the amount of material in front of the extension, so that it can be
retracted without causing the screed to rise.
2.8.2.4 HMA Stiffness (Loose)

A change in the temperature of the HMA, or the grading of the aggregates, results in a change in the stability or
stiffness of the loose material during paving. This change in stiffness causes the screed to either rise or fall as it
reacts to a change in vertical force, and seeks to rebalance all of the forces acting upon it.
2.8.2.5 General
The following important points must be kept in mind during paving of an asphalt layer.
To construct a smooth pavement:

 Never run the hopper empty between loads. The level of material in the hoppers should never be allowed to
fall below the bottom of the flow gates.
 Establish and maintain a continuous paving speed. Establish the speed by balancing the delivery of material
with the compaction process.
 Control the head of material in the auger area to within ±25 mm.
 Do not allow trucks to bump the paver.
 Do not dump excess material on the road, such as when dumping directly into the paver hopper or cleaning
truck tailgates.
 Do not fold the hopper wings into an empty conveyor system.
 Fold hopper wings often enough while moving forward to ensure the first material in is the first material out
(“first in first out”), and keep material at placement temperature.
 Practice good techniques for starting and stopping the paver.
 Watch for over-correcting the depth screws.
 Make sure the edge plate is adjusted properly.
To construct good longitudinal joints:

 Strive to minimize segregation at the outside edges of the new paved
layer.
 Steer a straight line on the first lane. Roll Down
 Utilize the proper overlap, generally about 50 to 100 mm, of the cold Roll down is a common term used
asphalt layer being matched. to describe the reduction in
 The depth of the asphalt layer should be approximately 25 percent thickness of an asphalt layer from
greater in depth than the existing compacted asphalt layer being compaction.
matched, to allow for roll down.

Page 53
 Watch that material is not allowed to flow out or under the edge plates. This excess material can prevent the
making of a good joint, and should be pushed back to the hot side of the joint. Excess material should not be
cast across the mat.
 Use proper rolling procedures for compaction.
To construct good transverse joints:

 Ensure proper shutdown on the original pass. The asphalt layer must be the proper depth and slope, and be
checked with a straightedge.
 Construct a temporary wedge using some type of bond-breaker material.
 Remove the wedge, and prepare the area where the joint is to be made. Clean all dirt, loose material, and tack
the area.
 Align the paver with the previously laid mat.
 Heat the screed properly.
 Use starting blocks on the surfaces to be paved, to raise the screed to the correct height and allow for proper
compaction of the new asphalt. Normally the screed is 25% higher than the thickness of the mat.
 Null out the screed properly on the starting blocks, so it achieves the correct thickness and crossfall when
moving off the starting blocks.
 Fill the augers properly, by shovelling the material into the corners.
 Begin paving and check depth and slope; correct if necessary.
 Compact the joint.

A list of laying problems with possible causes is given in Table 7, as an aid to the correct adjustment of the paver
and improved layer control.

Page 54
Table 7. HMA Paving Problem Solving

Laying Problem Possible Cause
Dragging of material over  Loose tamper frame-retaining bolts
whole width of pavement  Incorrect protrusion of tamper below screed
 Tamper shield clearance too great. Build-up of cold material between tamper
shield and tamper bar due to inadequate cleaning
 Insufficient paving speed or tamper speed
 Material too cold in front of screed. Note viscosity requirements for
compaction.
 Aggregate of incorrect maximum size in relation to paved thickness
Dragging of material over  Loose tamper frame extension bolts
extensions only  Tamper extension edges not in line with main section
 Screed extension plates not true with main section
 Bracing turnbuckles loose
 Insufficient material feed to the extension. Check auger box setting, gates
setting and auger controls.
 Too much material being fed and material getting cold at the tamper face
Inability to reduce the  Screed turnbuckles set at incorrect length
material thickness to  Maximum stone size incorrect
zero when the screed  Excess material in front of screed
thickness gauge reads
zero, and to obtain
maximum depth
Inconsistency of density  Screed heat too high or too low
and texture of material  Auger height incorrect
on the finished pavement  Paving and/or tamper speed incorrect
 Material too cold in front of tamper due to low delivery temperature, or it is
allowed to get cold. Check plant mixing cycle.
 Grading of mix may be too variable and susceptible to segregation
 Auger feed inconsistent
 Paver hopper wings not actuated regularly, resulting in blemishes due to
chunks of cold material
Dragging of material in  Incorrect crown set on the screed
middle of pavement only  Incorrect protrusion of tamper below screed
Scouring in the centre of  Screed plates broken off from the frame and tearing the asphalt
the mat
Screed will not maintain  Check paver tyre inflation pressures
constant level  Check operation and capacity of supply trucks, particularly where steep grades
are being paved
 Sensor operation defective
 Loose tamper frame retaining bolts
 On manual machines, bracket holding bevel gears for screed depth control
loose
 Screed hoist ropes holding screed
 Tamper edges worn
 Loose anchor bolts on side arm to screed
 Material cold or other forms of inconsistency, e.g., temperature variation with
resulting viscosity inconsistency.
 Auger box overfilled resulting in bulldozing action. Floating screed operates on
same principle as skiing in water with forces reaching equilibrium.
Insufficient compaction  Tamper edge and frame bolts loose
of material  Tamper edges worn
 Incorrect protrusion of tamper edge below screed
 Incorrect auger height for material
 Screed lift ropes holding screed
 Cold or poorly mixed material
 Rollers and/or passes inadequate or poorly controlled
Excessive vibration of  Bolts loose on screed and tamper assemblies
screed  Loose screed sway bar
 Incorrect tamper protrusion
 Stone size too large for the thickness of the layer

Page 55
2.9 Concrete Paving Equipment

Concrete paving equipment ranges from relatively basic
equipment, that requires a lot of manual work, to very
sophisticated mechanised paving trains. There are many Concrete Paving
different types and makes of machines, each with their own
The following references are valuable for all
unique advantages and disadvantages. Concrete paving
aspects of concrete paving:
trains and related equipment are discussed in more detail in
the Concrete Road Construction Manual (2009) issued by the  Concrete Road Construction Manual,
Cement and Concrete Institute (C&CI). C&CI (2009)
 CMA. 2009. Concrete Block Paving.
The equipment is described briefly below. Concrete Manufacturers Association.
 Book 1: Introduction
2.9.1 Placing Equipment  Book 2: Design Aspects
 Book 3: Specification and Installation
Concrete placing equipment is used to spread the concrete
 Book 4: Site Management and Laying
over the width of the paved area. This equipment is
Available for download from www.cma.org.za
normally used with side form construction. The spreader
hopper runs on beams supported by the side form, as shown
in Figure 51.
Figure 51. Concrete Placing Equipment

Where concrete paving machines are used, their spreaders are normally integral to the paving machine. They must
be capable of spreading the concrete in front of the full face of the paver, so that during paving operations, a small
head of material is maintained over the full width. Auger wear must be checked to ensure compliance with the
manufacturer’s specifications. All moving parts must be checked for wear and alignment.
2.9.2 Pavers
There are two types of concrete pavers: fixed-form and slipform.

Page 56
2.9.2.1 Fixed Form Paving

In fixed form paving, the spreading, compaction and finishing of the
concrete is carried out between fixed side forms. These are normally
Plastic Concrete
made of steel or timber temporarily fixed to the subbase. The side form
assemblies should incorporate rails to support and guide the paving Plastic concrete is a standard term
machine and to support the plastic concrete. A fixed form paver is used to describe concrete from the
shown in Figure 52. time it is mixed until it sets.
Fixed form paving generally involves several individual pieces of equipment. Basic mechanized paving plant normally
consists of a spreader, a vibratory compactor and beam finisher, supplemented by poker vibrators. Other equipment
is used for wet forming of joints, mechanical placing of tie bars and dowels, and surface texturing and curing.
Figure 52. Fixed Form Paver
2.9.2.2 Slipform Paving

In slipform paving, concrete compaction and finishing is carried out within the length of a single machine frame,
between travelling side forms. An example of a slipform paver is shown in Figure 53. Depending on the particular
machine, concrete may be supplied directly to the paver, or spread and initially struck off by a separate machine
working ahead of the main paver. In slipform construction, the relatively short length of the travelling side forms
makes careful control of concrete workability and compaction essential.
The slipform paver compacts concrete over the full paving width by means of internal vibration, or a combination of
internal and surface vibration. The forward rate of progress of the paver should not exceed that at which the
concrete can be fully compacted. As the travelling side forms provide edge support only during the concreting
operation, automated level and steering control is necessary.
Successful and efficient slipform paving depends on continuous and

uninterrupted supply of low slump concrete of high mix uniformity. The
concrete batching plant and hauling equipment must be capable of
consistently providing the required volume of concrete to the paver. Successful and Efficient
Therefore, trial sections are essential. Slipform Paving
Successful and efficient slipform
paving depends on continuous and
uninterrupted supply of low slump
concrete of high mix uniformity. The
concrete batching plant and hauling
equipment must be capable of
consistently providing the required
volume of concrete to the paver.

Page 57
Figure 53. Slipform Paver
2.9.3 Vibrators and Compactors

Compactors are sometimes integral to the paver, as described for slipform pavers. Alternatively, separate vibrating
paddles, vibrating beams and poker vibrators are used to compact the concrete. These are illustrated in Figure 54.
(a) Pokers with Vibrating Beam (b) Vibrating Beam
Figure 54. Vibrators
2.9.4 Dowel Bar Inserters

Dowel bar inserters, shown in Figure 55, are used on some paving trains to insert the bars into the concrete,
immediately behind the paver and before the finisher. See Chapter 9: 12.2 for more on dowel installation.
2.9.5 Screeding and Finishing Devices

Various types of finishers are available to screed the final concrete surface to a smooth and level surface. Initial
finishing is normally carried out in conjunction with placing and compaction, using screeding devices attached to the
paving equipment. The screed is moved forward so that a small surcharge or roll of concrete is always maintained
ahead of the paver, as illustrated in Figure 56. In the case of side form paving, a diagonal finisher is normally used
for initial finishing. For slipform paving, a number of devices can be used, including tube floats, oscillating
longitudinal floats, truss floats and trailing finishing pans, some of which are illustrated in Figure 57.

Page 58
Figure 55. Dowel Bar Inserters
Figure 56. Surcharge in Front of Beam
2.9.6 Tining and Brushing

Tining and brushing devices are normally moved transversely across the width of the pavement, to obtain grooves or
transverse texture for skid resistance, as shown in Figure 58. The spacing of the tines should be random. The tining
depth is normally 2 to 4 mm.
Brushes should have stiff bristles, spaced to produce an acceptable texture. Brushes must be replaced when the
shortest tufts wear down to 90 mm. Stiff plastic brooms may also be used.
A Burlap drag may also be used to produce a uniform texture with corrugations about 1.5 mm in depth. Photos of
automated and manual burlap drag operations are shown in Figure 59. The drag should be such that at least 1
metre of the fabric is in contact with the pavement surface. The drag should consist of sufficient layers to provide the
weight required to produce the desired texture depth. Four layers of 340 g/m2 burlap have produced satisfactory
texture depths. Higher-mass burlaps have closer weaves and produce less texture depth. Texture depth may be
increased by removal of the transverse threads from the trailing 150 to 300 mm of the drag. Satisfactory results
have also been achieved by threading nails through the trailing edges of the burlaps.

Page 59
Tube Float Truss Float
Trailing Floats
Figure 57. Methods of Initial Finishing
Figure 58. Tining
Manual Burlap Drag Automated Burlap Drag
Figure 59. Burlap Drag

Page 60

The following equipment control measures are important to ensure good concrete construction.
2.9.7.1 Placing Equipment

The size of the spreader hopper and transport vehicles must be matched to ensure that a full load is used, to prevent
tipping partial loads into the hopper. However, if an agitating mixer is used, partial loads can be accommodated.
The wheels and runners of the spreader must be checked to ensure they are free running. The mechanism for
opening the bottom gate of the hopper must be checked to ensure it is in good working order. When concrete is
being spread, the machine must be capable of spreading it evenly between the shutters, so that no low spots occur.
Where concrete paving machines are used, auger wear must be checked to ensure compliance with the
manufacturer’s specification. All moving parts must be checked for wear and alignment.
2.9.7.2 Paving Machines

Equipment control measures for paving devices are complex, and
depend on the type and manufacturer of the paver. The primary
controls should be directed at ensuring that the paver achieves its Concrete Paving is Unforgiving
purpose, i.e., to spread the concrete uniformly in front to the paver Concrete paving is an unforgiving task. All
screed, to compact the material thoroughly over its full depth and slight variations occurring during paving
width, and to obtain a good line and level. manifest as a bumpy ride. It is, therefore,
essential that paving crews are properly
Concrete paving is an unforgiving task. All slight variations trained and that daily controls are applied
occurring during paving manifest as a bumpy ride. It is, therefore, to all plant and equipment.
essential that paving crews are properly trained and that daily
controls are applied to all plant and equipment.
2.9.7.3 Vibrators and Compactors

Slipform pavers utilise immersion vibrators and these need to be set to ensure that adequate compaction is achieved,
and the concrete is sufficiently liquefied to flow through the paving process. Setting of the vibrators includes the
spacing, the vertical alignment and the frequency of the vibrators. The frequency must be set to prevent the
occurrence of vibrator trails, illustrated in Figure 60, in the pavement.
Figure 60. Vibrator Trails
2.9.7.4 Dowel Bar Inserters

The inserters (Figure 55) normally induce some vibration, to allow the dowel bar to be easily inserted into the
concrete. DBI’s are in common usage with slipform pavers, the dowels are mechanically inserted into the fresh
concrete. The position of the dowels must be clearly marked to ensure the sawn contraction joint coincides with the
dowel position. The orientation of the bar in the inserter must be checked to ensure accurate, consistent and correct
alignment with the pavement.

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2.9.7.5 Screeding and Finishing Devices

The essential controls on the screeding and finishing devices are aimed at ensuring that the final levels achieved
meet the required specification. Therefore, all joints must be firm and the devices must not be lifted by the concrete
being finished. The finishing device must keep up with the paver to ensure it only works on wet concrete. It is good
practice to have a stand-by device.
The final finish is normally provided by a burlap drag, which must be replaced as soon as any wear becomes
apparent.
2.9.7.6 Tining and Brushing

Tining equipment should be set up to ensure a uniform tine depth across the entire pavement width. Tines that are
worn by more than 2 mm must be replaced.
To ensure the correct degree of stiffness of individual tufts and bristles, brushes must be replaced when the shortest
tufts wear down to 90 mm.
Burlap drags must be replaced when the trailing edges show signs of wear, and inadequate texture depth is
achieved.
2.10 Compaction Equipment

There are various types of compaction equipment available which are used to densify pavement layers. The most
common are rollers.
2.10.1 Type of Rollers

There are many types of rollers produced by specialised manufacturers. The rollers are divided into the following
broad categories:
 Towed rollers
 Single wheel rollers
 Tandem (double drum) rollers
 Three–wheel rollers
 Pneumatic tyred rollers
 Specialised rollers
2.10.1.1 Towed Rollers

Towed rollers normally include grid and odd shaped (Impact) rollers. The advantage of these rollers is that they can
be towed behind multi-purpose equipment such as tractors.
(i) Grid Roller

The grid roller is useful for breaking down oversize aggregate particles and is suitable for use on most gravel layers.
For a grid roller to be effective, it has to be towed at a relatively high speed, in the order of 30 km/h, and hence
requires a long run, about 50 metres, to be effective. At speed, a grid roller has a certain impact effect, and as such,
is effective in breaking down large particles to a more acceptable size and shape. The grid roller should, however,
not be used on its own to achieve density, but rather in combination with other rollers. The grid roller also has the
advantage that it produces less lamination or biscuiting than flat steel wheel rollers.
(ii) Impact Roller

The impact roller is used to achieve compaction at depth on certain materials, such as collapsible sands. There are
three and five sided drum impact rollers available. The three side drum rollers provide higher energy displacement
than the five sided roller. A 5 sided self-propelled impact roller is shown in Figure 65. These rollers need to be
towed at about 10 km/h to be the most effective. Impact rollers are generally not used during the compaction of
relatively thin layer works. The disadvantage of these rollers is that they need space to be turned around at the end
of a compaction run and to build up speed, and they do not leave a smooth finish on the layer after compaction.

Page 62
2.10.1.2 Single Wheel Rollers

These rollers normally have a rubber tyred drive wheel and a steel drum that can either be flat or padfoot (Figure 61)
and can be vibrated at different frequencies and amplitudes. These rollers are primarily used to compact fine grained
materials.
Figure 61. Single Wheel Padfoot Roller
2.10.1.3 Tandem (Double Drum) Rollers

Tandem rollers, shown in Figure 62, are normally specialised rollers used to compact asphalt layers. The rollers
consist of two steel drums with equal loading on both drums. The drums are both driven and usually one or both
drums can vibrate. Variable vibration amplitude and frequency is normally included for different applications. In
addition, specialized controls exist for slowing down and reversing at the end of a roller pass, while at the same time
reducing and reversing the vibration. The latest versions are fitted with compaction control devices that measure the
response of the pavement to vibration, thereby providing an indication of the level of compaction achieved.
Figure 62. Double Drum Rollers
2.10.1.4 Three–Wheel Rollers

These old flat steel wheel rollers, shown in Figure 63, are used for final rolling on asphalt layers. The roller consists
of large and heavy rear drive drums that can be ballasted with water for extra weight and pressure. The smaller
light steering drum is not ballasted to prevent it from digging into any loose material, affecting the smoothness of the
compacted layer. The weight of this roller is generally between 10 and 14 tons with most of the weight on the large
drums. These rollers are also used during the “slushing” process of crushed stone bases (see Section 3.8.1.1(vi)).

Page 63
Figure 63. Three Wheel Rollers
2.10.1.5 Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

The pneumatic tyred roller, Figure 64, is a good finishing roller and is effective in compacting surface soft spots that
steel wheel rollers may override. There are two types of pneumatic tyred rollers available:
 Single axle (Alboret) rollers, which are towed by a tractor and are primarily used for proof rolling subgrades.
 Double axle rollers with 7 or 9 pneumatic tyred wheels, which are primarily used as finishing rollers on asphalt,
to knead and knit the surface.
A pneumatic roller shows up variations and weaknesses in the material layer. The rubber tyred wheel does not form
a bridge from one large aggregate particle to another, but rather compacts the weaker materials, which may occur
between the larger aggregate particles.
Figure 64. Pneumatic Rollers
2.10.1.6 Specialised Rollers

These include various specialised devices such as Impact rollers (Figure 65) and combinations of steel and pneumatic
rollers. For a description of the use of impact rollers see Section 2.10.1.1.
2.10.2 Selection of Compaction Equipment

The best compaction technique and roller combination for a particular material type is fairly easily determined by
constructing a test section on which the various rolling techniques and moisture contents can be tried. The material
should be moistened to various moisture contents and then compacted using a roller, or combination of rollers, and
the density measured with a nuclear density gauge after each pass. A density increase curve should be plotted from
the results to determine the required number of roller passes.

Page 64
Figure 65. Impact Roller

After the best compaction technique and moisture content has been determined, there are two aspects which should
be noted during rolling:
 Rolling must always be carried out systematically from side to side, or from the sides to the middle where
the layer is built with a crown.
 A complete pass of the surface is obtained when the entire width of the layer has been covered once by the
roller. Half width overlaps are required with each successive roller movement. The number of complete passes
must always be recorded.
In practice, it is not cost-effective to apply more than between 2 and 4 roller passes with a vibratory roller and
between 8 and 12 passes with other rollers. Further passes normally result in very little increase in density, and if
additional density is required, a heavier or alternative type of roller will normally have to be used.
General guidelines for the selection of the most appropriate compaction equipment are provided in Table 8, and are
discussed below, as are guidelines for the compaction in different construction processes.
Table 8. Selection of Compaction Equipment

Type of Rock Sand and Silt and clayey Clay Surface Asphalt Stab.
compaction fill gravel material seals layers
equipment Well Poorly Silty Clayey Weak Strong
graded graded sand sand
silty clayey
gravel gravel
Flat wheel
roller
    
Pneumatic
tyred roller1
       
Impact roller      
Grid roller       
Vibrating
roller
        
Padfoot
roller
   
Legend Notes
 Recommended 1. Pneumatic tyred rollers should not be used on Stone Mastic Asphalt layers. They can
damage the surface of the layer.
 Can be used

Page 65
Guidelines for the compaction in different construction processes are summarized below.
(i) Sand Fills

The best results for sand fills are normally obtained with vibratory rollers with a high frequency and low amplitude,
and/or light pneumatic rollers, preferably those on which the tyre pressure can be changed during the compaction
process. It is preferable if the compactors do not need to turn around at the end of the construction section.
(ii) Gravel Fills

Vibratory rollers, grid rollers and heavy pneumatic rollers can be used on most materials, and, therefore, are used on
gravel fills. Kneading rollers are more effective on clayey materials.
(iii) Rock Fills

Rock fills are not compacted in the same manner as normal gravel fills. A layer of rock is first dumped and flattened
with a bulldozer. This is followed by placing a layer of finer material on the flattened surface and vibrated into the
interstices between the rocks with vibratory rollers, as illustrated in Figure 66 with a padfoot vibratory roller is being
used. There is a high probability that fills will settle with time if the voids between the dump rock are not filled with
finer material. Impact rollers can also be used, provided the rock is not so hard that the roller is damaged.
Figure 66. Rock Fill
(iv) Fills in Confined Areas

In confined areas, such as bridge abutments and over pipe culverts, normal compaction equipment cannot be used.
Smaller vibratory rollers and plate compacters are used in these areas. In extremely confined areas, tamping
equipment has to be used.
(v) Pavement Layers

If coarse material is used to construct the layer, a grid roller may be used to break down the coarse material. When
a grid roller is used on a base layer, the roller must be removed before the final grader cut to avoid grid marks on
the final surface. A pneumatic and/or flat wheel roller can be used in the final stages of compaction to provide the
required finish.
If sandy gravels are used to construct the layer, a combination of rollers can be used for compaction, with the
exception of kneading rollers. Vibratory rollers with high frequencies and small amplitudes, grid rollers, pneumatic
rollers and flat wheel rollers are all normally used.
If clayey gravel is used to construct the layer, care should be taken not over compact the upper part of the layer,
before the bottom has been adequately compacted. This is known as “closing” the layer. The initial use of kneading
rollers is preferable, as well as grid rollers if the material is stony. In the final stages of compaction, a pneumatic
roller can be used, followed by a flat wheel roller.

Page 66
(vi) Asphalt
The most commonly used rollers for compaction of asphalt layers are the following:
 Three-wheel steel drum type. These compactors are well-known and commonly used. The roller compacts
from the top down, based on compression of the particles to squeeze and force them into a tight configuration.
Good lubrication is needed for this action, and the rollers are thus most effective when the material to be
compacted is hot. These rollers are, therefore, used as breakdown rollers.
 Vibratory tandem rollers. This roller can be used on any asphalt layer, provided the appropriate amplitude,
frequency and speed are selected. The rollers densify by delivering a rapid succession of impacts on the surface
resulting in pressure waves that reduce the internal friction in the material to re-arrange the aggregate into a
denser configuration.
 Pneumatic tyred rollers. These rollers are usually used in combination with steel drum rollers. They are more
capable of increasing density at lower temperatures than steel drum rollers. The wheel loadings are usually the
same on all wheels and the back tyres are offset from the front tyres to ensure coverage of the mat in one pass.
The roller tyres densify the asphalt layer by kneading. This results in the particles moving around each other to
fill up the voids. These rollers also prevent lateral movement during rolling, and provide a more uniform degree
of compaction by compacting areas bridged by steel drum rollers. Pneumatic tyred rollers also close and seal the
surface of the compacted asphalt layer.

The control measures differ for each type of roller, with increasing complexity with roller sophistication.
2.10.3.1 Towed Rollers

The control measures of these rollers mainly focus on ensuring the towing unit has adequate speed for grid or impact
rolling, and has an area to turn to prevent damage to prepared surfaces.
Grid rollers need to be checked to confirm that the knuckles formed by the grid stand well proud of the rest of the
grid, and are not worn and flat.
2.10.3.2 Steel Wheel Rollers

The main control measure of steel wheel rollers is the ballasting weight of the drums. The weight of the drums
should be recorded at the start of each compaction operation.
Steel wheel rollers are extensively used for compaction of asphalt layers. A thin spray of soapy water is sprayed
continuously on the drum to prevent pick-up of the hot asphalt. The spray bar should be checked before the start of
the compaction operation, to ensure that excessive spray does not occur, and runoff is avoided.
2.10.3.3 Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

The air pressure in the tyres dictates the area of contact of each wheel. This means that the depth of compaction
can be varied by varying the pressure in the tyres. It is generally accepted that relatively low tyre pressures should
be used for deeper compaction, while high tyre pressures are effective on surface compaction. It is essential that the
tyre pressures are checked, before the compaction operation starts.
The mass of these rollers can be controlled by filling them up with either sand or water. It is essential that the mass
of the roller is recorded at the start of the compaction operation.

Page 67
3. CONSTRUCTION PROCESS GUIDELINES

This section discusses the process control guidelines for construction. The following construction processes are
discussed:
 Roadbed preparation
 Fills
 Compaction of soils and gravels
 Cementitious stabilization
 Bitumen stabilization
 Modification of materials
 Cold recycling
 Crushed stone base
 Primes and tack coats
 Surfacing seals
 Hot mix asphalt
 Concrete pavements
 Proprietary products
3.1 Roadbed Preparation

The pavement structure is largely dependent on the roadbed
conditions for its long term performance. Hence this part of
the construction process is just as important as the pavement Roadbed Preparation
construction. The roadbed conditions must be known at the
time of construction. Where potential problems arise, the The following sections in this guideline provide
guidance on roadbed preparation:
necessary preventative measures must be carried out, or the
material must be replaced with more suitable material.  Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations
3.1.1 Minimum Preparation  5: Road Prism Investigations
The following minimum preparation should be carried out,

 Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations
and Design Considerations
before any new construction work is commenced.
 3: Geotechnical Investigations
 All organic material, such as tree stumps and roots, are  4: Fills
removed. In most cases, this involves removal to a depth  5: Cuts
of roughly 200 mm below the natural ground level.
 Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and
 Where necessary, and possible, subsurface drainage is Design
provided to drain the roadbed and ensure that dry  2: Roadbed
conditions prevail.  3: Earthworks
 The quality of the in situ soils are assessed to ensure  Chapter 10: Pavement Design
compliance with the minimum requirements. Any  5.1.1: New Design
unsuitable material is removed and replaced, or treated to
facilitate compaction of the pavement layers over this
 Chapter 13: Quality Management
 2: Road Prism
layer.
 The roadbed must be effectively compacted to achieve
the required density and in situ shear strength. In all cases, the highest possible density and strength achievable,
with a reasonable compactive effort, should be targeted. This may significantly exceed the typical minimum
compaction requirements.
3.1.2 Special Preparation

Roadbed Density
Some roadbed materials require special preparation before a The roadbed must be effectively compacted to
pavement structure can be constructed. Such materials are: achieve the required density and in situ shear
 Active clays strength. In all cases, the highest possible
 Collapsing sands density and strength achievable, with a
reasonable compactive effort, should be aimed
 Dolomite formations
for. This may significantly exceed the typical
 Dispersive soils minimum compaction requirements.
Section 3: Construction Process Guidelines

Page 68
3.1.2.1 Active Clays

Active clays occur in many areas of South Africa. They are formed
from weathering of basic igneous rocks, such as norite or dolerite, Active Clays
and also from weathering of sedimentary rocks where the original These preventative measures can be
particles were clayey, such as some shales. Most of the darker applied to reduce or retard deformation and
clays are potentially problematic, while lighter colour clays are cracking due to active clays:
normally less active.
 Remove and replace with inactive
materials
Active clays swell and shrink as their moisture content increases or
decreases, and this causes deformation of pavements constructed  Remove plant growth
over these clays. The deformation problem is normally more  Irrigate clay
serious in the drier parts of the country, where significant changes  Retard capillary action and evaporation
in moisture conditions occur between wet and dry seasons. Less
deformation occurs in wetter areas, due to a more consistent
 Stabilize with lime
moisture regime. In these areas, deformation normally occurs due  Grade culverts and surface drains
to the withdrawal of moisture by the roots of large trees,  Keep shoulder surfaces impermeable
particularly blue gum trees. An example of tree damage is shown
 Use a pioneer layer of dump rock
in Figure 3 of Chapter 13: 2.2.2.4. Active clays are discussed in
Chapter 6: 6.3 and 6.4.  Do not plant Blue Gum (Saligna) or
Karee (Rhus Lancea) trees
The mechanism of pavement distress over active clays normally
involves deformation, followed by cracking in the form of widely spaced longitudinal, transverse and crescent shaped
cracks. Moisture ingress through the cracks causes shear failures. Deformation is caused by two major factors:
 A sealed surface results in an increase in the moisture content of the underlying clay. The lower the initial
moisture content of the clay, and the thicker and more active the clay, the more it swells as it absorbs moisture.
As it swells it raises the road surface. This seldom occurs uniformly, and is particularly noticeable at culverts
where the ingress of moisture into the underlying clay is more prevalent.
 The moisture content of the clay under the central portion of the road surface remains fairly constant while
that of the material underneath the shoulders varies. This results in the longitudinal edges of the pavement
"flapping" up and down, leading to the formation of longitudinal cracks.
Soft clays under embankments also create problems due to settlement over time. The rate of settlement depends
on:
 Mass of the embankment
 Stiffness of the clay
 Length of the paths along which moisture has to be expelled during consolidation
 Permeability of the clay
In certain cases, if the side slopes are too steep, the in situ soils may be so soft that shear failures may occur
underneath high embankments. In these situations, geotechnical investigations and stability calculations are used to
determine safer slopes, which are generally in the range of 1:2, or 1:3 in severe cases.
Potential problem areas can normally be identified fairly easily. An initial estimate of the potential swell can be made
using the Van der Merwe method (1964). Quantitative predictions of the amount of swell require sophisticated
testing, such as consolidation tests.
There are a number of preventative measures applied to reduce or retard the occurrence of deformation and
cracking due to active clays, which are described briefly below.
 Remove active clays and replace with inactive materials. Such measures are only economical where the
thickness of the active clay is limited, or where the replacement material is readily available. The material used
to replace the clay should preferably be impermeable so that it does not form a collection point for moisture
underneath the road. Clay, which has been removed, can be used to seal the sides of embankments, to prevent
moisture ingress.
 Remove plant growth within the confines of the roadbed, plus at least 5 metres on either side, at an early
stage of construction. The plant growth should preferably be removed using a weed killer. This should be done
at least one summer or wet season prior to construction to allow the underlying moisture content to stabilize to a
condition likely to prevail once the pavement has been built.
 Irrigating clay. In the case of wide roads such as freeways, consideration can be given to irrigating the clay.
Clay is relatively impermeable, and irrigation may have to continue over several months. Moisture ingress into

Page 69
the clay layer only progresses to a depth of approximately 1 metre, unless sand drains are provided for deeper
percolation.
 Capillary action and evaporation can be retarded by using a 100 to 300 mm thick layer of sandy material on top
of the layer. When construction commences, the sides of the sandy material must also be sealed to stop
moisture movements in a horizontal direction.
 Lime stabilization reduces the activity of the clay. This can be considered for the upper part of the clay if it is
economically justified. The lime should be mixed throughout the clay several times, with intermediate rest
periods, so that the calcium ions within the lime can react with the clay. The lime stabilized layer will act as a
fairly effective working platform, particularly in wet weather.
 Grade culverts and surface drains to avoid water ponding. The culverts must be waterproof and long
enough to extend beyond the toe of the embankment. Impermeable material should be used for backfilling.
 Keep the surface of shoulders impermeable. Moisture changes in clay and the resulting cracks in the
pavement layer are reduced when the shoulders of the riding surface are sealed to be impermeable. Where the
shoulders are not sealed, consideration can be given to widening the formation by 3 to 4 metres on either side.
High embankments do not need to be widened over their total height and only the lower 1 to 2 metres can be
widened to reduce horizontal moisture movements.
 Dump rock can also be considered as pioneer layer of roughly 300 to 400 mm thick. Such materials are,
however, normally fairly scarce in active clay areas.
 Blue gum (Saligna) or Karee (Rhus Lancea) trees should not be planted within 20 metres of the shoulder
breakpoint, as these trees have deep roots that aggravate moisture changes.
Rigid cemented (high stabilizer content) pavement layers tend to have wider cracks than unstabilized layers, because
the horizontal movements are concentrated at the shrinkage cracks. However, stabilization of the poor materials that
normally occurs in these areas is generally required for strength.
3.1.2.2 Collapsing Sands

Collapsing sands consist of sand grains, which are partially cemented with a high void content between the individual
particles. These sands consolidate significantly when they are moistened and loaded. Collapsing sands are
discussed in Chapter 6: 6.4.
The moisture content of a material normally increases when a road surface is placed over it and this, together with
the dead weight of the pavement structure and the vehicle loadings, results in severe deformation.
To avoid this problem, the material should be treated with an impact roller prior to construction of the pavement.
However, the strength of the material builds up very rapidly when it is compacted and it often bridges the lower
collapsing material to reduce the effect of the impact roller at depth. Hence, impact rolling may require several
passes to be effective, and may need to be preceded by irrigation and wetting to weaken the cementitious bonds
between the particles. The effective depth of the treatment of the impact roller can be checked fairly easily using a
DCP (see Chapter 6: 7.4.5).
3.1.2.3 Dolomite Formations

Dolomite formations can result in sinkholes or compaction subsidence, which have serious economic consequences
and can be life threatening. These formations are discussed in Chapter 6: 6.2.
The in situ soils in dolomitic areas may be extremely variable over very short distances. The extent of the variability
is normally very difficult to assess. Detailed drilling surveys, coupled with gravity surveys, may be required to
identify the dolomite pinnacles and valleys filled with extremely compressible wad. An impact roller, or dynamic
compaction in extreme cases, may be used to compact the material to an appropriate depth, before placement of the
pavement structure.
In all dolomitic areas, extreme care should be taken to ensure that all run-off water is led away from the roadbed
area and that no concentration of runoff, damming or moisture ingress into the subgrade occurs. Any water which
ingresses into the subgrade may lead to the occurrence of sink holes and severe deformation.
3.1.2.4 Dispersive Soils

Dispersive soils have a high percentage of exchangeable sodium cations. Dispersion occurs when the molecular
electrical charges on the surface of the clay platelets repel, rather than attract, one another. When this material
comes into contact with water, the particles go into suspension and are rapidly eroded. This leads to the rapid

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formation of erosion gulleys and piping in these soils, particularly at joints, cracks and other areas where water flow
is concentrated. An example of an erosion gulley is shown in Figure 67. Dispersive soils are discussed in
Chapter 6: 6.7.
There are few easy solutions to this problem. Most remedial or preventative measures centre around the
construction of drainage berms and channels, or topsoiling and vegetating the material. Treatment with gypsum
may be effective.
Figure 67. Erosion of Dispersive Soil Type
3.2 Fills
The construction of high fills or embankments is relatively costly and hence these should be constructed with care, to
avoid failures occurring. Such failures are normally of significant extent and can be catastrophic. Therefore, it is
essential that high embankments be designed and constructed properly. Embankments/fills are discussed in
Chapter 7: 4.
Any fill higher than 10 metres, measured vertically from the toe of the embankment to the edge of the riding surface,
is regarded as a high fill. Lower fills also require similar care and preparation, but the scale of this work is less than
for high embankments.
The design of high fills is a specialised field. This section only provides broad guidelines regarding the construction
of fills of earth and rock.
3.2.1 Earth Fills

No particular material qualities are generally specified for high earth fills. However, the material must be free of
vegetation or other deleterious materials, which may affect the performance during the life of the fill. Strict control
should be carried out to ensure the best choice of the type of material and placement in the fill. An example of an
earth fill is shown in Figure 68.
The following construction control measures should be exercised during the construction of fills.
 All organic material must be removed, prior to construction of the embankment.
 Fill materials should be placed systematically, in uniform layers with thicknesses not greater than 300 mm,
and to the correct width and side slope. The compacted layer thickness is dependent on the maximum particle
size of the material, but does not generally exceed 300 mm.
 For cohesionless sands, layers of up to 400 mm thick can be compacted, provided the necessary testing is
carried out to ensure that the correct densities are achieved.
 Care is required to avoid loose uncompacted edges due to either blading off of surplus material or the
addition of material, as a result of insufficient width.
 The layers should be placed with a suitable camber or crossfall for water to drain freely from the surface, to
avoid saturation of the fill material.
 The quality of the material should comply with the specifications throughout the fill construction. However,
since tests generally only represent a minute portion of the fill, competent judgement must be exercised to

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ensure that the areas tested are, as far as possible, representative of the entire fill. This requires continuous
visual inspection, to ensure that proper procedures and control requirements are adhered.
 Where material variations occur, the correct reference density should be used. In most cases embankments
are placed fairly quickly, and attention needs to be paid to density testing.
Figure 68. Earth Fill

3.2.2 Rock Fills
Rock fills are defined as those embankments composed principally of hard, sound, durable rock, an example of which
is shown in Figure 69. Rock fills should be constructed with accepted material obtained from approved sources. The
rock fill should contain only small amounts of fine particles. When placed and compacted, the stability of the fill
comes from the mechanical interlock of the coarser particles, and not from the compaction of the finer material.
Rock fills are normally constructed from rock, with fine materials placed between the rock particles. These are
normally constructed by end tipping. Because no density testing can be carried out to determine conformance with a
specification, the construction method should be carefully controlled to ensure a stable end-product. All construction
efforts should be aimed at ensuring that the voids are filled with finer materials. Individual boulders should not
control the layer thickness, as the presence of such boulders prevents the compaction of the rest of the layer.
Rock fills are constructed to ensure rock particle to rock particle contact is maintained, and further movement or
consolidation is prevented. Material which breaks down under compaction is, thus, not acceptable as rock fill.
Broken rock should be placed at the bottom of the embankment. Gravel placed on top of this rock material must be
forced into the voids as far as possible using vibratory rollers. In this way, further ingress of material into the voids
is prevented.
The ultimate performance of rock fill in terms of long-term settlement is an important consideration, particularly
where placed as approach embankments to structures, or where an existing roadway is widened.
The requirements for rock fill are an attempt to minimise settlement within the embankment, by providing sufficient
fine materials to fill the void space between larger rock particles. To evaluate all aspects influencing the required
characteristics of rock fill being placed for large construction projects, large-scale field density tests need to be
conducted in trial sections to establish/verify a procedural specification. The trial section offers an opportunity for a
compaction study, to assess the effectiveness of different compaction equipment and the break-down/disintegration
of the rock fill material.

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Figure 69. Rock Embankment
3.2.3 Roadbed Preparation for Fills

All high fills should be regarded as structures. Hence, it is essential that the roadbed conditions are stable. This also
applies to high fills against bridge abutments.
All organic material in the natural soil must be removed prior to construction of fill. If this is not done properly, the
material can rot, resulting in a weak plane in the embankment. This can lead to severe failure, particularly if the
embankment is constructed on a fairly steep side slope.
The roadbed should be assessed for potential instability, such as signs of seepage or springs, hammocking ground or
tension cracks, which indicate previous movements and discontinuities in the local geology.
The footprint of the embankment should be proof-rolled to identify any instability.
The in situ soils should all be compacted to at least 90% of maximum dry density (MDD). If this is not achievable,
then the in situ material must either be stabilized or removed and replaced with better quality material.
With side embankments, the bottom of the embankment should be constructed in benches, which are cut into the
natural side slope, to ensure proper compaction and to avoid sliding of the embankment on the underlying soil. The
benches must have a crossfall of 1:50 to ensure surface drainage during construction and sub-surface drainage after
construction, if the subgrade is more impermeable than the fill. Blanket filter drains coupled to a series of collector
drains must be laid in all areas where water seepage into the fill occurs, or is likely to occur. Cut-off drains can also
be installed in certain instances.
3.2.4 Drainage of Fills

Effective drainage of a fill is essential to avoid it to becoming saturated
and settling or failing. The drainage of an embankment involves the
removal of all storm water as well as subsoil water. In this way, wetting
up of the fill is prevented and erosion damage minimised. Drainage
Different drainage options are
Special attention must be paid to all fills which cross valleys, as the discussed in Chapter 7: 6.2.
transported material on the floor of the valley may provide an easy access
point for water penetration. Permeable material should be removed at A good reference for drainage is
this point, and a drainage system installed to remove both the normal the SANRAL Drainage Manual.
flood waters and underground seepage water.
(i) Treatment of Stormwater

Stormwater can be removed by using a large culvert along the natural watercourse, as illustrated in Figure 70.
Under no circumstances should such a culvert be shortened to stop above the toe of the embankment. Nor should it
deviate from the direction of the original water course.

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Figure 70. Removal of Stormwater by a Large Culvert
(ii) Treatment of Subsoil Water

Should the exposed floor of the valley be such that water may enter the fill, a subsoil drainage system must be
provided. In the case of benches, a series of blanket filters can be installed and connected to further subsoil drains,
to remove water from the embankment. Should the slope on which the embankment is placed be flat enough so
that benches are not required, then the blanket filter can be continuous. The lower edge of such a blanket filter
must be placed where it will not be blocked over time, and will not trap water within the embankment.
Cut off drains may be required along the upper edge of the embankment. If the entire embankment is placed on a
clay layer which can deform, then an additional cut off drain may be required at the toe of the embankment.
3.2.5 Side Slopes

Steps must be taken to ensure that the side slopes are compacted sufficiently, especially in the case of high
embankments where the soils are most easily eroded. Loose material on the side slopes absorbs rain water and
results in surface failures by material sloughing off the sides of the embankment. An example of a side slope, which
has eroded from inadequate compaction, is shown in Figure 71.
Figure 71. Side Slope Erosion due to Inadequate Compaction
3.3 Compaction of Soils, Gravels and Sands

Compaction of material layers is one of the most important determinants of the performance of a constructed fill or
pavement structure. The effect of compaction on a material is to improve particle interlock and to reduce the voids
between the particles. Poorly compacted gravel materials densify further under traffic, causing rutting and/or shear

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failure in the material. In asphalt materials, insufficient density causes

rutting and increased permeability of the material, which promotes
moisture damage or ageing of bituminous binders. It is, therefore,
Compaction
imperative that compaction is treated as one of the most important
aspects of road construction. It is imperative that compaction is
treated as one of the most imported
To ensure a proper understanding of soil compaction, the factors which aspects of road construction. A lack
affect the compaction achieved in a material must be understood. These of compaction has a serious impact
factors include: of all types of road building
materials and the ultimate
 Soil type
performance of the road.
 Moisture condition of the material
 Compactive effort
3.3.1 Soil Type

Soils are made up of particles of different sizes, shape and hardness, and are classified into gravels, sands, silts and
clay. The particle size and shape, and grading and plasticity of these materials vary and have a significant effect on
the compaction characteristics. The effects are discussed below.
3.3.1.1 Grading of the Material

The particle sizes in a soil mass are identified through sieve analyses carried out on the material. From the sieve
analyses, the material is identified as either:
 Coarse grained material
 Gravelly soil
 Sandy soil
 Fine grained soil
 Silts
 Clays
The result of the sieve analyses is plotted in a graph which represents the grading curve for these materials.
Gradings and grading curves are also discussed in Chapter 3: 2.3. The shape of the grading curve indicates the
material to be:
 Continuously or densely graded. These soils have a
reasonably even distribution of particle sizes throughout the
soil mass.
 Uniformly or open graded. The particle sizes in these soils Soils and Gravels
are mainly single sized. Various aspects of soils and gravels are
discussed in:
 Gap-graded. These soils lack particles within a certain size
range, usually the middle range of sizes.  Chapter 3: Testing, Section 2
 Chapter 4: Standards, Section 2
Each of the above materials has different compaction
 Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement
characteristics. Usually, the more continuously or densely graded
Investigation, Section 5 and 6
a material, the easier it is to compact because the voids between
the larger size particles are filled with successively smaller sized  Chapter 8, Material Sources, Section 2
particles. In contrast, materials which are very fine, or which and 3
consist mainly of single sized particles (uniformly graded), with  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and
less than 10% fines (< 0.075 mm), are usually difficult to Design, Section 4
compact because the layer tends to remain unstable during  Chapter 10: Pavement Design,
compaction. Gap-graded soils are also difficult to compact to a Sections 5 to 9
very dense matrix with low voids.
 Chapter 13: Quality Management,
3.3.1.2 Particle Shape Section 3
The shape of individual particles in a soil mass affects the

behaviour of the material. Various shapes such as rounded, cubical, flaky, angular and elongated particles have
been identified. Each of these particle shapes has a marked effect on the ability to improve interlock between the
particles during densification of the material.

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Flaky, angular or elongated particles are normally more difficult to compact than cubic or round particles. This is
because badly shaped particles resist the compactive effort, which results in a higher void content in the compacted
material.
3.3.1.3 Particle Hardness

The particle hardness varies in different soil types. Compaction of a soil is affected by the pressure transfer that
takes place between particles at their points of contact. When a soil is densified, the applied force must overcome a
reactive force caused by the particles resisting movement. If the particles are soft, they break under the compactive
effort and form fines, which, if the breakup is excessive, might change the grading of the material.
3.3.2 Moisture Condition

The most important factor affecting the density achieved in a particular soil is the moisture content. For each soil,
and each type and compactive effort, there is an "optimum moisture content" of the material at which the highest
degree of densification can be achieved. The higher the compactive effort, the lower the optimum moisture content.
Just as each compactive effort has an optimum moisture content (OMC), so every type of compaction equipment also
has an optimum moisture content for the material, at which compaction should be carried out.
3.3.2.1 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)

When a granular material is compacted, the finer particles are forced into the voids between the larger particles.
When moisture is added, it acts as a lubricant and facilitates compaction. When too much moisture is added, it
forms a moisture layer around the various fine particles, preventing intimate contact, thereby reducing the density.
A test to determine the maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content of soil or gravel was developed
by Proctor. This test involves compacting soil in moulds using a standard compactive effort and varying moisture
contents, to determine that moisture content (OMC), at which the maximum density is achieved. This is done by
plotting the moisture content versus density curve, shown in Figure 72.
Figure 72. Moisture Content versus Density Curve to Determine OMC
As compaction equipment became more efficient, the Proctor compactive effort was inadequate to simulate the
compaction achieved in the field. Therefore, compactive effort used in testing was increased to that required by the
newer Modified AASHTO density test. These compaction tests are discussed in Chapter 3: 2.6.
In all testing for road works, the density of natural gravels is expressed as a percentage of the maximum dry density
(MDD) achieved with Modified AASHTO compactive effort at the optimum moisture content. In this way, the density
actually achieved in the field can be compared to a repeatable and reproducible laboratory value. It should be noted
that density is not necessarily an indication of strength, as a high density on a weak material does not necessarily
result in a high shear strength or stiffness. In practice, shear strength tests are carried out at more than one density
so that the strength-density relationship of the material is determined.
The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density (MDD) values are used as follows:
 To ensure that the material in the field is compacted at the correct moisture content.

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 The MDD is used as a measure to determine the relative density of materials in the field, to be able to judge
whether the field density is satisfactory.
 To provide a reference density at which to compare the shear strength of various materials and various other
material characteristics, such as its resistance to erosion.
The density of the material in the compacted layer is determined using one of two methods, the sand replacement
method or with the nuclear density apparatus. The nuclear density gauge is discussed in Chapter 3: 2.7.1. The
resulting value is then compared to a reference density and expressed as a percentage, and is known as the relative
density. The procedures followed in the field differ depending on the material.
The achievement of the specified density in a cost-effective manner during construction requires careful control of
the moisture content, number of roller passes applied and type of roller used. A maximum density is achieved at a
particular moisture content when a particular compactive effort is applied. If additional density is required, a higher
compactive effort has to be applied, or the moisture content changed.
3.3.2.2 Compaction Moisture

The correct amount and a uniform distribution of moisture are essential for compaction. There are two methods to
optimise the compaction moisture of the material. The most common method uses conventional construction
equipment such as water tankers, graders and dish ploughs. The other method uses in situ recycling machines.
(i) Conventional Equipment

When conventional equipment is utilized, water is applied uniformly over the entire width of the layer with pressure
spray tankers, as soon as the material has been spread or broken down with a grid roller. After the water has been
added to the layer, it is mixed using disk ploughs and grader tines. All the required water must not be added in a
single operation, but that which has been added must be mixed in thoroughly. The moisture content should be
checked with a nuclear gauge to assess whether the required moisture content has been reached. The nuclear
gauge must be calibrated for each specific material.
When experience with the material has been obtained, it may be possible to assess the OMC by compressing a
handful of soil. The OMC is generally near the point where a compressed handful of material just does not fall apart.
At this point, the layer normally requires a further single application of water, mixed with a disk plough, to bring it to
OMC.
Should the material show wet areas, it should be cut out with the grader and spread uniformly over the rest of the
layer, after which the material should again be mixed with the disk plough. Care should be taken to ensure that the
moisture is distributed throughout the entire depth of the layer and that a thin dry layer does not occur at the
bottom. If necessary, the entire layer may have to be cut to the sides, or the middle of the road, with a grader, to
ensure uniform and careful mixing of all of the moisture.
The mixing of water can be facilitated by moistening the layer thoroughly in the afternoon prior to compaction on the
following day. Evaporation of water during mixing can be reduced by carrying out this process early in the morning.
The length and width of the layer to be processed must not exceed the capacity of the water tanker or mixing or
compaction equipment.
When applying water, it is important the tanker does not stand on the layer at the beginning and end of the section.
If water drips from the tanker, this results in wet areas in the layer.
(ii) In Situ Recycling Machines

When in situ recycling machines are used to optimise the compaction moisture, the water is sprayed into the
recycler’s mixing chamber. The rate of water delivery is metered accurately through a micro-processor controlled
pumping system. The rotating drum mixes the water thoroughly with the recycled material to achieve the moisture
content necessary for optimum compaction. See Section 2.7 for more on recycling machines.
The plasticity or clayeyness of a material also influences compaction. Clay is relatively impermeable and the particles
are packed into a dense matrix. It is, therefore, difficult to ensure an even distribution of moisture throughout the
material.
3.3.3 Compactive Effort

There are three different compactive efforts for densifying a mass of material: static, impact or vibration
compaction. The manner in which particle interlock is achieved through these compactive efforts differ quite

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significantly. The efficiency of static compaction reduces rapidly with depth, whereas impact pressure is very
effective for deep densification. Vibration pressure is very effective in overcoming friction between particles as it
cause the particles in a soil to move correspondingly in a rotary motion or up and down, and forces the moving
particles into a greater degree of interlock. Guidelines on the selection of these rollers are discussed in
Section 2.10.2.
3.3.4 Compaction of Cohesionless Sands

Cohesionless sands are generally required to be compacted to 100%. To limit lateral movement during compaction
of cohesionless sands, the layer should ideally be covered with a capping layer of granular (more cohesive) material.
The AFCAP/ASANRA Guideline: “Guide for the Use of Sand in Road Construction in the SADC Region”
contains useful information on utilising these types of materials.
3.4 Cementitious Stabilization

Stabilizing road building material with cementitious agents such as cement and lime, or blends of cement with
mineral components such as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and limestone is common practice in South
Africa. The first cementitious stabilized pavement layer was constructed during 1941. Most of the major roads in
South Africa constructed since then have been constructed with one or more stabilized layers.
The purpose of stabilization is to change the properties of the

material, and thereby increase the bearing capacity of the material,
or to increase the strength and stiffness of the pavement layer
through cementation. The strength of a stabilized material, and the Cementitious Stabilization
rate of strength development, depends on the following: Various aspects of cementitious
stabilization are discussed in:
 Material properties
 Quantity of cementitious agent added  Chapter 3: Testing, Section 5.3
 Characteristics of the cementitious agent  Chapter 4: Standards, Section 5.3
 Uniformity of mixing  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation

and Design, Section 6
 Moisture in the material
 Chapter 10: Pavement Design,
 Density of compacted material Sections 7 and 8
 Method of curing and curing period  Chapter 13: Quality Management,
Section 4
The main mode of distress in a stabilized layer is through cracking of
the layer or carbonation of the material in the layer.
 Cracking of a stabilized layer can be either traffic or non-traffic associated. Traffic associated cracking is caused
by overstressing the stabilized layer. Non-traffic associated cracking is generally caused by drying shrinkage and
thermal movements occurring within the stabilized layer. The degree and extent of this type of cracking can be
limited by adding the least amount of stabilizing agent required to achieve the required strength, and by ensuring
that the compaction moisture content is limited to the minimum necessary in order to achieve the required level
of compaction. Stabilized layers should thus never be “slushed” to achieve a “smooth/uniform” final surface
finish.
 Carbonation is a process whereby the cementation of the material is adversely affected. It is the reaction
whereby carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air reacts with the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the stabilized material to
form calcium carbonate (CaCO3), resulting in a volume increase of about 10%. This leads to disintegration of the
stabilized layer. The calcium carbonate reduces the pH of the stabilized material to that of calcite (about 8.3),
resulting in instability of remaining cementitious products. Various construction control measures can be
implemented to limit the carbonation process. Carbonation is described in more detail in Chapter 6: 7.4.1.1 and
Chapter 13: 4.2.1.
Quality control during the construction of a stabilized layer is thus of utmost importance to ensure adequate
performance.
3.4.1 Types of Cements

Cement specifications in South Africa have to comply with SANS 50197-1, which categorises common cements
according to their composition and strength development. This is discussed further in Chapter 4: 5.1.2, and all
details of the categories of cement and compressive strength requirements are provided. Cement types used for
road stabilization vary, but historically CEM II 32.5N types were mainly used. CEM V type cements have also been
used successfully in road stabilization projects. However, the availability of cement types depends heavily on the
location of the project and the manufacturing capabilities of cement producers in the vicinity. The desired cement

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type for road stabilization may, therefore, not be available. It is very important to go through a proper stabilization
design process to ensure that the correct cement type, in conjunction with the specific material, is used.
3.4.2 Process Control

The construction of a stabilized layer comprises the following processes, which should be controlled to ensure a high
quality stabilized layer:
 Preparation
 Spreading
 Mixing
 Compaction
 Reworking
 Curing
 Limiting carbonation
 Curing techniques
 Safety measures
3.4.2.1 Preparation
The material to be stabilized should be prepared as per the specification, shaped and lightly compacted. It is
advisable that the moisture content of the material be corrected to the field compaction moisture content the
previous day, so that it can soak overnight to aid mixing of the material and the stabilizer.
3.4.2.2 Spreading
The cementitious agent can either be spread by hand from bags or by bulk
using mechanical spreaders. Spreading by hand from bags has increased
during recent years, especially due to the enhancement of the labour content Spreading Cement
on a project, as well as the short length of stabilized sections during
Labourers spreading the
rehabilitation contracts. Spreading with mechanical spreaders and tankers is
cementitious agent must wear
discussed in Section 2.5.
the necessary protective
clothing.
If spreading by hand from bags, the following should apply:
 The bags should be neatly laid out in 3 or 4 rows, evenly spaced over
the width of the road. The number of rows must be chosen that the spacing between rows is approximately the
same as the spacing between bags in every row, as shown in Figure 73. The calculation of the bag spacing
done using Equation (1).
(1)
where L = Length between bags when such bags are placed in a single row, in metres
M = Mass of the bags, in kg (1 bag cement typically = 50 kg)
T = Thickness of the compacted layer, in millimetres
W = Width of the road to be stabilized, in metres
P = Percentage stabilizing agent required, by mass of stabilizer to mass of raw soil
D = Density of the soil after compaction, in kg/m³. This is not the modified density of the soil,
but the required density that must be obtained after compaction. Supposing the soil’s
modified density is 2167 kg/m³ and the soil must be compacted to 96%, then
D = 2167 x 96/100 = 2080 kg/m³.

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Figure 73. Bag Placement and Spreading
 When the bags are laid out in more than one row, the distance between the bags can be obtained by
multiplying the distance for a single row (L) by the number of rows.
 After the positions for the bags have been marked on the prepared surface of the layer, the bags can be laid out
on these marks. The bags should be opened using a spade, and the stabilizer should be spread evenly over
the surface. After the stabilizer has been spread with shovels, it is advisable to further spread the material more
evenly using hand brooms or squeegees, as illustrated in Figure 73. A grader blade should not be used to spread
the stabilizer, unless the surface is very even.
 Where two stabilizers are specified, special attention must be given to ensure that each one is spread evenly.
 Labourers spreading the cementitious agent must wear the necessary protective clothing.
 An example of how not to spread cement prior to stabilization is given in Figure 74. In this situation the
cement will be unevenly distributed across the layer.
Figure 74. Example of Incorrect Spreading of Cement Prior to Stabilization

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3.4.2.3 Mixing
There are various methods used to mix the cementitious agent and water into the material. The methods most
commonly used are with conventional equipment, such as graders and disc-harrows, or in situ recycling equipment.
The method followed depends, to a great extent, on the type of material and the availability of plant. The use of in
situ recyclers for mixing in the cementitious agent and water has increased significantly over recent years.
Guidelines for using in situ recyclers are provided in Section 2.7.
3.4.2.4 Compaction
Stabilized materials should be compacted at a moisture content below 80% of saturation, to reduce cracking in the
stabilized layers. Some materials are more difficult to compact after the addition of stabilizer than before, while
others become more readily compactable. This behaviour is directly attributed to the change in the grading of the
material, caused by the addition of the fine stabilizer. If the material is fine graded, the compaction techniques
should be adapted to ensure that laminations (thin layers) are not built into the stabilized layer. For each type of
material, the most effective and economical compaction procedure should be established. As the majority of
materials tend to become non-plastic with stabilization, they should be compacted with care to prevent the formation
of shear planes under the roller. Shear planes are built-in weak spots, which may give problems at a later stage. It
is normally preferable to use 10 passes with a light roller, than one pass with a heavy roller, which may overstress
the material.
Cementation starts immediately as the soil and cement come into contact with the compaction water. Therefore, the
mixing and compaction process should be completed as soon as possible, to maximise the benefits of stabilization.
Cognisance should be taken of the fact that the strength gain of the stabilized material is dependent on the type of
cement used. A very fine ground cement, such as CEM 1 42.5, has a fast strength gain. This affects the time
available to mix, compact and shape the layer. The time generally allowed from the when the stabilizer and water is
added to the material to the completion of the layer is 6 hours for cement and 12 hours for lime.
3.4.2.5 Reworking
When a stabilized layer cannot be satisfactorily compacted within the prescribed time, both the dry density and the
final strength are reduced, and the layer is not likely to conform to the specification. In this case, the layer must be
ripped, re-stabilized and reconstructed. When reworking, not more than half the stabilizer application must be added
because, although most of the exchange and flocculation reactions have already taken place, some residual (and still
active) stabilizer is left. Reworking should not be permitted more than seven days after the initial construction.
Reworking should not be allowed more than once. When reworking material with additional stabilizer, the maximum
dry density (MDD) should be re-determined.
3.4.2.6 Curing
This is the most important aspect of stabilization. The
requirements should be strictly adhered to. The most important
requirement is that the completed layer should never be allowed to Curing
dry out. This is because keeping the layer damp:
Curing is the most important aspect of
 Inhibits carbonation of the stabilizer. stabilization. The layer must never be
 Provides enough moisture at the surface of the layer for allowed to dry out to:
cementation to take place.  Inhibit carbonation
 Prevents the temperature of the surface increasing compared  Allow cementation
to the rest of the layer, which may induce thermal stresses and
potentially inducing cracking.
 Prevent thermal stresses developing
The layer should be kept damp for at least
If a course graded material such as a crushed stone is stabilized, 7 days after stabilization and compaction
slushing of the layer to obtain the required density is not allowed. have been completed.
The layer should be kept damp for at least 7 days after stabilization and compaction are complete. However,
especially for lime stabilization, the curing period should be longer. This could be achieved by, after the 7 day curing
period has elapsed and the layer is strong enough for traffic, dumping and spreading the next layer on the lime
stabilized layer.
To prevent damage to the layer during the curing period, a very light water cart or a ‘side spray bar’ should be used
to water the layer.
The following curing methods are used:

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(i) Regular Application of Water

The stabilized layer is kept continuously moist by regular spraying with a water bowser. The disadvantage of this
technique is that the top few millimetres of the layer tends to dry out rapidly between water applications. This
usually results in repetitive cycles of wetting and drying, creating a weak layer in the pavement.
(ii) Covering with Impermeable Sheeting

An impermeable sheet or cover is placed on the finished layer immediately after compaction, and left in place for at
least seven days. The cover must be held down with stones, or, preferably a sand-berm to minimise wind ingress.
Effective overlap of sheets and close stone placement is essential to ensure a good seal. This method is suitable for
all pavement layers, including the base, and ensures a constant, humid environment. It also negates the need for,
and prevents, vehicles from travelling on the layer. Unfortunately, the method is expensive and the sheeting is
difficult to place and retain in place in strong winds.
(iii) Application of Curing Membrane

The application of a good thick bituminous membrane or tack coat is an effective curing method. A surface
treatment grade of bitumen emulsion is probably the most effective, but has practical problems in terms of adhesion
to tyres during follow-up sealing operations. Blinding with sand or crusher dust can overcome this problem and
provides a temporary riding surface until sealing commences. It is still important that no other traffic is permitted on
the surface during the curing period. This is obviously a costly operation for layers other than the base. Also, from a
pavement drainage perspective, it is not advisable to have an impermeable layer within the pavement structure.
Curing membranes should be applied as soon as possible after completion of the layer, but not later than 48 hours.
The layer being kept continually moist before the membrane is placed.
A disadvantage of this method is that the black mat causes heating of the layer, accelerating the hydration process,
and also inducing thermal stresses, which could lead to cracking. The high temperatures in the upper part of the
layer also reduce the ultimate strength of the material. In addition, the thick impermeable layer of bituminous
membrane on the base layer can create a problem when the final surfacing is applied.
(iv) Covering with Subsequent Layer

The material for the subsequent layer is tipped and spread over the stabilized layer and kept moist. This has been
found to be an effective curing technique. Care should, however, be taken to minimise vehicle movements on the
stabilized layer, and an end-tipping technique should be used where feasible. Material from the verge can be used
on base courses, it is less costly than importing material specifically for curing.
This is the preferred method where appropriate, due to the moisture retention capacity of the material and its cost
effectiveness. It is also suitable for the longer curing periods required for lime and, in some cases, lime/slag
stabilization.
Over and above curing in order to facilitate the cementation process, protection of the completed layer is also vital
when stabilising during expected cold (sub-zero) night temperatures to prevent freeze/thaw damage, particularly on
cemented treated bases. Current experience indicates that even by applying a covering layer of only 75 mm of
gravel soon after completion of compaction, facilitates the retention of the heat generated during the hydration
process. This maintains the cemented layer at a temperature in the order of 5 to 7 °C above the ambient
temperature, thus reducing the risk of any potential freeze/thaw damage.
3.4.2.7 Limiting Carbonation

The following construction procedures must be carefully controlled to minimise carbonation of susceptible materials.
 Layers must be compacted to as high a density as possible, without excessively disturbing the grading, as
soon as possible after mixing with the stabilizer. This expedites cementation, and prevents carbonation reactions.
This action helps by sealing the layer and reducing the voids, but is not applicable to lime modification.
 For stabilized layers thicker than 200 mm, the bottom half of the layer must, be compacted separately, to
ensure that good compaction is obtained throughout the layer. Less than 5 per cent air voids is desirable, which
may require additional compaction effort. Layers that are too thin, typically less than 100 mm, may result in
“biscuits” layers with consequential problems.
 Where modification is required, and the material is worked in two stages, slightly higher stabilizer contents
should be applied to compensate for carbonation. Care should be taken to seal the surface after the initial
application of stabilizer.

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 Unnecessary delays in the placing of the next layer on a stabilized layer must be avoided. Stabilized base
courses must be sealed as soon as possible after construction.
 The stabilizer must be as fresh as possible, and must not be stored for long periods before use.
 Where difficulties in achieving a well-compacted and cured layer are envisaged, the thickness of the layer
should be increased to allow skimming of the upper layer prior to sealing. Success of this depends, to a large
degree, on the grading of the material in the layer.
Emulsion and penetration grade bitumen, when used as a prime coat, are more effective in limiting carbonation than
the conventional cut-back bitumen.
3.4.3 Safety Measures

Lime and cement are strongly alkaline and are dangerous, causing serious injuries if not handled carefully.
Reference should be made to the Material Safety Data Sheets available from suppliers. The following precautions
should be taken when working with stabilization materials:
 Workers should be trained in the use of stabilizers and the associated safety precautions and treatments for
exposure.
 Wear a buttoned-up long sleeved shirt and trousers or overalls.
 Wear closed shoes or boots.
 Wear a hard hat and gloves.
 Use goggles and breathing masks.
 When long periods of possible exposure are expected, petroleum jelly (Vaseline) can be rubbed onto the
exposed skin.
 Carefully wash immediately after the work is completed. A small amount of vinegar in the bath water helps to
neutralise the alkali.
 Clothing exposed to lime and cement must be washed regularly.
 Whenever hydrated lime or cement comes into contact with the skin, it should be washed off as soon as
possible.
3.5 Bitumen Stabilization

Bitumen is becoming increasingly popular as a
stabilizer, primarily due to technological
advances. The bitumen is applied in either an
Bitumen Stabilization
emulsified or a foamed form. Stabilizing with
bitumen is a cost-effective way to improve the The following are comprehensive guidelines for all aspects of
strength of a material, while reducing the BSMs:
detrimental effects of water. Bitumen  TG2 (2009), Second Edition: Technical Guideline:
stabilization produces a relatively flexible Bituminous Stabilised Materials – A Guideline for the Design
layer, compared to the same material treated and Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and Foamed Bitumen
with cement. Stabilised Materials.
 Wirtgen Cold Recycling Manual (2010), Third edition.
Material stabilized with bitumen and a low Wirtgen GmbH.
percentage of cement (<1.5%), does not
suffer from the shrinkage cracking Various aspects of bitumen stabilization are discussed in:
phenomenon associated with cement
treatment. Therefore, they may be trafficked
 Chapter 3: Materials Testing, Section 4.6
immediately, due to the initial binding and  Chapter 4: Standards, Section 4.6
strength of the surface particles that prevent  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design, Section 9
ravelling under the action of traffic.
 Chapter 10: Pavement Design, Section 7
Bitumen stabilized material (BSM) is  Chapter 13: Quality Management: Section 5
characterised by bitumen dispersing mainly
amongst the fine particles, typically the fraction less than 0.075 mm for foamed bitumen and coarser for bitumen
emulsion. The treated material is, therefore, a granular material with a bituminous mastic.
BSM layers are used instead of crushed stone bases. These materials involve mixtures of emulsion or foamed
bitumen and crushed stone or good quality natural gravels, with net bitumen contents ranging from 0.5% to 3%.
Approximately 1% cement is also normally added into the material to facilitate complete "breaking" of emulsion and

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to aid distribution of the bitumen, and for early strength. The cement and bitumen binder together facilitate the
construction of a dense, strong, fairly impermeable layer. The additional cost of the bitumen and cement is
considerable, and hence BSMs are almost exclusively used when reworking
existing base courses, in very wet areas, or where traffic must be
accommodated by the layer prior to surfacing. Traffic accommodation on
the completed layer is only possible if the surface is enriched with a 50:50 Primes on BSM Layers
diluted emulsion, and the layer is kept dry. In wet weather, problems can Primes should not be used on
be experienced if traffic is accommodated on this layer without a surfacing. BSM layers.
Primes should not be used on BSM layers.
3.6 Modification of Materials

In many situations, the available gravels do not meet the necessary requirements for the pavement layer. In these
cases, the materials can be modified. Several physical or natural methods of modification are available, which are
used depending on the availability of materials. Should the necessary material not be available, then chemical
modification may be used.
3.6.1 Natural Modification

There are several forms of natural modification available:
 Crushing. Where gravels have a high proportion of oversized material, and where better quality materials are
only located at an uneconomical distance, single stage crushing or crushing and sieving of the oversized material
should be considered.
 Material mixtures. When two materials of very different quality are available, and better quality materials are
not available, mixing should be considered to obtain satisfactory performance. The cost of thorough mixing using
a disc plough should be compared to the additional cost of hauling the material from a distance.
 Admixture of clay. This is normally only used for gravel wearing courses or shoulder materials. The clayey
material should not be too active, and a PI of 16 to 24 is preferred. The clay should be stockpiled and dried out,
and then crushed with a grid roller, as wet clay cannot be mixed effectively. The fine dry material can then be
spread over the gravel, and mixed as if it were a chemical stabilizer. Thereafter the mixture can be moistened
and compacted. A maximum of roughly 15% clay should be added. The actual amount used should be
confirmed by laboratory PI and CBR tests.
3.6.2 Chemical Modification

Modification of a soil in a pavement layer most commonly involves treatment with lime. The modification is carried
out in the following manner:
 Pavement layer material is shaped, and the lime is spread and mixed into the material.
 Layer is lightly compacted to seal the surface and limit moisture movement, and then left to stand for a
minimum of 12 hours. During this period, the majority of the cation exchange reactions occur and particles
flocculate.
 After the required standing time (typically 24 hours), the layer should be ripped and constructed conventionally.
 The maximum dry density (MDD) of the modified material is determined at the time of compaction.
Modification would normally be done on crushed stone or natural base material, to reduce a PI which is slightly
outside the standard specification to within the required limits, or on a clayey subgrade to improve workability.
There is a strong likelihood that some of this PI could return after some time and it is important that the natural
strength of the material meets the required specification.
3.7 Cold Recycling

This section covers the cold recycling process, which has become a very popular construction method since the
introduction of in situ recycling machines (Section 2.7). The shortage of construction material, especially in built-up
areas, has resulted in the process becoming very popular as a rehabilitation option for strengthening pavement
layers.
The cold recycling process is described in detail in the Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology Manual (2010).

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3.7.1 Types of Cold Recycling

Cold recycling can either be “in-plant” where material recovered
from an existing road is hauled to a central depot, where it is fed Cold Recycling
through a processing unit, such as a pugmill-type mixer, or “in- The Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology
place” using a recycling machine. Manual (2010) is a good reference for cold
recycling.
3.7.1.1 In-Plant Recycling
Many aspects of cold recycling applied for
In-plant recycling is normally considered where recycled material
BSMs are included in TG2: Technical
is used in the construction of a new pavement layer during
Guideline: Bituminous Stabilised
strengthening of an existing pavement.
Materials – A Guideline for the Design and
Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and
In-plant treatment always remains an option that should be
Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Materials.
considered when recycling is applicable, particularly those that
require a blend of recycled and virgin materials to be treated,
and when treating with foamed bitumen and stockpiling for later use.
In-plant processing is generally the more expensive option, in terms of cost per cubic metre of material processed,
primarily due to haulage and handling costs not applicable to the in-place recycling process.
The main benefits that accrue from in-plant mixing compared to in-place mixing include:
 Control of input materials. In-place recycling allows little control on the material recovered from an existing
pavement, whereas a required end-product can be obtained by blending different aggregates using in-plant
mixing. Input materials can be stockpiled and tested prior to mixing, and input proportions changed as required.
 Quality of mixing. Various changes can be made to the mixing operation of the pugmill to vary the time the
material is retained within the mixing chamber, thereby changing the quality of the mix.
 Stockpiling capabilities. Particularly with foamed bitumen treated materials, the mixed product can be placed
in stockpile and used when required, thereby removing the inter-dependency of the mixing and placing
processes.
 Placement. The materials can be placed using a simple motor grader or asphalt paver.
3.7.1.2 In-place Recycling

In-place recycling is carried out using milling equipment to windrow the milled material in place. Then, remixers can
be used to mix in cement or bitumen to strengthen the material, before it is spread and compacted.
However, in-place recycling is becoming very popular due to the advent of large powerful recycling machines
(described in Section 2.7), which have the capacity to recycle thick pavement layers up to 500 mm in a single pass.
However, the most common recycling depths are 200 to 300 mm.
3.7.2.1 In-Plant Recycling

In-plant recycling involves removing material from the road and taking it to the plant where it is processed. It is
then brought back to the road to be laid and compacted, as with any other stabilized layer. Therefore, all the
process controls and issues that are applicable to cementitious and bituminous layers are applicable. These are
discussed in Sections 3.4, Cementitious Materials and Section 3.5, Bituminous Materials.
3.7.2.2 In Situ Recycling

In situ recycling itself is a quick operation, where lack of
attention to detail and control very quickly results in major
problems. The following sections provide guidelines for Process Control for In Situ Recycling
controlling the process to ensure a satisfactory result. As The construction chapter in the following guideline
with all construction operations, employing well-trained provides valuable detail on process control for in
supervisors and operators is a prerequisite for success, situ recycling with bitumen stabilized materials.
not only in terms of quality, but also from a safety
perspective.  TG2: Technical Guideline: Bituminous Stabilised
Materials – A Guideline for the Design and
Construction joints are very important and need attention. Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and Foamed
Bitumen Stabilised Materials.
There are two types of joints encountered when recycling:

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longitudinal joints running parallel to the centre line of the road, and lateral joints that run at right-angles to the
centre line. All joints are essentially discontinuities in the pavement and, unless they are properly treated, have the
potential to negatively affect the structural integrity of the recycled layer. Longitudinal and lateral joints are very
different. Longitudinal joints are "designed" to fit the road geometrics, while lateral joints are produced every time
the recycling operation stops.
The recycling process is relatively simple, as most of the process is taken care of by the recycler and its related
control equipment. However, the equipment and related checks must be carefully controlled to provide a satisfactory
result. The various operational control measures are summarised as follows:
(i) Planning
The day’s activities must be planned to conceptualise the cut plan, detailing overlaps between the various cuts and
the consequential requirements for configuring nozzle closures on each spray bar.
(ii) Preparatory Work

This must be completed before recycling commences, including any pre-milling or pre-pulverising requirements.
(iii) Start Up
This includes pre-start checks on all plant and equipment, especially the pumping systems and spray bars on the
recycler. Also included in these checks are the critical temperatures, e.g., in the material to be recycled and the
bitumen products in supply tankers. Thereafter, the start-up procedures must be strictly followed.
(iv) Recycler Set Up

The recycler must be correctly set up with the spray bar correctly configured in terms of nozzle closure, the tankers
properly connected and the correct information input into the computer. The operator must have an unambiguous
understanding of the procedures to be followed, and be provided with a clear steering guideline.
(v) Stabilizer
Any stabilizer or active filler requirement is accurately spread on the layer surface ahead of the recycler (see Section
3.4.2.2).
(vi) Routine Checks during Recycling

Routine checks during recycling include:
 Accurately follow the correct line of cut
 Maintain the speed of advance within specified limits
 Physically measure the depth of cut on a regular basis
 Check the moisture content and consistency of treated material
 Visual appearance of the treated material, e.g., grading, mix quality and colour variations
 Temperature measurements across the cut width
 Read the pressure gauges and flow meter displays fitted to the spray bar feed lines
These checks are on-going. It is imperative that they are carried out on a regular basis to ensure that the recycled
product consistently meets the quality requirements. This demands diligence on the part of the supervising team.
Recycling is monotonous and, when everything is working properly, carrying out regular checks appears to be
unnecessary. However, thanks to the high output achieved by recycling, if something does goes wrong and the
problem is not immediately detected, remedial measures can be onerous.
(vii) Compaction
Compaction is carried out immediately behind the recycler using
the correct roller combination and rolling technique. See
Section 2.10 on rollers. Cut Plans for Longitudinal Joints
(viii) Final Levels Achieving properly overlapped joints is
important for the ultimate performance of the
Final levels must be accurately cut and the layer correctly recycled layer. The cut plan detailing each
finished off. overlap is one of the first requirements when
planning a project. Clear guidelines must be
(ix) Longitudinal Joints established for each cut, not only the first cut.

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The width of the recycled cut is invariably less than the road or carriageway width. Several passes (or cuts) are,
therefore, required to completely recycle the full width, resulting in a series of longitudinal joints between adjacent
cuts. Overlaps are required along the full length of each joint to achieve continuity between the two cuts.
Therefore, only the first cut recycles virgin material over the full drum width. Thereafter, the effective width of all
subsequent cuts is reduced by the width of overlap. Careful consideration must be given to ensure that the
application rate of stabilizer and water is both uniform and continuous across all overlaps.
The number of cuts necessary to recycle the full road width, and the location of each longitudinal joint is influenced
by:
 Width of road to be recycled and cross-section details. Cambered roads should preferably be treated in
half-widths to achieve a uniform depth of recycling across the crown. The first cut on the first half-width to be
recycled is normally extended across the centre line by the width of the overlap. The first cut on the second half-
width is then positioned to follow the centre line, thereby re-establishing the crown.
 Type of recycling machine being used on the project. In particular, the width of the milling drum.
 Width of overlap. Recyclers are large machines and require a tolerance for adhering to a steered line. The
recommended minimum overlap width is 150 mm. This may be generous when working with an experienced
team, when it may be relaxed to 100 mm, the absolute minimum. To take cognisance of the propensity of coarse
materials to segregate, the width of overlap should increase with layer thickness and coarseness.
 Longitudinal joints. These should always be located away from the outer wheel path.
The cut plan detailing each overlap is one of the first requirements when planning a project. The overlap must be
subtracted from the drum width to determine the effective stabilizing width for each cut that, in turn, governs the
quantity of water and stabilizer to be added. Where there is any doubt about the uniformity of application for water
and stabilizers across the width of an overlap, an enlarged cut plan should be compiled, showing the overlap relative
to the position of the relevant spray bars.
The achievement of properly overlapped joints is important for the ultimate performance of the recycled layer, and
must receive due attention. Where problems arise, they are generally caused by the improper operation of the
recycler, resulting in unrecycled strips between adjacent cuts or double-dosing due to accidentally increasing the
width of overlap. To assist the operator in steering the recycler correctly, a clear guideline must be established for
each cut, not only the first cut. Before starting a fresh cut, the guideline must be checked to ensure that it is clearly
visible over the full length of cut. In addition, the nozzle configuration should be checked before starting to ensure
that the correct nozzles are closed, in accordance with the planned overlap. Examples of cut plans and nozzle
configurations are given in TG2 (2009).
(x) Lateral Joints

Lateral joints are discontinuities across the width of cut that are formed each time the recycling operation starts or
stops. Every stoppage, even those that take only a few minutes to change tankers, creates a lateral joint. Such a
joint is a change in the uniformity of the recycled material. Care should, therefore, be exercised to minimise
stoppages and, where they are unavoidable, to ensure continuity across the resulting joint.
The key to treating these joints properly is to have a clear understanding of what is happening inside the recycler’s
mixing chamber, particularly the process of adding stabilizer. Most problems encountered are the result of under or
over-application of stabilizers and/or water at the joint.
Two of the most important features concerning lateral joints are:

 Start-up procedures. When starting to recycle, all start-up
procedures must be carefully followed. Especially procedures to
bleed air from each spray bar supply line, i.e., any air trapped in Lateral Joints
these lines first has to be displaced before the fluid reaches the
Lateral joints are discontinuities across the
spray bar. Unless properly bled, it is possible to recycle several
width of cut that are formed each time the
metres without additive, resulting in an unstabilized (or dry)
recycling operation starts or stops. Every
section of pavement.
stoppage, even those that take only a few
 Slow advance speeds when stopping and starting. minutes to change tankers, creates a
Although automatically controlled by the micro-processor, a very lateral joint and such a joint is a change in
slow advance speed (< 2 m/min) results in such a low the uniformity of the recycled material.
application demand that operating pressures in the spray bars Care should therefore be exercised to
reduce to a point where fluid injection is ineffective, and the minimise stoppages and, where they are
fluid dribbles rather than sprays. The best way to overcome this unavoidable, to ensure continuity across
problem is to "enrich" the joint area by pre-treating. This is the resulting joint.

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achieved by reversing the train at least the diameter of the milling drum (approximately 1.5 m) back into the
previously recycled material, thereby ensuring that all material receives treatment across the effective width of
joint. When starting, the operator should apply full power and accelerate immediately to the usual operating
speed.
Similar to paving asphalt, lateral joint problems only arise when the operation stops. The recycler should, therefore,
only be stopped when really necessary, for example, when a supply tanker is empty, or at the end of the day’s
production.
3.8 Crushed Stone Base

This section covers the construction of crushed stone and
crushed slag layers, as the techniques for both aggregates
types are essentially similar. A crushed stone base is the
most popular base in pavements constructed in South Crushed Stone Bases
Africa. The performance of this layer is very dependent Crushed stone bases are discussed in:
on the method in which it is constructed. For this reason,  Chapter 3: Testing, Section 3
the method of construction is dealt with in detail in this
 Chapter 4: Standards, Section 3
chapter. A crushed stone layer consists of crushed stone
or blast furnace slag uniformly graded from a minus  Chapter 8: Material Sources, Section 2 and 3
37.5 mm or minus 28.0 mm maximum size to dust, and  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design,
which is compacted to form a tight, dense integral mass. Section 5
The strength of the layer is primarily obtained by the  Chapter 10: Pavement Design, Sections 7, 8
mechanical interlock of the various size aggregate and 9
particles.
 Chapter 13: Quality Management, Section 3
A distinction must be made between “crusher run” and
“crushed stone”.
 Crusher run includes the material obtained by crushing rock in a crusher, and uses the total crushed product
without applying strict grading or other specifications.
 Crushed stone involves crushed rock, which conforms to strict specifications.
Crushed stone is often used in high quality bases, such as G1 or G2 bases. One of the primary requirements for the
successful performance of a crushed stone base layer is adequate support in the form of a well cemented subbase
layer. The cemented subbase layer is less moisture susceptible, and this facilitates slushing of the crushed stone
layer with water to achieve the required high density. The strong support provided by the cemented layer allows a
high density to be achieved, and has a confining effect on the base layer, which increases the stiffness and reduces
the probability of shear failure occurring within the crushed stone layer.

The process control for crushed stone and crushed slag differ, as described in the following sections.
3.8.1.1 Crushed Stone

The construction of the crushed stone layer comprises the following processes, which should be controlled to ensure
a high quality crushed stone base layer is constructed.
(i) Construction of Gravel Shoulders

Where gravel shoulders are being used, the shoulder material must be dumped on the road in a predetermined
pattern, so that the layer has the specified thickness after shaping and compaction.
The heaps of shoulder material must be flattened and watered to optimum moisture content. Thereafter, it should
be compacted and cut to the required level. After final compaction, the inside of the shoulder must be cut at right
angles to the surface of the subbase. All excess material must be removed from the subbase surface, to prevent
contamination of the crushed stone layer.
Provision must be made for draining the crushed stone layer at low points, particularly if the shoulder material is
fairly impermeable.
If the shoulder is too narrow for normal construction equipment, then it is normally constructed wider and cut back
to the required width.

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(ii) Dumping Crushed Stone on the Road

The crushed stone must be dumped on the road so that it has the required thickness after shaping and compaction.
In most crushed stone material, a thickness reduction factor of between 1.4 and 1.5 is allowed for compaction.
The crushed stone must be dumped between the built up shoulders and, preferably, along the centre line of the
road. It is essential that material be dumped as evenly as possible to ensure that it can spread uniformly. Where
cross overs are required for traffic, it is preferable for the traffic to drive over the spread crushed stone. Photos of
dumping and spreading crushed stone are given in Figure 75.
Figure 75. Dumping and Spreading of Crushed Stone
(iii) Spreading of Crushed Stone

To ensure that the layer is constructed successfully, it is essential to avoid segregation within the layer and to ensure
that moisture is mixed uniformly throughout the crushed stone layer. These two factors ensure that the material is
compacted in the most cost-effective manner, and that the highest possible density is achieved.
Segregation generally originates during the building phase of the crushed stone stockpiles. The stockpiles should be
built in layers and care should be taken not to end tip the material near the perimeter of the stockpile which results
in the courser material running down the sides of the stockpile, causing segregation. Loading material from the
stockpile should also be controlled. A front end loader should be used and loading should be done from the bottom
upwards, to ensure that the different layers of material in the stockpile are mixed before it is dumped in the trucks.
It is thus essential that segregation be controlled at the stockpile site before the material is dumped on the road.
Figure 76 shows a typical segregated stockpile showing the extent of single size coarse aggregate. Figure 77 shows
a typical non segregated stockpile.
On the day prior to the compaction of a particular section, the material which has been dumped along the centre of
the road should be spread in such a manner that a water bowser can drive on it. An example is given in Figure 75.
In view of the fact that the material is dry, segregation easily occurs, and, therefore, the material must be moved as
little as possible. The material can normally be effectively spread with a grader.
Uniform mixing of the moisture throughout the crushed stone layer requires the water to be added at least 12 hours
prior to the actual mixing. The moisture spreads throughout the crushed stone layer on its own accord, which
facilitates mixing of the material and inhibits segregation, as many of the finer particles adhere to the coarser
particles.
After the material has been spread out, it must be watered. The water bowser drives over the spread material and
waters the full width of the material. The quantity of water required varies, and care should be taken to ensure that
the optimum moisture content for this specific material is not exceeded.

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Note the extent of single

size coarse aggregate.
Figure 76. Segregated Material in Stockpile
Figure 77. Suitable Stockpile with No Sign of Segregation

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(iv) Mixing
After the layer has been watered, the material is spread and mixed over the full width of the layer to be constructed.
The material is cut from one side of the road to the other, using a grader blade. The amount of material handled
within each pass should be such that the power of the grader is adequate to maintain a reasonable speed. It is
highly undesirable for the machine to move at a variable speed,
and skidding and sliding must be avoided.
During the final stage of mixing, the blade of the grader must be Watering Crushed Stone Layers
in contact with the subbase to avoid leaving a layer of fine
The optimum moisture content for the
material on the surface.
particular material and compaction method
should not be exceeded, as it will be difficult
Should the material be too dry, it should be watered and remixed.
to dry out the material.
The exposed surface of the subbase can also be watered at this
stage if it is too dry. The mixing process must continue until all
When the layer is too wet, compaction
the material is mixed uniformly over the entire width of the road.
should be postponed until the layer has
Material which has already been mixed, must be placed in its final
dried out sufficiently.
position to avoid unnecessary cutting and segregation.
It must be emphasized again that the optimum moisture content for the particular material and compaction method
should not be exceeded, as it will be difficult to dry out the material.
Figure 78. Mixing Crushed Stone
(v) Compaction
The layer is compacted starting with the rollers at the outside edges of the layer, and working towards the centre
line, to maintain its shape. Where vibratory rollers are used, initial rolling may have to be carried out without
vibration. The recommended number of coverages, prior to re-shaping the layer, is typically between 2 and 4
complete coverages with a vibratory roller and/or a pneumatic roller. Results from the test section aid in determining
the number of coverages. Should problems be experienced with the density or grading of the material, then it may
be necessary to construct the layer in 50 mm thick increments, using pneumatic and/or grid rollers.
The layer must be cut and shaped during the early stage of compaction. The first cut should start at the windrow
and the cut should be such that the blade is full of mixed material. After the layer has been cut back into shape,
compaction continues until the layer achieves stability and the required density.
As soon as the layer has reached a stable condition, a further cut of the windrow is made to spread finer material
from the windrow over the entire width and length of the layer. At this stage, no attempt should be made to cut the
layer to the correct shape or height, as it should already have been compacted to that position and shape.
After the final cut, the layer is finished with a vibratory roller, 10 to 12 tonne combination roller, or a flat roller,
provided that the moisture content of the layer does not exceed the optimum for this particular roller. The optimum
moisture content for a crushed stone is normally in the range of 2% to 4%. Where it is found that the layer is too

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wet, the rolling process should be postponed until the layer has dried out sufficiently. Thereafter, the rolling is
continued.
The rolling is carried out systematically from the sides towards the middle of the road with half-wheel overlaps, until
the entire surface is covered, and the layer is not rolled out of shape. It is also important to carry out the first pass
with the driving wheels of the roller in front, otherwise some material could be pushed in a wave in front of the
roller, which could result in corrugations. The rolling continues until the material shows minimum movement
underneath the roller. It is essential that no movement occurs towards the end of this process, as stability at this
stage aids the slushing process significantly.
Dry crushed stone fines can be rolled into any loose or segregated areas at this stage to further aid the slushing
process.
Figure 79. Compacting Crushed Stone
(vi) Slushing
The process of slushing is a critical operation. The purpose is to ensure that all aggregate particles interlock with
one another to form a dense integrated mass of particles. Proper slushing results in closure of all the openings in the
upper surface of the layer, and a smooth mosaic of stones. The purpose of slushing is not to simply slush fines to
the surface of the road. The slushing process also provides a good test for the stability of the layer under saturated
conditions.
Slushing is carried out by watering the layer thoroughly, and then rolling with vibratory rollers without vibration,
pneumatic rollers or static rollers, and squeezing fines to the surface. The fines are subsequently broomed towards
the coarser areas and finally broomed off the road
surface. Because the volume of air between the
aggregate particles decreases as the particles interlock,
fine material in the form of a slush migrates to the Slushing
surface. The fines that are almost totally saturated with Slushing is carried out by watering the layer
water act as a lubricant. thoroughly and then rolling the layer with vibratory
rollers without vibration, pneumatic rollers or static
The layer can be slushed immediately on completion of rollers, and squeezing fines to the surface. The fines
compaction, provided that the layer is stable. are subsequently broomed towards the coarser areas
Alternatively, the process can be postponed for a day or and are finally broomed off the road surface.
two so that the surface of the layer dries out and
achieves stability. The process should however, not be The purpose of slushing is to ensure that all
delayed for too long, otherwise the layer will dry out too aggregate particles interlock with one another, to
much for slushing to be effective. form a dense integrated mass of particles. Proper
slushing results in closure of all the openings in the
In general, 5 to 7% fines are required to fill all the voids upper surface of the layer, and a smooth mosaic of
between the coarser aggregate particles. Therefore, if stones.

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the crushed stone initially contains less than this amount of fines, then all the voids will not be filled and no fines will
be slushed to the surface. In this case, the required density will also probably not be obtained.
The water application rate should be kept as low as possible. It is more effective to apply small quantities of water
more regularly than large quantities at longer intervals. With large quantities, a lot of water runs off the road
without performing any useful task, and is just wasted. The water should primarily be applied to the higher parts of
the road profile, such as the centre of a crown or the high edge, in the case of a super-elevated section.
The crushed stone is normally slushed in short sections of between 30 and 50 metres depending on the number of
rollers and brooms available. Normally, at least two rollers should be used for slushing. In general, the rollers
should gradually be moved from the edges towards the middle of the road, with regular overlaps.
In the early stages, the fines can be broomed down the length of the road or across the road to obtain a uniform
texture. Stiff hand brooms or a light mechanical broom are used for this purpose. When a uniform texture is
achieved, the road must be rolled systematically from the sides to the middle, and all excessive fines must be
removed from the road with brooms. The fine material must be removed before it dries out and hardens. At all
times, care should be taken not to roll a layer out of shape.
Should segregation occur, it may be necessary to concentrate rolling in the areas where more fines occur, and these
can then be broomed over to the coarser areas.
The slushing process must continue until the slushing water is clear. The fines which slush out of the layer are
normally silty, and care must be taken not to over slush the layer. If the slush becomes coarser and sandy, slushing
must be stopped, otherwise the layer may loosen and become unstable. Slushing should not be used to provide
significant additional density. Excessive densification during slushing causes deformation of the surface profile.
In certain situations, the outer 500 to 800 millimetres of the crushed stone tends to become over-saturated when a
shortage of fines is present in these areas. It is desirable to construct small furrows through the shoulder to the full
depth of the crushed stone layer, to drain excessive water from the layer. In extreme cases, these furrows could be
placed at 2 metre intervals.
The most important practical requirement when slushing, is that no movement should be present under the roller at
the end of the slushing process. Should the layer continue to move under the roller, even after slushing for a
considerable period, then the layer should be broken up, remixed and re-compacted. In isolated cases, small
movements occur under the roller after slushing. In these cases, it may be possible to stop the slushing process
temporarily to let the layer dry out for a few days. If the layer is then slushed again, movement should cease.
Should movement, however, still occur, then the layer must be ripped up, remixed and re-compacted.
After the excess fines are squeezed out of the layer and a close-knit, stable surface has formed, the layer should be
watered again and all the free water broomed off the layer without further rolling. A photo of a segregated material
is shown in Figure 81, where a lack of large aggregates is visible. A well knitted surface is shown in Figure 81.
Layer Movement after Slushing

The most important practical requirement
when slushing, is that no movement should
be present under the roller at the end of the
slushing process. Should the layer continue
to move under the roller even after slushing
for a considerable period, then the layer
should be broken up, remixed and re-
compacted.

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Figure 80. Segregated Material
Figure 81. Well-knitted Crushed Stone Surface
(vii) General
During the slushing process, care should be taken not to pick up any shoulder material with the roller, to avoid rolling
this into the crushed stone. The surface of the crushed stone layer should be broomed with a mechanical broom not
more than 24 hours prior to the application of prime.
The prime should be applied as soon as the moisture content at any point in the layer is less than 50% of OMC.
Should the weather be inclement and the layer does not dry out, the prime can be applied even if the layer is wet,
but the application rate should be reduced slightly as less prime will be absorbed by the layer. In any event, the
layer should be moistened immediately prior to the application of a prime. No unnecessary traffic may be allowed on

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the layer until a surfacing layer has been placed. The layer should not be surfaced until it has dried out to well below
saturation.
The purpose of the prime on the crushed stone layer is not to penetrate the upper surface of the base, but rather to
protect the surface of the base from construction traffic and to allow better bonding between the surfacing and the
base.
(viii) Testing
Cohesionless materials, such as crushed stone, do not have a clearly defined moisture density curve and hence it is
difficult to determine the maximum density and optimum moisture content in a similar manner to that of natural
gravels. Therefore, instead of using the maximum dry density, crushed stone is controlled using another reference
density, called the apparent density. The apparent density is that density which would theoretically be achieved if
the material were compacted to such an extent that no air or
moisture remains between the aggregate particles. This is similar,
although not exactly the same, as the specific gravity of the
material, as some small voids are present within the aggregate Apparent Density
particles themselves, which cannot be eliminated in the test Crushed stone is controlled using a
procedure. reference density called the apparent
density (AD-CS). This is the density which
The apparent density depends on the type of material and its would theoretically be achieved if the
specific gravity, as well as the degree to which moisture is material were compacted to such an extent
absorbed by the aggregate particles. It is determined using that no air or moisture remain between the
SANS 3001–AG22. The test is discussed in Chapter 3: 3.2.9. aggregate particles. See Chapter 3: 3.2.9.
The apparent density of materials with the same aggregates but

different gradings varies and, hence, this value should be determined at every position at which an in situ density is
determined. The nuclear apparatus provides a fairly reliable indication of density on this material. However, when
the surface is rough it must be smoothed out as specified in the test method. The sand replacement method also
provides reasonable results if carried out properly, but can often lead to higher values than are actually present, due
to disturbing the sides of the density hole and the volume reducing.
3.8.1.2 Crushed Slag

Construction of a crushed slag layer is basically similar to crushed stone, with a few minor differences, which are
highlighted in the following paragraphs:
(i) Grading
The grading of the crushed slag must be within the specifications for crushed stone. Should the material be too
coarse, particularly the percentage retained on the 5 and 2.0 mm sieves, then it will be more difficult to compact. It
is also important to ensure that the percentage fines (passing the 0.075 mm sieve) should not be less than 5%.
(ii) Handling
Segregation is a serious problem when handling crushed slag. The coarse and fine particles separate easily and
handling must be minimized. If possible, material should be loaded directly from the crusher’s conveyor belt into
waiting trucks and then dumped on the road.
(iii) Compaction
Vibratory rollers are preferred for compaction of slag. Should these not be available, grid rollers can be used for
initial rolling, because they will assist in breaking down the coarser aggregate particles and producing more fines.
Wet slag can be rolled out of shape fairly easily with a heavy pneumatic roller. Therefore, it is preferable to carry out
all initial rolling with a vibratory or grid roller, until the material is stable.
(iv) Addition of Fines

Should it be impossible to achieve the specified grading with the slag, and if stability is not achieved during the
compaction process, fines may be added to the slag. Only approved fines should be used that are either applied
after initial compaction by spreading over the surface of the layer, or prior to the mixing process by spreading the
correct amount over the surface of the dumped and spread slag. When applying fines after compaction, care should
be taken to spread the material in a uniformly thick layer. Areas with excessive fines create several problems and
tend to pick up under the roller. After spreading the fines, it is rolled into the material with a vibratory or flat roller.
Simultaneously, water is applied to wash the binder into the interstices within the crushed slag. Should the surface

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be very coarse and loose, a grid roller can also be used to roll the fines into the slag. As soon as the slag is filled
with fines, the slushing process can commence.
(v) Slushing
Slushing should proceed in a similar manner to that on normal crushed stone.
(vi) General
Segregation of slag is a significant problem and should be continually guarded against. In addition, the slag can
become unstable, in which event it easily deforms under the roller, particularly in the early stages of compaction.
Therefore, rollers and graders should be used very carefully during this stage of compaction. Due to the porosity of
the material it is, in most cases, difficult to achieve the specified density, and modifications to the test methods and
density requirements are necessary.
3.8.2 Waterbound Macadam Base

Waterbound macadam is a special form of a crushed stone layer. Chapter 9: 5.2 discusses the various forms of
macadam layer available, but the discussion in this chapter focusses on waterbound macadam as it is the most
commonly used form.
The construction of waterbound macadam may be divided into two components: firstly, the placement of the large
aggregate, and secondly, the filling of the voids in the large aggregate skeleton with a fine filler. Manual labour may
be used to varying extents in each of these components, but the principles of construction should remain the same
for labour-intensive or plant-intensive construction. The following steps in the construction process are discussed:
 Subbase and edge restraint preparation
 Placement of the large aggregate
 Filling of the voids in the coarse aggregate skeleton with a fine filler
3.8.2.1 Subbase and Edge Restraint Preparation

The use of lightly cemented subbase layers is strongly recommended if the wet method of construction is used, and
should be considered if the slushing process is used. Normal construction procedures should be used to construct
the stabilized layer (see Section 3.4).
Edge restraint preparation is essential when a waterbound macadam

layer is constructed. Permanent and temporary edge restraints serve a
dual purpose during the construction. Firstly, they act as an edge
restraint to box-in the large aggregate during construction, and Edge Restraints for
secondly, they are used without exception to provide a reference for the Waterbound Macadam
control of levels on the waterbound macadam base layer. The Edge restraints, either permanent or
construction of a permanent concrete edge restraint incorporating a side temporary, are the first step in the
drain is preferred in the wetter regions of South Africa, such as the process of level control of the
coastal areas. These edge restraints provide confinement of the waterbound macadam base layer and
waterbound macadam layer and the side drains drain away excess water should receive the necessary
during construction and the service life of the pavement. In the dryer attention.
regions of the country, the use of temporary steel shutters in
combination with gravel shoulders is the preferred method of edge
restraint.
If concrete edge restraints are used, the line and level of the shutters on the front face of the edge restraint are
surveyed at 20 metre intervals on straights and 10 metres on curves. String lines and dipsticks are then used from
the top of the completed concrete edge restraints for level control on the waterbound macadam base. The problem
with string lines is that they sag towards the centre line if the span across the road is too wide. Modern laser
instruments used to control the levels are, therefore, preferable if the span across the road is wide.
If temporary steel shutters are used on the centre line and at the edges of a carriageway, the coarse aggregate for
the waterbound macadam may be levelled against a screed rail placed on spacers on top of the steel shutters. The
problem with this method is that, because of the fixed height of the shutters, any undulation at the top of the
subbase is reflected to the top of the base layer. It is, therefore, recommended that the steel shutters should only
be used as an initial thickness guide and should be removed before any compaction is applied to the coarse
aggregate layer. Final level control should then be done by string line and dipstick from levelled survey pegs.

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3.8.2.2 Placement of the Coarse Aggregate

The placement of the coarse aggregate may be done in three ways:
 From stockpiles by hand labour using coal forks.
 With a grader if the coarse graded aggregate is dumped on the subbase.
 With a mechanical paver. The use of a mechanical paver generally results in slightly better riding qualities on
the surfaced road than the labour-intensive and plant-intensive methods.
About 33 per cent reduction in the thickness of the loose, coarse aggregate should be allowed for during compaction.
Spacers of the required height are therefore placed on the edge restraints and the coarse aggregate is spread to the
top of the spacers using the preferred method. Before any compaction is done on the coarse aggregate layer, a level
surface finish should be obtained. This is done by filling in lean spots on the surface of the layer by hand, and by
removing excess material from high spots. An uneven surface of the loose coarse aggregate layer before compaction
results in an uneven surface after compaction.
The maximum layer thickness constructed in one lift should not exceed twice the size of the coarse aggregate, to
ensure the proper penetration of the layer with the fine aggregate. Once a level surface is achieved on the loose,
coarse aggregate layer, the spacers are removed from the concrete edge restraints or the temporary shutters are
removed. The furrows left by the temporary shutters are then filled with loose aggregate. The coarse aggregate
layer is now ready for compaction. A 12 ton, 3 wheel roller; an 8 ton tandem roller, or, a vibratory roller is used for
the compaction of the coarse aggregate layer. Breaking or crushing of the course aggregate under the roller should
be monitored. Ideally, a trial section should be constructed to determine the degradation of the coarse aggregate
under 12 ton or vibratory compaction. If degradation of the coarse aggregate proves to be a problem, 8 ton tandem
rollers should be used.
The coarse aggregate layer is first rolled on the lower outside edge and then on the higher outside edge, after which
compaction is continued to the centre of the layer. If gravel shoulders are used, the drum of the roller is allowed to
overlap onto the shoulder. After the initial compaction passes, the surface of the layer is again rectified by hand.
Rolling should continue until no movement of the coarse aggregate is visible under the rollers and the coarse
aggregate is keyed-in.
3.8.2.3 Filling of the Voids in the Coarse Aggregate with Fine Aggregate
The fine aggregate is spread on the keyed-in coarse aggregate layer by hand using shovels or by mechanical chip-
spreader. The thickness of the loose filler placed in one application should not exceed 25 mm and should be evenly
distributed over the surface of the coarse aggregate layer. If the material is slightly moist, it should be left to dry
before vibratory compaction is applied, to enable the fine aggregate to filter down into the voids in the coarse
aggregate layer. The process of successive applications of fine aggregate and vibratory compaction is continued
until the layer is choked with fine aggregate. If the dry process is selected, the construction process stops at this
point. The dry method is appropriate for arid areas where very little water is available for construction. In this case,
waterbound macadam construction compares favourably with the construction of a continuously graded material,
which requires compaction water.
If slushing is selected, the choked layer is watered and compaction should resume, working from the highest to the
lowest point. Drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure that the construction water drains freely from the
layer. The excess fine aggregate should be slushed from the layer and broomed to the side of the layer. After
completion of the slushing process, the layer should be left to dry and then broomed again. The layer is then ready
to be primed. A blanket of loose fine aggregate may be left on top of the layer to prevent kick-out of the coarse
aggregate under construction traffic, but all loose material must be broomed off before the prime is applied. If the
layer needs to be trafficked, a slurry penetration layer can be used in the top portion of a waterbound macadam base
layer to prevent damage to the base layer.
A completely wet process can be used in areas where the fine aggregate will not dry sufficiently to flow freely into
the coarse aggregate layer. A water cart with a modified spray bar can be used to blast the fine aggregate into the
voids with water jets. If this technique is used, the drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure that the
construction water drains from the base layer.
3.9 Primes and Tack Coats

The question whether to “prime and tack or mat” is a long standing debate in the South African road industry. In
many instances, primes and/or tack coats are not applied due to time constraints or other reasons, rather than from
a technical perspective.

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A very comprehensive and useful document titled “Guidelines for

using Prime and Tack Coats” was prepared in 2005 by the Federal
Highway Administration under the sponsorship of the US Department References for Primes and
of Transportation. The Southern African Bitumen Association Tack Coats
(SABITA) published Manual 26 titled “Interim Guideline for Primes
and Stone Precoating Fluids”. These two publications were used to The following references are
prepare the following guidelines for the appropriate usage of primes recommended:
and tack coats.  FHWA, 2005, “Guidelines for
Using Prime and Tack Coats”
3.9.1 Prime Coats  SABITA Manual 26, “Interim
Guideline for Primes and Stone
A prime is a coat of suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-
Precoating Fluids”
bituminous granular pavement layer as a preliminary treatment, prior
to the application of a bituminous base or surfacing. The main
function of a prime is to penetrate the layer to which it is applied, while leaving a small residual amount of binder on
the surface to:
 Assist in promoting adhesion between the base and newly applied bituminous surfacing or layer.
 Inhibit the ingress of water from rain into the base, while not hampering the migration of water in the vapour
phase out of the base.
 Limit the absorption of binder from the next spray application into the base.
 Bind the finer particles in the upper zone of the base to accommodate light construction traffic for a short
period, until the new surfacing is placed.
Inspection notes for the application of prime coats:

 Assure that the aggregate base course is constructed in accordance with the plans and specification, prior to
the application of the prime.
 The base should be broomed to remove any loose material, with the sweeping being carried out carefully so
as not to damage the surface of the layer.
 Before priming, the moisture content of the material at any point in the
base layer should not be more than 50% of its optimum moisture content.
 Construct a trial section to determine the application rate. Proper Moisture in Base
binder distributor construction procedures should be followed to prevent before Priming
streaking, and allow a proper application rate and uniform coverage. Before priming, the moisture
 Application rates are a function of the openness of the aggregate base, content of the material in the
and vary slightly with the absorption of the aggregate. An appropriate base should not be more than
initial application rate should be selected for the aggregate base course 50% of its optimum moisture
type. Open graded bases require more prime than dense graded bases. content.
 No more prime should be applied than the aggregate base can absorb
in 24 hours.
 Prime oils that ball up may indicate too little prime.
 Fat spots or puddling indicates too much prime.
 The prime must adequately penetrate the aggregate base layer for 5 to 10 mm. This is to protect the layer
from wet weather by providing a temporary waterproofing layer, and stabilizes and binds the surface fines, which
promotes bonding with the asphalt surfacing layer.
 The surface of the aggregate base course should be slightly damp prior to application of the prime. Water may
be added to the surface of the aggregate base to achieve the slightly damp condition. The damp surface:
 Lowers the application rates by preventing excess absorption of the prime by the aggregates.
 Prevents bulking of the prime with dust particles on the surface.
 Aids penetration.
 The viscosity of the prime coat binder must be maintained to ensure uniform application of the prime. This
is achieved by heating MC cutbacks and emulsions, or diluting emulsions with water.
 Excess prime that is not absorbed into the aggregate base course after 24 hours should be removed with
blotter sand, to prevent wash off into waterways and tracking and pick up of the material by traffic. The excess
blotter sand should be broomed from the surface before the surfacing layer is placed, to ensure a proper bond.
 Prime coats must cure completely to function properly, especially to be able to accommodate construction
traffic. The prime generally takes several days to cure properly.
 Curing of prime coat depends upon the weather. If the weather is hot, the prime coat cures quickly, but if
the weather is cool and damp, the prime coat cures slowly.

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 Emulsified products generally cure faster than cutback bitumens. Bitumen emulsions require a minimum of
24 hours to fully cure, while cutbacks require a minimum of 72 hours to fully cure.
 It is riskier to place an asphalt layer over an uncured prime coat than an unprimed base, because the uncured
prime can cause more base movement than construction
on an unprimed base. Excessive prime remaining on the
surface can also be absorbed into overlying asphalt
layers. The solvents in the prime used to liquefy the Weather Conditions for Prime
bitumen, typically kerosene or diesel fuel, can damage Application
the asphalt layer quickly, contributing to pavement
Primes should not be applied unless the air
slippage or rutting and lateral movement of the asphalt
temperature in the shade and pavement
during rolling operations. At a minimum, construction
temperature are 10 C, and rising, and when
traffic should be kept off a fresh prime coat until cured
the weather is not foggy or rainy.
sufficiently, to prevent tracking of the prime.
 Primes should not be applied unless the air temperature Emulsified products generally cure faster than
in the shade and pavement temperature are 10 C, cutback bitumens. Bitumen emulsions require
and rising, and when the weather is foggy or rainy. a minimum of 24 hours to fully cure, while
cutbacks require a minimum of 72 hours to
A checklist for construction with primes is given in Table 9. A fully cure.
printer ready version of this checklist is included in Appendix A.
3.9.2 Tack Coats

A tack coat is applied to a primed surface or bituminous surface to promote adhesion between the existing and new
asphalt layer. The function of a tack coat is to ensure bonding between the new asphalt layer and the primed
surface or old asphalt layer. The tack coat is applied in a thin coat and uniformly covers the entire surface, including
all vertical joint surfaces. Too little tack coat causes debonding, and too much tack coat can cause slippage between
the layers.
Inspection notes for the application of tack coats:

 Assure that the layer to be tacked is constructed in accordance with the plans and specifications prior to the
application of the tack coat.
 Construct a trial section to determine the application rate. Proper binder distributor construction procedures
should be followed to prevent streaking and allow a proper application rate and uniform coverage. To achieve a
uniform coverage, the viscosity of the tack material must be maintained.
 The timing of the tack coating operation is important. It is good practice to spray the tack coat well in
advance of paving, but not more than about 18 hours. The Standard Specifications specify a maximum delay of
24 hours. This enables the diluted bitumen emulsion tack coat to break and “set up”, which reduces pick-up of
the tack coat on the tyres of supply trucks and the wheels of the paver.
 Traffic, both construction and local, should be kept off a fresh tack coat. A freshly applied tack coat surface is
too slick for safe driving, particularly before the emulsion has broken.
 The curing rate of tack coats depends upon the weather. The tack coat should thus be applied on a dry surface
when the air temperature in the shade is above 2 C and rising.
 Vertical surfaces of transverse joints, longitudinal joints, curbs, gutters, manhole inlets, etc., should receive a
tack coat. However, tacking of the joints is not necessary
when the asphalt layer butting the joint is paved on the same
day and the mix has not yet cooled to a temperature below 50
C. Application of Tack Coats
 A tacked joint is not required with open-graded surfacing Tack coats should be applied in a thin coat
mixes. This is because the tacked joint tends to prevent and uniformly cover the entire surface,
water drainage across the pavement. including all vertical surfaces of joints.
 Tack coats should be applied uniformly and completely by  Too little tack coat can cause
fogging with a hand spray attachment or by another approved debonding
method.
 Too much tack coat can cause
 If excess binder is applied, squeegee the excess from the slippage between the layers
surface.

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Table 9. Prime Checklist

Aspect Yes/No
Base preparation Completed
According to specification
Cured
Within time limit for stabilized base
Granular base < 50% of OMC
Spray Cleaned
preparation Dampened
String lines
Joint paper
No wet prime
Materials: Binder
Sampling, testing  Correct type
and specifications  Stored temperature
 Spray temperature
 Properties
Aggregate
 Blinding for excess removal
 Blinding for traffic accommodation
 Treatment of wet areas before seal
 Aggregate properties
“No go” Misty or wet conditions
environmental Rain threatening
conditions Strong wind blowing that would cause an uneven application
Temperature of the road surface dropped below 20 °C before priming
(10 °C in case of MC-10 or emulsion)
After sunset
Equipment Binder distributor
condition checks Water sprinkler
Rotary broom
Other equipment
Application rate Trial confirmation
Effective width
After care Traffic off
Dry before sealing
Blinded for traffic accommodation
3.9.3 Environmental Issues

The primary pollutants of concern from asphalt paving operations are volatile organic compounds (VOC). Cutback
bitumens are the major source of VOCs, only minor amounts of VOCs are emitted from bitumen emulsions.
Therefore, to eliminate VOC emissions, bitumen emulsions are preferred to cutback bitumens.
Binder products, including prime and tack coats, must be kept out of waterways. Prime and tack coats enter
waterways through a direct spill, or through a spill entering storm water, waste water sewers, drainage ditches, etc.
Rainwater can also wash a freshly applied uncured prime coat into a waterway. Primes should thus not be placed if
there is a high probability of rain within 24 hours of application, or before the prime can be fully absorbed into the
base and the excess removed with blotter sand.
3.10 Surfacing Seals

Surfacing seals are a relatively simple and inexpensive road treatment, which are highly effective as a final surfacing.
Seal design details, including an extensive explanation of various seals and their application, is contained in TRH3:
Design and Construction of Surfacing Seals. Seals are also discussed in several chapters of this manual (see
sidebox). This section primarily focuses on construction issues.

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3.10.1 Seal Types

There are a number of different types of surfacing seals Surfacing Seals
used on newly constructed bases, or as reseals on
existing surfaced roads. The seals most commonly used The following is a comprehensive guideline for all
are aspects of surfacing seals:
 Single stone seals  TRH3: Design and Construction of Surfacing
Seals.
 Double seals
 Cape seals Various aspects of seals are discussed in:
 Slurry seals  Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and
 Sand seals Behaviour, Section 2.3.1.2
 Inverted double seals  Chapter 3: Materials Testing, Section 4.4
 Split seals  Chapter 4: Standards, Section 4.4
 Choked seals  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design,
Section 11
 Geotextile seals
 Otta seals
Illustrations of these seal types are included in Chapter 2: 2.3.1.2, Chapter 9: 11 and TRH3. Stone seals are
constructed by evenly spraying a thin layer of bitumen on the surface and thereafter distributing aggregate evenly
over the sprayed area, and finally rolling the aggregate to embed in the layer of bitumen to create a smooth riding
surface. The success of stone seals depends on the adhesion of the stone to the binder and road surface. Hence,
both the stones and the road surface must be clean and free from dust during the seal process, so that the binder is
able to adhere properly to both.
The performance of stone seals is influenced by various factors such as:

 Condition of pavement structure
 Road geometry
 Design of the seal
 Quality of binder and stone
 Preparation, repair and pre-treatment of the surfacing on Length of Seal Construction
which the seal is to be constructed Typically, approximately 1.5 lane kilometres
 Construction of the seal of seal can be constructed in one day.
 Road, and ambient temperatures, during or soon after
sealing operations
 Maintenance strategy
A fine slurry seal provides an economic treatment to improve the surface texture of a road that needs resealing. A
coarser slurry seal provides an effective reseal for roads to improve the riding quality.
3.10.2 Safety
Safety audits are required at regular intervals to ensure adherence to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS,
1993).
Seal construction most often occurs under traffic, requiring extreme care to avoid accidents, injuries and loss of life.
Specific attention to road signs and traffic accommodation is required. Typical problems on seal construction are:
 Non-conformance to road sign layout
 Barricades and delineators not adequate to prevent traffic entering
the construction zone
 Not adjusting road sign layout for adequate sight distance, Process Control of Seals
specifically in mountain passes Inappropriate specifications, poor
 Loose aggregate materials and bad workmanship can
 No flagmen at farm entrances and between stop-go positions drastically reduce the service life of
a seal. Process control is therefore,
 Pedestrians running across the hot bitumen layer critically important.
 Vehicles driving on bitumen before aggregate application

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Hot bituminous binders are applied up to 210 C, requiring the use of
protective clothing. Specific attention should be given to training and
dealing with bitumen burns. It should be noted that immediate
evacuation to an appropriate medical care facility is required. DO NOT Hot binders
EVEN TOUCH. Refer to SABITA Manual 8. Hot bituminous binders are applied up
to 210 C, requiring the use of
3.10.3 Environment protective clothing. Specific attention
should be given to training and
Typical problems to avoid during seal construction are: dealing with bitumen burns.
 Spillage of bitumen at batch plants, precoating areas and where Immediate evacuation to an
testing the distributor nozzles. appropriate medical care facility is
 Draining of precoating materials from stockpiles. required. DO NOT EVEN TOUCH.
3.10.4 Traffic Accommodation

Apart from safety issues, proper traffic management is essential for the good performance of newly constructed
seals. Typical problems to avoid, where possible, are:
 Dust from deviations and haul roads.
 Stop-go positions at steep grades and tight curves forcing heavy trucks to stop and accelerate on a
sensitive new seal.
 Allowing dual directional traffic on a sensitive new seal by sealing the adjacent lane the following day.
 Not treating or blinding intersections to accommodate traffic turning actions.
Traffic volumes and the heavy vehicle components and actions could change during the course of a project due to
construction traffic movements, road conditions and closures elsewhere, as well as traffic accommodation
arrangements. These changes might require protection of the new seal, redesign or changing the surfacing or seal
type.
3.10.5 Design Alterations and Application

Although it is the responsibility of the design engineer to ensure that the design is accurate and appropriate for the
conditions, several factors can lead to the need to adjust application rates, binder type or even selection of a more
appropriate seal type. These are:
 Climatic conditions must be monitored on a daily basis, recorded and compared with historical data obtained
during the design phase. Sudden changes in temperatures can occur, specifically during the months of March,
April, September and October, requiring an evaluation of the appropriateness of binder type, application rates,
seal composition and construction method.
Risks of premature aggregate loss could be minimized during colder periods by:
 Addition of additional binder, e.g., 0.2 ℓ/m2
 Application of fog sprays
 Blinding specific areas with coarse, precoated sand
 Converting to a double seal or Cape seal
 Keeping traffic off during night times, or when the road surface temperature < 25 C
 Attention to construction process and additional rolling
 Changing traffic situations and impact of traffic accommodation

 Availability of suitable equipment
 Availability of specified binder and aggregate at time of construction
 Variation of aggregate properties, even though within specification
3.10.6 Surface Preparation Checks

The behaviour and performance of a seal is directly dependent on the condition of the surface to which it is applied.
Preparation of the base coarse, in the case of new construction seals, and the existing road surface, in the case of a
reseal, must be undertaken timeously. Preparation before seal work is described in detail in Chapter 13: 7.2.
3.10.7 Weather Conditions

The supervisor should be satisfied that the weather conditions at the time of spraying and the expected weather
conditions for the following 24 hours, are in accordance with the grade of binder.

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If wet stone is used for sealing, or if rain is expected within the first 24 hours after the construction of the seal, a
wetting agent may be used. The wetting agent is added to the binder shortly before spraying and circulated in the
tank to mix through. Or, the aggregate can be covered directly with the wetting agent. These agents are not stable
at high temperatures, and should, therefore, not be kept at spraying temperature for long periods.

Poor materials and bad workmanship drastically reduce the service life of the seal. Process control is, therefore,
critically important. Process control for stone seals and slurry seals are discussed in this section.
3.10.8.1 Stone Seals

Process control during the construction of stone seals is of utmost importance to ensure that the seal performs
satisfactorily. The control of aggregate and binder related factors are especially important. Once the quality of the
component materials are verified and approved, and the recommended application rates are determined, it is
necessary to consider the following aspects.
(i) Road Surface Conditions

When newly constructed layers are to be surfaced, the following aspects are required:
 Visual observation of the exposed mosaic of the base.
 Moisture content of the base before priming, and after priming if the road surface has been exposed to
intermittent rain, must be checked and be within acceptable limits (less than 50% of optimum at all points in the
layer).
When an existing surfaced road is to be resealed, the following are important:

 Pavement defects, such as potholes, ruts and edge breaks, must be repaired.
 The essence and texture of the existing surface should be assessed, and pre-treatment such as a thin slurry
for texture correction applied, if required.
 Surface must be cleaned with either rotary or hand brooms, air or water under pressure.
 Moisture condition of the base layer must be checked after rain spells, since moisture ingress is possible due
to fine cracks in the surface, which cannot be practically or economically treated, or lean, dry, or open seals that
can be porous. Depending on the moisture content, a delay in the operation may be necessary. Apart from the
standard laboratory tests to determine the in situ moisture content of the layer, a field test known as the “Glass
plate test” can be used, as illustrated in Figure 82. A glass plate approximately 300 mm x 200 mm in dimension
is placed on the road surface and checked for moisture vapour after approximately 15 minutes. If no sign of
moisture vapour is noticed on the underside of the plate, the layer is ready for the application of the seal.
Figure 82. Glass Plate Test

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 If the existing surface is porous or very dry, it can be pre-treated with a surface enrichment. This ensures
that the binder needed for the seal is not absorbed by the dry surface, which causes stone loss on the new seal
due to insufficient binder left for retention of the aggregate in the new seal.
(ii) Aggregate
 Aggregate stockpiles should be spaced at economic intervals along the road, for easy accessibility when loading
trucks, and to minimize loading and travel time between stockpiles and the seal site.
 Stockpile sites must be properly cleared to minimize contamination and pollution.
 Each stockpile must be properly sampled to ensure the required field samples are obtained, and all relevant
tests are carried out to determine the quality of the aggregate and to establish application rates for the different
aggregate sizes.
 Uncoated, single-sized, coarse aggregates in a stockpile may, in certain cases, be dampened with water to
eliminate the negative effect of excessive dust adhering to the aggregates. When using certain types and grades
of binders, excessive free water on the aggregate is detrimental to the breaking, curing and adhesion of the
binder to the aggregate.
 The type of precoating fluid used to precoat the aggregate, and the application rate required to ensure a
uniform coating and prevent ageing, depends on the time interval between the coating and the seal operation.
Fresh, dry precoated aggregates are required to ensure the effectiveness of the seal.
 Temperature of the aggregate in the stockpile, especially when damp and after unexpected cold nights, also
has an influence on the adhesion of the binder to the aggregate.
(iii) Binder
 Site location for stationary bulk tankers should be such as to enable easy accessibility for filling the bitumen
distributor, and to minimize the refilling and travelling time between the bulk tanker and the site.
 A site should be levelled to enable correct volume measurements of binder in the distributor obtained by
dipstick readings.
 An appropriate, specified binder, must be ordered, delivered and correctly transferred to a stationary bulk
tanker reserved for that specific binder. Different types and grades of bitumen binders must not be mixed.
 Particulars of the binder supplied, such as batch number, viscosity and recommended spray temperature,
must be provided by the supplier.
 For modified binders, the blending process on site must be according to the prescribed procedure or method.
 Only water which is compatible with the appropriate type of emulsion should be used for diluting the
emulsion or with slurry seals.
 Recommended application rates for each type and size of aggregate, as well as binder type and grade, need
to be obtained.
 Temperature of the binder in the distributor must be according to the required spray specification.
(iv) Binder Distributor

The supervisor should ensure that:
 Distributor has a valid certificate for spraying bituminous binders, issued by an acknowledged fixed test pit
facility. The certificate must be valid for 12 months.
 Identification and/or serial numbers of the bitumen pump, spray bar and dipstick are clearly marked on the
sprayer. These numbers must also appear on the calibration certificate.
 Distributor is equipped with at least two fire-extinguishers in a working condition.
 Distributor is not leaking oil, diesel fuel or bitumen.
 The master screen of the distributor is clean, especially when bitumen rubber is used, or after conventional
bitumen is sprayed.
 The distributor does not start from a stationery position at the beginning of sections
to be sprayed, but starts 4 to 5 meters back from the start to build up speed.
 Distributors must be capable of making a standing start, fully laden, on ascending
grades of up to 10%, and be able to maintain a uniform rate of binder application. Dipsticks
 The distributor is equipped with proper “fish plates”, when needed, fitted at each end A dipstick is only
of the spray bar. The correct position of the fish plate is 50 mm from the last nozzle, calibrated for one
as shown in Figure 83. Fishplates are normally used on the outer edges of the road. distributor.

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(v) Distributor Spray bar

The spray bar on the distributor is an essential component of seal work.
The transverse distribution test, or “bucket/bakkie” test (SANS BT24), shown in Figure 84 and described in Section
2.4.2.4, must be done to check the distributor complies with the requirements. The maximum permissible tolerance
permitted between the troughs, excluding the outer 300 mm of the spray bar, is dependent on the viscosity of the
binder type, and should be as follows:
 Emulsions, cut back bitumen and penetration grade bitumen: 5%
 Homogeneous polymer modified binders: 7%
 Non homogeneous binders (bitumen rubber): 10%
For more information see TRH3.
100m 50mm
m
Figure 83. Fish Plate Position
(vi) Nozzles
The nozzles must be uniform in size, and aligned correctly at 30 degrees. Incorrect alignment and angle settings
lead to flair interference and a poor spray, as illustrated in Figure 85 and Figure 86. All the nozzles must be clean,
open and function properly. This is tested by spraying a trial on reinforced paper, well away from the road prism.
(vii) Spray Bar Height

The distributor spray bar must be adjusted to the correct height. This is to obtain a proper cross-distribution though
a selected overlap configuration, e.g., double or triple overlap. Incorrect bar heights result in uneven distribution of
the binder on the surface, as shown in Figure 87. Although the height can be calculated taking into account the
nozzle spacing, nozzle angle and the flair angle, the pressure at which the product is sprayed, viscosity and nozzle
design also influence the flair angle and, therefore, the calculated “correct” bar height. The best way to ensure an
accurate overlap is to close two nozzles, or one in case of a double overlap, and adjust the bar height to ensure that
the two adjacent flairs just meet, as illustrated in Figure 88.
Note the following:

 The Standard Specifications only refer to a double overlap. For this reason, the overlap is specified as
100 mm.
 Hot modified binders are normally sprayed with a uniform triple, or even a quadruple, overlap.
 Lower viscosity binders can be applied with only a double overlap.

Page 105
Figure 84. Transverse Distribution Bakkie/Bucket Test
Figure 85. Flair Interference Due to Wrong Angle Settings
Figure 86. Effect of Poor Nozzle Alignment

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Figure 87. Poor Transverse Distribution due to Incorrect Bar Height
Spray bar
Correct height
Figure 88. Adjusting Spray Bar to Correct Height
(viii) Uniformity of Spray

After the first test section is sprayed, the transverse and longitudinal spray
distribution across the surface must be uniform, and comply with the specified
rates of application for any width of spray, up to the maximum effective width for
which the distributor has been certified. Viscosity and Spray
Bar Pressure
(ix) Spray Bar Pressure Even though “bakkie Test”
results are acceptable and
The spray bar pressure is important, as even though “Bakkie Test” results are
the height of the bar is
acceptable and the height of the bar correctly adjusted, poor transverse
correctly adjusted, poor
distribution can still occur as a result of too high viscosity or too low pressure in
transverse distribution can
the spray bar. Figure 89 demonstrates the resulting problem.
still occur as a result of too
high viscosity or too low
pressure in the spray bar.

Page 107
Figure 89. Poor Distribution Due to Low Bar Pressure
(x) Self-Propelled Chip Spreaders

The supervisor should check the following:
 The rollers on the distribution bin are not worn or bent. The roller drum support bearings must be in a good
condition.
 The conveyor belts of the chip spreader are in a good condition and not cut or worn, to ensure continuous
application of aggregate.
 The bin gates are uniformly and correctly adjusted, to give a uniform application of aggregate on the road.
 The chip gates are open to the correct width, to ensure that the tyres do not come into contact with the
sprayed binder.
 The sieve in front of the roller of the distribution box is in place and adjusted to ensure that clean aggregate
initially falls on the binder and, if any dust is present, this falls on top of the aggregate.
 The chip spreader is wider than the planned binder spray width. The effects of a wider binder spray than
the chip spreader are illustrated in Figure 90.
Figure 90. Binder Not Fully Covered by Aggregate

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Control and verification of the spread rate is a critical component of seal work. The following guidelines should be
followed:
 As part of the trial section, the target spread rate (final matrix) should be determined by hand packing, e.g.,
on 1 m2. Figure 91 shows a hand packed 1 m2 mat.
 A dry trial run could be done away from the road, to ensure that the aggregate is uniformly applied at the
target spread rate.
 The aggregate distribution should be tested by means of canvas patches, each 1.0 metre by 1.0 metre and
placed side by side. The mass of chips spread onto each individual canvas patch should not deviate by more than
10% from the calculated average spread per canvas patch.
 The design engineer, supervisor and operator should agree on the acceptability of the spread rate and the
final matrix, in comparison with the target set.
Figure 91. Target Matrix by Hand Packing
After the trial run with the chip spreader, the full scale seal construction trial can commence. Control of the
aggregate spread is exercised by measuring the aggregate weight per m2, as shown in Figure 92.
Figure 92. Measurement of Aggregate Spread Rate

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(xi) Trucks and Loader

There should be sufficient trucks in good working condition, free of oil and
fuel leaks, to enable each spray to be covered within 3 to 5 minutes after Spreading Aggregate
application of the binder. The loader should also have sufficient capacity to on Hot Modified Binders
not delay the seal process. In the case of hot modified binder application, the With hot modified binder
time lag before aggregate application and rolling should be minimized. In application, the time lag before
such cases, the chip spreader must follow immediately after the distributor, aggregate application and
and rolling should commence immediately thereafter. rolling should be minimized. In
such cases, the chip spreader
The truck should have the following features: must follow immediately after
 The correct couplings to couple to the chip spreader. the distributor, and rolling
 The lids of the trucks should seal properly, without any leakage or should commence immediately
spoiling of aggregate. thereafter.
(xii) Rollers
The supervisor should ensure that the contractor has at least two self-propelled pneumatic tyred rollers, fully
ballasted on site in good working condition (20 tons unballasted), and depending on the daily output planned by the
contractor. An additional pneumatic roller is recommended if more than 7500 m2 per day is planned.
Heavy pneumatic rollers are specified for single seal reseal work and new construction seals. Light steel wheel rollers
(6 to 8 ton) are specified, in addition to heavy pneumatic rollers, for double seals and could be used on single seals
where the existing surface is smooth, to iron it out before the application of a fog spray.
The following are required of the rollers:

 No leaks or spillage of any kind from the equipment, e.g., oil and fuel, on the surface of the road, either before
or after the seal is applied.
 The mass per wheel of the pneumatic roller should be more than 2 tons.
 The tyres should be in a good condition.
 The tyre pressure of pneumatic tyred rollers should be checked for correctness and uniformity, generally 6 to 8
bar for seal work.
 Tyre sizes and shapes should be uniform. Only tyres manufactured for the purpose should be allowed.
(xiii) Rotary and Drag Brooms

Rotary and drag brooms remove excess stones from the seal. The following are required:
 At least two rotary brooms in good working condition, with uniform broom segments.
 Sufficient hand brooms and shovels to remove any excess aggregate, which may have been applied at joints
or truck changes, and for any other emergencies resulting from equipment breakdown.
 When heavily trafficked roads are being sealed and the width of the carriageway exceeds two lanes, it is
advisable to use a vacuum broom with at least two self-propelled brooms to leave the surface free of loose
stone when the road is opened to traffic at rush hour.
 For new construction of double seals, it is desirable to have a T or a Z-type drag broom (Figure 93) on site.
This is to achieve a uniform shoulder to shoulder mosaic effect on the
aggregate.
(xiv) Water Bowsers Roller Selection

Heavy pneumatic rollers are
Sufficient water trucks should be available to lay the dust on deviations
specified for single seal reseal work
adjacent to the surfacing project.
as well as on new construction
seals. Light steel wheel rollers
When an emulsion binder is used and only dusty aggregate is available, a
(6 to 8 ton) are specified, in
light spray of water on the aggregate improves the adhesion of the
addition to heavy pneumatic rollers,
binder, and the quality of work.
for double seals and can be used on
single seals where the existing
surface is smooth, to iron it out
before the application of a fog
spray.

Page 110
Figure 93. Z-Type Drag Broom
3.10.8.2 Slurry Seals

A slurry manufacturing system involves a continuous mixing process in which a bitumen emulsion is combined with
high quality aggregates, to produce cold mixed “slurry”. A small amount of cement or lime is normally added to the
slurry to facilitate “breaking” of the binder.
Finer slurry is generally placed by hand squeegees. Coarser slurry is placed using a spreader box, which is normally
part of a purpose built slurry mixing and placing machine.
(i) Placement of Slurry Seal

Process control for slurries placed by hand squeegees as texture correction involve the following aspects:
 Prior to placing the slurry, the road surface should be cleaned and pre-wetted by water fogging, but no free
water should be present. The slurry should be placed and spread only by competent operators with good quality
rubber-bladed squeegees, as illustrated in Figure 94.
 Not moving the slurry with squeegees more than 5 metres.
 Monitoring the road surface temperature to ensure it is less than 55 °C.
 Checking the consistency of each mix.
 Slurry mix should be homogenous with no instances of premature breaking of emulsion during the mixing
process. The consistency of the slurry mix, immediately before pouring in small manageable increments on to
the road surface, should have a flow measurement (using the slump test) of between 30 and 40 mm for slow
setting fine slurry.
 Embedment of the slurry layer and the filling of voids between the coarse aggregate of the existing surfacing
layer should be such that, after completion of the process, the aggregate should still be proud of the slurry and
achieve a mosaic appearance on the final surface.
 The spread application, expressed in kg/m2, is calculated using only the total mass of fine aggregate, excluding
the cement or lime active filler, divided by the area.
Process control for slurries for surfacing layers placed by spreader box includes:
 Prior to placing the slurry, the road surface should be cleaned and pre-wetted by water fogging, but no free
water should be present.
 Slurry mix should be placed by a spreader box and by competent operators with additional rubber-blade
squeegees available for rounding off, where necessary. A spreader box is shown in Figure 95.
 The spreader box should be of a proven and approved type. The box should be constructed to distribute
the weight onto metal skids in such a way that no damage is be done to the surface when the box is in operation.

Page 111
 Soft rubber belting should be attached to the frame in such a manner as to prevent the slurry from spilling
past the sides of the spreader box, when in operation.
 The spreader box should be capable of spreading a uniform application of slurry in adjustable widths of
1.5 m up to 3.7 m for general purposes, at specified spread rates.
 The slurry mix should be homogenous, with no segregation or premature breaking of emulsion during
the continuous flow mixing process. The consistency of the slurry mix, should be such that no flowing of the
fresh slurry occurs due to high flow characteristics or a steep gradient. For a coarse slurry, the flow
measurement should not exceed 10 to 20 mm.
 With volume batching, in determining the spread rate, expressed in kg/m2, the theoretical mass of only the fine
aggregate is obtained by compensating for unit mass and moisture corrections.
 Rapid setting coarse slurries should be sufficiently stable to be rolled after 45 minutes, before opening to
traffic.
 When coarse slurries are used to improve the rideability of roads, it should be placed as follows:
 Step 1: Place the corrective layer, or layers, by setting the sliding rails as low as possible, preferably on the
existing surfacing. After the emulsion in the slurry mix has broken and the layer is dry enough, roll it
thoroughly with heavy pneumatic tyred rollers before the second layer is applied.
 Step 2: Place the wearing course layer with a uniform minimum thickness of approximately 10 mm.
Compact it properly with pneumatic tyred rollers before opening to traffic.
Figure 94. Slurry Placed By Hand
Figure 95. Slurry Spreader Box

Page 112
(ii) Mixing of Slurry
 Mixing of the slurry system should be carried out in a mixing machine designed to provide a rapid mixing time,
and be capable of continuous mixing.
 The purpose designed mixing machine should be equipped with precise metering systems to enable the
various constituents to be combined continuously to the desired formulation. No central mixing plant should be
allowed.
 Stationary or mobile batch mixers must be in a good operational condition, while weigh bridges and volume
indicators must be calibrated.
 Mobile continuous flow mixing machines must be roadworthy. The volume or mass of the hopper capacity
must be recorded. Operational functions of the mixer and spreader box must be in good condition, and
adjustable for various widths.
(iii) Construction of Slurry Seal
 Coarse slurry is normally placed in 8 to 10 mm layers (wet thickness).

 After placement, slurries are left to set. The setting process is illustrated in Figure 96. The slurry is brown
when the bitumen is in an emulsified state. As the emulsion breaks, and the slurry sets, the colour changes to
black. It generally takes about 3 hours for the slurry to set.
 As soon as the coarse slurry has set sufficiently, and can be compacted without undue displacement, rolling
should commence using only proven and approved pneumatic tyred rollers. Rolling should proceed from the
haunch, kerb or channel, working towards the crown or upper end of crossfall/superelevation of the road. Rolling
can commence as soon as clear water can be pressed out of the slurry mixture with a piece of paper, without
discolouring the paper. Rollers should not be permitted to stand on newly laid coarse slurry until it is fully
compacted and has set completely. Care should be exercised against premature rolling of shaded areas and
areas with thicker slurry.
 Slurries should not be applied when air temperatures are less than 7 °C when temperatures are rising, or
less than 13 °C when temperatures are dropping. Special measures, such as spraying the surface with water to
lower the road surface temperature, are required during hot weather to prevent quick setting of the slurry.
 Slurry operations should be suspended when rain is imminent, or strong winds are blowing.
Bitumen in Emulsified Form Emulsion Breaking in Patches Emulsion Broken and Slurry Set
Figure 96. Slurry Setting as Emulsion Breaks
(iv) Rolling of Slurry Seals

For thin fine slurry seals, e.g., texture slurries, it is not necessary to use pneumatic tyred rollers to do the
compaction, normal traffic action should suffice. However, coarse slurries and layers thicker than
4.0 mm should be rolled with heavy pneumatic tyred rollers, approximately 22 ton, prior to opening the road to
traffic. As with all compaction, the rollers must be checked to ensure there are no leaks and the tyre pressures are
correct. If rolling is deemed necessary, the following aspects should be noted:
 Rolling only takes place once it has been ascertained that the emulsion has broken.
 Rolling is systematic, done from side to side, ensuring sufficient cover is provided.
 Emulsions in conventional slurry seals with stable grade emulsions are dependent on air and road
temperatures to break. High air and road temperatures enhance the breaking process of the emulsion. The
rolling of layers at such high temperatures can be done sooner, normally within 2 to 3 hours.

Page 113
 Due to the additive in the emulsion of quick set slurries, the breaking process of the emulsion is not dependent
on air and road temperatures, but it is chemically controlled by the amount of additive added. Quick set slurries
can be rolled 20 to 30 minutes after placement.
(v) Colour Variations

Colour variations in slurry seals occur as a result of any of the following reasons:
 Variation in bitumen content
 Variation in the grading of the sand
 Direction of movement of the slurry machine
 Variation in the quality of the emulsion
 Rain during, or shortly after, placement of the slurry
When a colour variation is noticed on a completed slurry seal, it should be determined whether it has a damaging
effect or not, to be able to take remedial and or preventative steps.
3.10.8.3 Cape Seals

Cape Seals consist of a single seal of 14 mm or 20 mm aggregate, penetrated with a binder (fog spray) and covered
with a slurry seal. A 14 mm aggregate is covered with one layer of slurry. On 20 mm aggregate, two layers of slurry
are applied.
Depending on the volumes of slurry mix required, it can be mixed with a concrete mixer. When large volumes need
to be placed, it is normally mixed in a batching plant.
The single seal is constructed as described in Section 3.10.8.1. However, the aggregate spread rate is normally
much lower to accommodate the layer(s) of fine slurry.
3.10.8.4 Slurry Application

The following details on the application of the first layer of slurry must be noted:
 The slurry should be applied not less than four days, and not more than four weeks, after the penetration
layer and/or fog spray.
 When the penetration or fog spray is dry (cured), the surface is given one complete roll with a 6 to 8 ton
steel wheel roller. Rolling should preferably be done as early as possible in the morning to prevent pick-up.
 Before the slurry is applied, the road surface should be lightly sprinkled with water.
 Under no circumstances must free water be present on the surface when the slurry is applied. No additional
water should be added to the slurry on the road to improve the workability.
 The consistency of the slurry mix should be controlled using the ASTM method D3910 with a slump of 30 to
40 mm at the time of placing. It is desirable that the slurry has a wet consistency.
 The first slurry layer should be spread to the full width of the chip application.
 The slurry must be applied by means of hard rubber squeegees in a layer of sufficient thickness to fill the
voids between the chips, while leaving just the top of the chips exposed.
 It is essential that the slurry is applied with to-and-fro and sideways movements of the rubber squeegees to
ensure that the slurry enters all the interstices.
 Spreading of each batch must be completed before the next batch is discharged.
 After the emulsion has cured sufficiently, the layer should be rolled properly with heavy pneumatic tyred
rollers.
 Rolling must not be done later than the first working day after the slurry was placed.
 After the rolling is finished, the layer can be opened to traffic.
When a second layer of slurry is required, it should preferably be placed within four weeks of the first slurry opening
to traffic. The layer is placed as described above for the first slurry, with the following additional points:
 The second slurry is spread to the full width of the sealed surface.
 The edges are finished off in a straight line and the final surface is dense with a uniform appearance, with just
the tops of the aggregate exposed after rolling is finished.

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3.10.8.5 Graded Seals

Graded seals consist of crushed coarse to fine single sized aggregates. A
good bond between the seal and the base coarse is very important. Otta Graded Seals
seals are one type of graded seal. Graded seals consist of crushed
coarse to fine single sized
Binders used for Otta seals are normally relatively soft binders with low aggregates. A good bond between
viscosities, i.e., penetration grade bitumens not harder than 150/200 or the seal and the base coarse is
cut-back bitumens. very important. Otta seals are one
type of graded seal.
The following are indicators of good practice:
 At least two 22 ton pneumatic tyred rollers are essential for proper
rolling on the day of construction. This is to knead the binder upwards into the aggregate particles, and to
apply pressure over the entire area.
 A minimum of 15 passes with pneumatic tyred rollers over the entire surface area, including the shoulders
is required on the day of construction.
 Early trafficking is advantageous to the seal, but it must be done in such a manner that the entire surface area
is uniformly exposed. This can be done by directing traffic into designated “lanes” marked by traffic cones or
delineators.
 Heavy traffic should be allowed on the seal immediately after the initial rolling with heavy pneumatic tyred
rollers is complete, to assist with kneading of the binder and aggregate mixture.
 The speed of the traffic should, however, be limited to 40 to 50 km/hour.
 It is advantageous if one pass of a 6 to 8 ton steel wheel roller is applied over the surfaced area, after the
initial rolling with the pneumatic tyred rollers is completed. This improves the density of the layer by breaking
down weaker aggregate. This roll can be repeated two days after sealing.
 For two to three weeks after completion, excess material dislodged by traffic should be swept back into the
wheelpaths to achieve maximum aggregate embedment. After this period, excess material can be swept away.
3.10.8.6 Double Otta Seal and Combination Seals

When a double Otta seal or a combination seal is used, the following should be noted:
 The first Otta seal should be allowed to cure for at least 8 to 12 weeks, depending on curing conditions and
binder type, before the second seal is applied. This is to minimize fatting up due to evaporation of the cutting
oils.
 It is essential that when applying sand cover seals, enough sand is applied, and that dislodged aggregate is
swept back onto the surface.
 A minimum longitudinal joint overlap of 150 mm must be attained, and additional heavy rolling must be
applied to even out the joints.
 It is desirable to spray the full width of the road in one pass. If longitudinal joints cannot be avoided, they
should be positioned outside the wheel paths.
 Transverse joints should be offset, and not placed one above the other.
3.11 Hot Mix Asphalt

The term “hot mix asphalt” (HMA) is generically used to include many different types of mixes of aggregate and
bitumen that are produced at an elevated temperature in
an asphalt plant. HMA is divided into three main mix
types, depending on the grading of the aggregate in the
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
mix, e.g., dense-graded, open-graded and gap-graded.
There are also other mix sub-types, which are generally Various aspects of hot mix asphalt are discussed in:
used in asphalt pavement layers. HMA is discussed in  Chapter 3: Materials Testing, Section 4.2
various chapters of this manual, see the sidebox for  Chapter 4: Standards, Section 4.2
specific cross-references. Information with respect to the
standard types of asphalt mixes normally available and
 Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design,
Section 10
selected is contained in the Standard Specifications and
the relative SABITA Manuals.  Chapter 10: Pavement Design, Section 7

Page 115

The control of the quality of the asphalt layer starts at the production plant. From the production plant the hot mix
asphalt is transported to the paving site by trucks where it is paved using an asphalt paving machine. The paved
layer is compacted using compaction equipment.
The quality control measures at the production plant are dealt with in Section 2.2. The control measures applied
during hauling, paving and compaction operations are discussed below.
3.11.1.1 Hauling
Hauling of HMA from the production plant must consider the following:
 Trucks should be fitted with elongated tailpieces to prevent spillage around the paving unit.
 An acceptable release agent, such as water containing a small proportion of detergent, is used to prevent
asphalt adhering to the body of the truck. Oil-based materials such as engine oil, paraffin or diesel fuel must not
be used.
 Trucks should be in a roadworthy condition and, especially, be free of oil leaks.
 To minimise heat loss and hardening of the binder films because of exposure to air flow, the asphalt in the trucks
is covered with a tarpaulin or a suitable thermal blanket.
 Trucks are of sufficient capacity to ensure a continuous supply of asphalt to the paver.
 Risk of “drain-down” of the binder in open-graded type of mixes, such as SMA or porous asphalt, when
transported over long distances or very rough delivery routes.
3.11.1.2 Paving
The paver unit and operation is described in detail in Section 2.8, and includes construction control measures to
ensure a smooth pavement and good joints. The following control measures should be given additional attention
during the paving operation.
(i) Level Control
 Level control equipment depends on the required smoothness of the finished paving, and the smoothness of
the surface on which the layer is laid.
 To average out the level of the base or existing surfacing, and thus achieve a desired average mat thickness, a
levelling beam (Figure 97) is used for level control.
 To pave to a design level, a line on pedestal is used.
 To tie in to an existing level, a joint matcher is used.
 To achieve a constant crossfall, a beam, joint matcher or line on pedestal on one side with the constant cross
sensor on the other side, are used.
(ii) Loose versus Compacted Mat Thickness

The uncompacted mat behind the screed must be paved thicker than the final required thickness, as compaction
reduces the loose thickness. Different asphalt mixes have different compaction factors and the final paved thickness
thus depends on the type of asphalt mix. Typical compaction factors are given in Table 10.
Table 10. Compaction Factors

Type of Mix Compaction Factor
BTB1, LAMBs2 0.7 to 0.75
Continuously graded 0.7 to 0.83
Open graded, UTFC3 0.9 to 0.92
Notes
1. BTB = bitumen treated base
2. LAMB = large aggregate mixes for bases
3. UTFC = ultra-thin friction courses Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
The Hot Mix Asphalt Trouble-
shooting Guide, published by the
Society for Asphalt Technology
(2005) is a very useful reference for
the construction of asphalt.

Page 116
Figure 97. Levelling Beam for Level Control
3.11.1.3 Good Paving Practices

The following are good paving practices, which should always be followed:
 Pave at a constant speed, selected to suit the compaction effort.
 Feed the paver with a constant supply of material, to reduce start/stop activities to an absolute minimum.
 Before paving, clean the screed, check for wear and then heat to suit the mix type.
 Tow points, which control how the paver moves up and down, are correctly set for the required mat thickness.
 Paving always starts on starter blocks under the screed.
 Paving lines are marked out each side of the paver for guidance.
 Extension augers are attached to suit the paving width.
 Forward movement only commences once auger boxes are filled over their full width.
 A constant head of asphalt across the entire width of the screed is maintained.
 The hopper is not emptied between loads. The new load is added to the hopper so as to heat up the
remaining asphalt from the previous load.
 Tipping of trucks is well controlled to avoid spillage in front of the paver.
 Paving thickness is checked regularly by calculations and with a dip rod. Adjustments are made gradually and
evenly.
 Excessive manual adjustment of the tow points is not allowed.
 Frequently check the mat finish between the paver and the rollers with a straight-edge and visually, to
identify any problems.
 Avoid walking on the unrolled mat.
 Handwork is limited to areas inaccessible to the paver, or for correcting deficiencies.
3.11.1.4 Compaction
The compaction operation is the most important aspect of the paving process.
Compaction develops the strength and stability of the mix, and closes the
interconnected voids through which water and air could penetrate the mix in Compaction
the layer. Compaction equipment, i.e., rollers are discussed in Section 2.10. The compaction operation is the
most important aspect of the
(i) Compaction Stages paving process. Compaction
Compaction is carried out in three stages: develops the strength and
stability of the mix.
 Breakdown rolling (150 °C – 120 °C range)

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 This stage takes place immediately behind the paver where the mat temperature is highest.
 Most of the compaction is achieved during this stage, e.g., an increase in density from about 84% of
Maximum Voidless Density (MVD) behind the screed, to about 91% of MVD.
 Rollers with the highest compactive effort are used to reach adequate density rapidly on mats where the
temperature is typically in excess of 135 °C for continuously graded asphalt. This is best accomplished by
static steel wheel rollers, especially three-wheel rollers.
 Vibratory rollers have a wider compaction temperature range than static rollers, and achieve density in fewer
passes.
 Pneumatic tyred rollers can achieve the required density, but on a very hot mat may give rise to rideability
problems.
 Intermediate rolling (120 °C – 90 °C range)
 This stage follows directly after breakdown rolling while the mat is still plastic and at a temperature that
permits further compaction. This stage of compaction continues until the required compaction is achieved,
and the density is increased to the specified requirement, e.g., 93% to 95% MVD and the surface is well knit.
 This stage is best accomplished by rollers effective at lower temperatures, i.e., generally in the range of 95 to
135 °C. Vibratory and pneumatic tyred rollers are suitable for this stage, with pneumatic tyred rollers
effective at temperatures as low as 70 °C, and where knitting of the surface is required.
 Heavy steel wheel static, or vibratory rollers at very low amplitude vibration, are employed to iron out any
roller marks. This stage should be completed before the mat reaches a temperature of about 90 °C, although
evening out of the surface may be achieved at temperatures as low as 70 °C, depending on the viscosity of
the binder.
 Modified binders may have a marked influence on the compaction temperatures. Workability of these mixes
should be carefully investigated during trial sections, and when any changes of binder and additive sources
occur, to set appropriate construction controls.
 Finishing rolling (90 °C – 70 °C range)
 During this final stage, irregularities in the surface are smoothed over to remove roller marks with little further
densification of the layer.
 Final kneading of the surface is achieved.
(ii) Good Rolling Practices

To ensure full, uniform coverage of the paved mat, it is essential that a regular rolling pattern is adopted. Rollers
vary in width, and a particular pattern does not apply to all rollers. For this reason, the best rolling pattern for each
roller used must be established and followed to obtain the most uniform compaction of the paved width.
The following control measures should be checked:

 A sufficient number of mechanically sound rollers, including stand-by plant, are on site to carry out the
compaction correctly.
 Skilled operators are available.
 Steel wheel rollers are free from backlash when reversing direction.
 No rollers have oil or grease leaks.
 Pneumatic tyres on rollers are inflated to the appropriate pressure.
 All sprinkler systems, mats and scrapers are in good operating condition.
 Rollers should not turn, change direction or be stationery on the hot mat.
 Rollers should not vibrate while standing still or reversing direction.
 Starts, stops and changes in the direction of rolling, i.e., forward and reverse, should be made evenly.
 To prevent excessive cooling of the mat, rollers should not spray excessive water onto the drums.
3.11.1.5 Asphalt Placement during Night Work

With traffic volumes steadily increasing, it is becoming more common to carry out asphalt construction during the
night, especially in metropolitan areas where traffic accommodation is a major issue. Whilst mix selection and
manufacture is essentially similar irrespective of when placed, particular construction issues may arise when working
at night, such as:
 The normal tack coat of stable grade emulsion will not break speedily, due to a lack of evaporation. Thus,
an alternative product may be necessary to ensure an adequate bond with the substrate.
 If even only a light rain has occurred, drying out of the surface can be a lengthy process at night, resulting in
possible delays in commencement of work.

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 Due to the inherently colder ambient temperatures, commencement of the compaction process has to be
more timeous and efficient to achieve the required level of compaction, especially for relatively thin surfacing
mixes.
 Even with adequate lighting, aspects such as segregation and unevenness are more difficult at night, and, as
such, more vigilance/supervision is invariably necessary.
3.12 Concrete Pavements

Concrete pavements are rigid pavement structures that are generally constructed using slipform or side form pavers.
Concrete pavements are discussed in various chapters of this manual, see the sidebox for specific cross-references.
A number of concrete pavement types have been

constructed in South Africa, and are mainly differentiated
by their crack control features. These are:
Concrete Pavements
 Plain jointed unreinforced concrete
The following is a comprehensive guideline for all
 Jointed reinforced concrete
aspects of concrete pavements:
 Continuously reinforced concrete (CRC)
 Concrete Road Construction, Cement and
 Ultra-thin continuously reinforced concrete Concrete Institute (C&CI, Perrie and Rossmann,
(UTCRC) 2009)
 Ultra-thin reinforced concrete (UTRC)
Various aspects of concrete pavements are
Illustrations and descriptions of these types of concrete discussed in:
pavements are included in Chapter 2: 2.4 and  Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and
Chapter 9: 12.2.2. Behaviour, Section 2.4
 Chapter 3: Materials Testing, Section 5.1
Research has shown that areas of premature failures on
concrete pavements are mainly attributed to poor  Chapter 4: Standards, Section 5.1
workmanship or construction problems. It is, therefore,  Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design,
essential that control measures are implemented during Section 12.2.2
construction, the various construction processes are  Chapter 10: Pavement Design, Section 8
continuously monitored for conformance to the
techniques, and plant selections agreed upon at the
relevant trials. The processes associated with concrete  Chapter 14: Post Construction, Section 4.2
paving are discussed in this section.
3.12.1 Subbase Construction

The subbase in a concrete pavement has considerable influence on the long-term performance of the completed
pavement, both in terms of uniform support and to provide an erosion-resistant layer beneath the concrete. The
subbase is often constructed much earlier than the main pavement and is used as a haul road for site traffic,
especially for vehicles delivering concrete. It must, therefore, be sound enough to support construction traffic. The
requirement for a subbase, the choice of material and thickness, and whether it is to be bound or unbound is based
on traffic volumes, subgrade conditions, type of concrete pavement and the economics of a particular situation. In
most cases, subbases under concrete pavements are of a high quality, well stabilized cementitious or bituminous
layers. The selection of the subbase is an important part of the design process.
At the time of placing the concrete, primer coats must be properly dried. The surface of the subbase must be kept
cool and damp, to reduce the risk of heating the new concrete, which can lead to premature cracking, particularly in
hot weather.
Immediately before placing the concrete, any excess water should be broomed off the subbase to ensure that the
subbase is still damp, but free of puddles of water.
3.12.2 Formwork
3.12.2.1 Side Forms

Side forms consist of steel units that are capable of carrying the paving equipment. Steel form units usually consist
of straight steel sections 3 metres long, while shorter lengths may be required in undulating terrain or for curves with
tight radii. A side form is illustrated in Figure 98.

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Wood forms should only be used where the project is small and relatively unimportant, or steel forms are unsuitable,
such as for short-radius curves. Forms should be provided with adequate devices for secure setting so that they can
also withstand, without visible spring or settlement, the impact and vibration of the compacting and finishing
equipment. When checked for straightness, forms should not vary by more than:
 3 mm in 3 m from the true plane surface on the top
 6 mm in 3 m along the face of the form
Figure 98. Side Forms
Forms should contain provisions for locking the ends of abutting form sections together tightly. Flexible or curved
forms are recommended when the curve has a radius of 30 m or less.
Keyway strips, shown in Figure 99, must be soundly attached to the faces of the forms to ensure that keyways
between form sections form a smooth horizontal plane. All forms must be cleaned and oiled before use.
Figure 99. Keyway Strip
3.12.2.2 Setting of Forms

Forms should be pinned or staked into place with not less than three pins for each 3 metre section, with a pin placed
at each side of every joint. The pins should be of sufficient length to hold the forms securely in position during
construction. When the forms have been set accurately to line and grade, form wedges and locks for steel form
units are driven tight. Forms may be adjusted to the correct level by the use of steel shims or wedges. The space
between the supporting layer and the forms can be filled with a semi-dry 1:3 cement/sand mortar. The setting of
forms is illustrated in Figure 100.
3.12.2.3 Removal of Forms

Forms should remain in place for at least eight hours from the time of concreting, or until the concrete is ready for
saw cutting of joints. If the air temperature drops below 10 C during this time, the removal of forms may need to

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be delayed to ensure that pavement edges are not damaged. Forms should be carefully removed to avoid damage
to the pavement, and especially the top edge of the pavement, and any projecting tie bars at longitudinal joints. The
specified curing procedure should be initiated on the exposed vertical edge of the slab immediately following removal
of the form.
Removal of Forms
Forms should remain in place for at
least eight hours from the time of
concreting, or until the concrete is
ready for saw cutting of joints. If the
air temperature drops below 10 C
during this time, the removal of forms
may need to be delayed to ensure
that pavement edges are not
damaged.
Figure 100. Setting of Forms
3.12.3 Guide Wires or Stringlines

Where a slipform paver is used, two guide wires called stringlines are usually provided, one on each side of the
concrete slab being laid, at a constant height above, and at a constant horizontal distance from the edge of the
proposed pavement. Typical stringlines are illustrated in Figure 101.
Figure 101. Stringlines
The stringline should be supported by finely adjustable connectors attached to steel stakes. The connectors should
be free of play. The stakes are typically spaced 8 metres apart, and closer on vertical and horizontal curves. The
staking system normally includes hand winches at appropriate intervals to tighten the line, and prevent sagging and
deflection.
The stakes should be positioned, the connectors set, and wires securely fixed and tensioned on the connectors
sufficiently in advance of the paver to permit checking and inspection. The stringline should be checked periodically
during the day to ensure that the tension is appropriate and has not changed with temperature.

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3.12.4 Working with Concrete
3.12.4.1 Manufacturing and Hauling Concrete

Materials for concrete pavements are normally specified in great detail. It is essential that the construction control
ensures that all the specified requirements are met.
The consistence of the concrete mix has a major impact on the final surface finish and riding quality of the
pavement. Consistence is measured using a slump test, or Vebe test when the slump of the concrete is less than 35
mm. With hand paving, concrete consistence is usually measured by means of a slump test. These tests are
discussed in Chapter 3: Section 5.1.8.
A concrete road pavement has a very large surface area in relation to its volume. The surface is subject to
temperature and wind effects immediately after placing. To limit these effects, and to permit the early finishing and
curing of the concrete, the mix proportions should be such that the stiffest possible consistency is produced,
providing it is compatible with the paving plant.
Continuous pouring is essential for a consistent finish. Therefore, it is important that the concreting operations can
achieve constant production.
The following aspects need to be considered to achieve continuity of mixing and paving:
 The batch plant capacity is capable of supplying the paver continuously, and receiving the required materials
to ensure this is achieved.
 The hourly concrete demand is based on rate of progress and related volume calculations.
 Aggregate heaps are contained to avoid segregation and mixing of different aggregate sizes and types.
 Aggregate moisture content is consistent, and wet delivered aggregate allowed to dry out for at least 12
hours before use.
 Mass batching is preferred. If volume batching is used, container masses and related volumes should be
checked daily.
 The moisture content of the fine aggregate, is to be checked daily.
 Cement to be used in a first in first out basis.
 Concrete batch sizes do not exceed manufacturer specifications. Mixing times should be at least 1 minute, or
greater depending on tests for uniformity of mix.
 The size and number of haulage vehicles is sufficient to suit the batch plant capacity, haul distances and site
issues such as tie bars, shutters, reinforcing and dowel bars. Side tipping is often required to avoid driving over
reinforcing steel and dowel bar cages.
 If trucks are not typical agitator trucks, tipping trucks should have watertight bodies, high tipping angles and
large fillets in internal corners. Provision should be made for covering the concrete to prevent drying out of the
concrete in transit.
 With truck mixers or truck agitators, the time between mixing and discharge does not exceed 60
minutes, or less depending on temperature.
 Where concrete is transported in non-agitating equipment, discharge is completed within 45 minutes after
mixing, which can reduce to 30 minutes with high environmental and mixing temperatures.
 No water may be added to the mix during transport.
3.12.4.2 Placing and Spreading Concrete

To avoid depressions or cavities in the surface of the pavement, the concrete is placed directly in front of the paver,
or distributed by auger or shuttle feeders incorporated in the paver so that a small roll of excess concrete is
continuously carried forward by the paver. It should be placed to a sufficient loose thickness to provide a proper
surcharge for subsequent finishing operations. Finding the suitable amount of surcharge for the spread concrete,
that results in the correct level after compaction, is a matter of trial and error, but is typically around 15%. To
achieve an even surcharge with manual laying, a strike-off beam is used. This consists of a beam 300 mm longer
than the width of the lane, with battens as thick as the surcharge, nailed to the underside near the ends, as
illustrated in Figure 102.
Concrete should not be placed haphazardly, and shoved or vibrated into its final position. Where necessary, hand
spreading is done with shovels and not rakes. Workers are not allowed to walk in the freshly placed concrete with
boots coated with earth or other foreign substances.

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Placing is continuous between planned construction joints, without the use of intermediate header boards. An
interval of more than thirty minutes between placing of any two consecutive loads of concrete may require stopping
paving operations, and making a construction joint in the concrete already placed.
Precautions are taken when placing concrete, to ensure that the fixed side forms and preset reinforcement and
dowels are not damaged or disturbed, and that the concrete does not segregate.
Figure 102. Strike-off Beam
In fixed form construction, placing starts from the corners and the lowest level of the area being paved. Each load of
concrete is placed into the face of previously placed concrete.
On steep grades, the direction of paving is always up the slope and slots of keyed joints on the downhill side, so that
the concrete flows into the cavity. The water content of the concrete mix is reduced to make the concrete stiffer, to
prevent it from flowing downhill during compaction. This may require greater compactive effort and finishing to
prevent bulging on the downhill side. Steep grades also impose a greater requirement for good skid resistance,
especially when the surface is wet. Deep tining or an alternative texture may be appropriate.
Concrete should not be placed during rainy weather and waterproof covers for the protection of the surface of the
plastic concrete should be available at all times. In addition, with slipform paving, acceptable emergency protection
for the slab edges should be provided. When rain appears imminent, paving operations should cease and the
necessary steps for complete protection of the plastic concrete commenced.
All reasonable precautions should be taken to ensure that the temperature of the pavement concrete does not fall
below 5 C during the first 48 hours after placing. When prevailing temperatures are low, or when cold weather is
forecast, concreting operations should cease. Alternatively, the
pavement should be protected with covers that ensure a
minimum pavement temperature above 5 C for the 48 hours.
Temperatures for Concrete
Hot, dry, windy weather causes cracking in the pavement and/or Pavement Construction
impairs the quality of fresh or hardened concrete, and requires All reasonable precautions should be taken to
precautions. Such precautions include placing concrete during ensure that the temperature of the pavement
the coolest part of the day and keeping mixing water and concrete does not fall below 5 C during the
aggregates cool. Paving operations should cease when the first 48 hours after placing. When prevailing
concrete temperature, as discharged at the paving site, exceeds temperatures are low, or when cold weather
32 C, as finishing will become difficult. is forecast, concreting operations should
cease.
When concrete is placed adjacent to an existing pavement, the
equipment supported on the existing pavement should be Paving operations should cease when the
equipped with protective pads and offset not less than 300 mm concrete temperature, as discharged at the
from the edge of the pavement, to avoid breaking or cracking paving site, exceeds 32 C, as finishing will
the pavement edge. become difficult.

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3.12.5 Compaction
The purpose of compacting concrete is to ensure the maximum density is obtained, and that complete contact
between the concrete and reinforcing steel, dowels, tie bars, and side forms is achieved. The entire volume of the
pavement should be compacted in as effective a manner as possible. Particular attention should be given to edges
and joints. The rate of forward progress of the plant should not exceed that at which full compaction of the concrete
can be achieved. All vibration should be stopped when the paver is stopped. Over-
vibration, resulting in segregation, surface laitance, or leakage, should not be
allowed. However, with a well-designed mix, segregation due to over vibration is
unlikely. Laitance
Laitance is a milky
A vibrating beam or truss strikes off the concrete in addition to compacting it, as deposit on the surface of
illustrated in Figure 54 in Section 2.9.3. The vibrating beam is lifted onto the spread new cement or concrete,
concrete and, as the concrete is vibrated, the underside of the beam or truss comes usually caused by too
to rest on the side forms. With a double-beam unit or truss, a small roll of concrete much water.
should be maintained in front of both beams as the vibrator is pulled along. Usually,
at least two passes are required. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 54 and Figure 56 in Section 2.9.
A poker vibrator is used in areas adjacent to edges and corners, to supplement compacting by hand tamper or
vibrating beam. However, where the thickness of concrete exceeds 150 mm, a poker vibrator should be applied over
the whole area and depth of the concrete, including along the faces of all forms. See Figure 54 for an example of a
poker vibrator.
Compacting and striking off should be completed before any excess water bleeds to the surface.
With a paver, the concrete is extruded between the bottom of the profile pan or conforming plate and the side forms
and subbase. The mass of the paver provides pressure on the conforming plate, while immersion vibrators ensure
adequate compaction is achieved, and the concrete is liquefied enough to flow through the paving process. Setting
of the vibrators includes the spacing of the vibrators, the vertical alignment of the vibrators and their frequency. The
frequency needs to be set to prevent the occurrence of vibrator trails in the pavement. See Figure 60 for a picture of
vibrator trails, and Section 2.9.7.3 for a discussion on vibrators.
3.12.6 Steel
Concrete pavements use steel for dowel bars, tie bars and reinforcing. The process control for these components is
discussed below.
(i) Dowel Bars

Dowel bars are used in transverse joints to transfer load across a contraction or expansion joint. At least one end
must be lubricated and free to move, to permit opening and closing of the joint. To allow this movement, dowels
must be made of smooth steel, and sawn and not cropped. All burrs on the ends must be removed. Dowels must be
straight and free from dirt or excessive rust. To permit joint movement, the free end of the dowel must be smooth
and greased, to ensure sliding can occur freely. Excessive grease, that can create a void, should not be allowed.
Dowels can be placed in assemblies at joint locations in advance of paving operations, or can be installed
mechanically with both fixed form and slipform pavers.
Dowel alignment in both planes must be maintained by a suitable supporting frame left permanently in place, as
illustrated in Figure 103. Failure to meet this requirement may result in joints locking up, thus inducing cracking
within the slab at or near the ends of the dowels. Misalignment should not exceed 1 mm, measured from the one
end of the dowel bar to the other.
Dowel assemblies should be simple and offer no restraint to longitudinal movement at the joint. The locations of
dowel assemblies should be suitably marked prior to concreting, to ensure accurate cutting of the contraction joint
over the dowel. Where doweled contraction joints are skewed, the assemblies require careful preparation to ensure
that the dowels remain parallel to the pavement centre line, to ensure freedom of the longitudinal movement at the
joint.
Where dowels are inserted mechanically, the set-up of the paver should be checked to ensure that the dowels can be
placed by the machine to the required level of accuracy. Covermeters can be used to check the alignment of
mechanically inserted dowels. See Section 2.9.4 and Figure 55 for dowel bar inserters.

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Figure 103. Installation of Dowel Bars
(ii) Tiebars
Tiebars are used in longitudinal joints. They are designed to hold a joint tightly closed, whilst permitting a small
amount of warping or hinging at the joint. They must, therefore, be firmly anchored in the concrete. For this
reason, tie bars are relatively thin and deformed to provide the necessary anchorage.
In the case of multiple lane paving, tiebars are either placed on cages, or stabbed into the fresh concrete with an
automatic inserter. In longitudinal joints between paved lanes, the tiebars are inserted into the edge of the
pavement. These are either bent tiebars or one half of a two-piece tiebar.
(iii) Reinforcement
If the slab is reinforced, the steel may be supported on stools at the proper location (see Figure 104), and the
concrete compacted from the surface. Alternatively, the concrete layer below the mesh should be struck off, the
reinforcement placed and tied, and the top course spread.
Steel reinforcement should be pre-positioned on the prepared subbase on chairs/stools, or other suitable supports,
sufficiently in advance of paving, to permit inspection and checking of the reinforcement. The minimum cover of
50 mm should be applied, and steel should be placed one-third of the slab thickness from the surface. As with any
concrete, all steel reinforcement used in concrete paving must be free of rust, oil and grease, to ensure a good bond
with the concrete.
Light reinforcement in the form of sheets should be handled with care, so that they remain reasonably flat and free
from distortions. Bars should be free from kinks or bends that may prevent them from being properly assembled or
installed.
3.12.7 Joints
Transverse expansion joints are constructed perpendicular to the centre line of the pavement and extend the full
width of the pavement.
Sawing of joints is tricky as concrete has to achieve a certain strength to enable sawing of the joints. At the same
time, the longer the period between casting and saw cutting, the greater the possible moisture loss from the
concrete, and the higher the risk of shrinkage cracks occurring before the joints are cut. A trial section greatly
assists in deciding on the cutting time. The trial must use the same materials and conditions similar to those
anticipated for the actual construction. Two-stage saw cutting can also be used. An
initial narrow cut induces a crack at the planned joint location, which later widens
when the concrete hardens. Joints must be correctly positioned above dowels and tie
Joints
bars.
Joints must be correctly
Longitudinal joints are provided either in the form of construction joints or weakened positioned above
plane joints in multiple lane paving. All longitudinal joints are tied together using dowels and tie bars.

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deformed tie bars, either set on the subbase in assemblies for multiple-lane paving, or mechanically inserted into the
plastic concrete. Tie-bars are located at mid slab depth in construction joints, or at mid-depth of the reduced section
in contraction joints. Where placed in assemblies, or at construction joints, tie-bars should be secured to the extent
that they do not deflect during paving operations.
Longitudinal joints and transverse joints must be sealed. See Section 3.12.11 for details.
Figure 104. Reinforcement
3.12.7.1 Joints Between Asphalt and Concrete Pavements

Concrete inlays are sometimes used on the slow lane of major highways, with the shoulders and fast lane(s)
constructed with asphalt. In these situations, the vertical joint between the asphalt and concrete should be specially
constructed to ensure that the asphalt bonds to the concrete. Figure 105 illustrates how the joint should be
constructed. When constructing the concrete layer, a champfered edge form is used, to create the 45 angle.
Normally, the concrete is constructed slightly higher than the original surface. The asphalt is paved at a later stage,
and paved into the angled edge of the concrete.
These types of joints are only necessary for the longitudinal joint, i.e., for shoulders next to slow lanes, or slow lanes
next to fast lanes. Transverse joints between asphalt and concrete pavements only require a straight vertical joint,
as these joints can be sealed.

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Figure 105. Vertical Interface between Asphalt and Concrete Pavements
3.12.8 Finishing
Finishing includes both initial finishing, involving screeding the concrete to the required cross section profile, as well
as final finishing, involving floating the pavement.
Achieving a satisfactory surface on the concrete pavement, requires controlled finishing techniques. To assist in the
proper application of these techniques, the concrete mix should be such that there are just sufficient fines (cement
and sand) to allow a mortar to be worked to the surface with vibration. Too much fine material makes finishing
easier, but probably leads to surface bleeding, as well as being more expensive than a well-proportioned mix. Too
much water in the mix creates delays in finishing, as well as producing a weak surface layer that exhibits poor
resistance to wear and abrasion.
Screeding ensures that the concrete achieves its final surface tolerances, while final finishing begins when the sheen
has left the surface. In the case of air-entrained concrete, there may be little bleed water and no visible sheen, and
it may be possible to finish this type of concrete after a short delay. Finishing should not be attempted in any area
where there is free surface water. Working the surface too soon creates a weak surface and produces laitance.
Working the surface too late, however, requires considerably more finishing effort and may cause crumbling of the
concrete surface.
Neither cement nor water should be used to influence surface conditions and the ease of finishing, as this produces
surfaces with reduced abrasion and wear resistance.
Floating involves smoothing any irregularities in the surface

following screeding, and preparing the surface for texturing. It
can also assist in closing minor surface cracks, which may occur
Finishing Concrete Pavements
as the surface dries. Floating is not a substitute for proper
compaction after placement of the concrete, and should be kept The importance of checking the pavement
to the absolute minimum necessary to achieve the required surface and correcting any irregularities when
results. the concrete is still in a plastic state, cannot
be over-emphasized. The relative difficulty
Edge tooling by hand at transverse or longitudinal joints should and cost of surface correction in hardened
not be permitted. All edges on pavements should be left concrete is much higher.
square. Any spalling resulting from the failure of the edge is
only minor, and will not cause a maintenance problem. Any depressions should immediately be filled
with freshly mixed concrete and not mortar
Any depressions should immediately be filled with freshly mixed or slush. The concrete is then struck off,
concrete and not mortar or slush, struck off, compacted, compacted, screeded and refinished. High
screeded and refinished. High areas should be cut down and areas should be cut down and refinished.

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refinished. Monitoring of the pavement surface is carried out simply using suitable lengths of light extruded metal
sections or timber, placed carefully on the pavement surface both longitudinally and transversely. They must not
disturb the concrete surface. These checks are carried out at the same time as a regular visual inspection by
supervisors. Special attention should be given to ensure that the refinished surface across joints formed in the
plastic concrete meet the requirements for smoothness. Surface corrections should continue until the entire surface
is found to be free from observable departures, and the slab conforms to the required grade and cross section.
The importance of checking the pavement surface and correcting any irregularities at this stage of the paving
operations cannot be over-emphasized. The relative difficulty and cost of surface correction in the hardened concrete
is much higher.
3.12.9 Texturing
After placing, compaction, finishing and the completion of any wet-formed joints, and before the commencement of
curing, the surface of the concrete should be provided with a surface texture. This operation should commence
before the concrete is in a condition that the surface could be torn and coarse aggregate particles unduly loosened.
With mechanized paving, texturing may be carried out by means of a machine spanning the concrete slab and
guided in both level and direction by side forms, by the paver guide wires in the case of slipform construction, or by
suitable manually operated equipment.
For manual paving operations, or where lane-at-a-time paving is employed, hand drawn brooms provide a suitable
means of surface texturing. For municipal type works, hand drawn brooms are usually preferred.
When a burlap drag is used (see Section 2.9.6 and Figure 59), the first pass should commence as soon as
construction operations permit and before the water sheen has disappeared from the surface. This should be
followed by as many passes as required to produce the desired texture depth. There should be no delays between
passes. The drag should be damp during use and should be maintained clean and free from encrusted mortar.
Additional burlap drags should be kept on site for ready use to eliminate delays due to dirty and worn drags. The
burlap should be wetted each morning, and maintained in a moist condition throughout the day. At the end of the
day's pour, the burlap drag should be cleaned, or discarded and replaced if cleaning is unfeasible.
Directly after completing the burlap finish, the surface of the pavement is grooved with a metal tining device (see
Section 2.9.6 and Figure 58). The depth of the grooves produced should be monitored to ensure a depth of 2 to 4
mm. Where tining is done manually, the tining device is operated against a straightedge to ensure straight grooves.
Where noise is of concern, an exposed aggregate concrete surface has been shown to produce a quieter surface
than those described above. The texture is achieved using a smaller than normal coarse aggregate, i.e., 7 mm
rather than 14 mm, and applying a set-retarding agent to the surface. Following the prescribed period, the surface is
brushed with a mechanical rotary broom to remove the thin layer of mortar and expose the aggregate. The coarse
aggregate should have a polished stone value of at least 50 (see Chapter 3: 4.2.2.)
3.12.10 Curing
From the time concrete has been placed and compacted, and until it is a few days old, it must be protected against
damage from environmental factors. Such damage is primarily cracking caused by drying shrinkage, that is in turn
influenced by relative humidity, concrete and air temperatures, and wind velocity. There are a number of procedures
for minimizing plastic-shrinkage cracking that all involve reducing temperature and evaporation.
In addition, the concrete must be allowed to cure through proper hydration in the presence of moisture and a curing
compound or wet or impermeable covering. Curing compounds should be applied in accordance with the
manufacturers’ specifications. During spraying operations, the curing compound is agitated or stirred to keep
pigments in suspension. To avoid loss of spray, and a reduced application rate, the spray distributor must, at all
times, be protected by a suitable hood or screen and should be operated as close as practical to the pavement
surface. The curing membrane should remain intact for seven days after placing the concrete. Any damage to the
curing membrane should be made good by hand spraying of the affected areas.
3.12.11 Joint Sealing

Joints should be sealed as soon as practical, after completion of the pavement curing period and before the
pavement is opened to traffic. The sealing material should be applied to joints to conform to the details shown on
the plans. Any discrepancies between specifications and manufacturer’s recommendations should be analysed before
work commences.

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Preformed sealants require strict control of saw width; worn blades or variations in blade thickness between different
blades can result in sealant failure.
As a general rule, joint faces must also be dry since the sealant has to bond with the concrete. Inspection of each
joint is essential prior to placing backup materials, priming or sealant installation. It is also wise to check the joint
width and temperature of the concrete against the assumptions made in the joint design.
Application of the sealant to fill the joint reservoir is a skilled operation and must be carried out by skilled and trained
operators.
Compression seals require a uniform joint width, with straight, smooth, spall-free joint faces, to permit proper
installation and provide uniform contact. The joint need not, however, be cleaned to the same extent as is required
with field-moulded sealants. It is important to install the seal at the specified depth, usually 3 to 6 mm below the
surface, to keep it out of contact with the tyres. The seal should be installed in as long a continuous piece as
possible.
Curing compounds and other materials should not contaminate joint faces. Where the original curing is broken by
construction operations before the joint edges and faces have fully cured, supplementary curing must be applied.
3.13 Block Paving

Concrete block paving, also known as segmented concrete paving, comprises of small individual shaped blocks laid
shoulder to shoulder on a sand bedding layer. Sand is placed in the network of closely spaced joints between the
blocks to fill the gaps and to enhance interlock between the blocks. This system of blocks, jointing sand and bedding
layer provides a durable wearing course. The design of block pavements is discussed in Chapter 9: 13 and
Chapter 10: 9.
The paving blocks act as a structural layer, rather than merely

providing a wearing course, if the block paving is properly
Block Paving in High Speed
constructed, ensuring interlock or lock-up between individual blocks.
Traffic Areas
There are several aspects of the block paving wearing course layer
that have a significant effect on the performance of the layer. It is In areas where relatively high traffic
thus essential that all these aspects receive the necessary attention speeds are expected, block paving
and control during both manufacturing of the blocks and construction should be used with caution unless
of the layer, to obtain the maximum structural strength. proper construction practice and
maintenance of the joints in the early
There are various specifications and guideline documents published to stages of its life can be guaranteed.
assist in the successful construction of block paving. The following
publications are most widely used in South Africa:
 The current specification in South Africa for the requirements for concrete paving blocks is SANS 1058 –
Concrete Paving Blocks.
 The current specification in South Africa for the construction of concrete block paving is SANS 1200 MJ –
Standard Specification for Civil Engineering Construction: Segmented Paving.
 The Standard Specifications also have specifications for block paving, which need to be complied with on
COLTO based projects. These specifications may be different to those of SANS and CMA.
 Cement & Concrete Institute (C & CI) issued a technical note “The Manufacture of Concrete Paving Blocks”
that covers the basic principles of block paving and aims to assist manufacturers to produce a durable and
consistent product. This note can be downloaded from www.theconcreteinstitute.org.za.
 CSIR published the Urban Transport Guideline (UTG2): Structural Design of Segmental Block Pavements for
Southern Africa.
 The Concrete Manufacturers Association (CMA) has four books on
Concrete Block Paving. These books can be downloaded from Design of Block
www.cma.org.za. The books are titled: Pavements
 Book 1: Introduction
The design of the components
 Book 2: Design Aspects
of block pavements is included
 Book 3: Specification and Installation
in Chapter 9: 13.
 Book 4: Site Management and Laying
 The CMA also has guideline brochures on several aspects of concrete The pavement design for block
block paving, which can be downloaded from www.cma.org.za. pavements is included in
 A Step-by-Step Guide to Perfect Paving Chapter 10: 9.

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 Good Earthworks Practice

 Drainage of Concrete Block Paving
 Technical Note for Steep Slopes
 Efflorescence is only a Temporary Problem
 An Introduction to Permeable Concrete Block Paving
 Other very useful guides on various aspects of concrete block paving are publications by the Concrete Masonry
Association of Australia (CMAA), which can be downloaded from www.cmaa.com.au.
3.13.1 Paving Blocks

Paving blocks are the main element of the system. It is thus essential that the block strengths, shape and
dimensions are tightly controlled, to ensure a constructed layer of adequate strength.
3.13.1.1 Block Strength

The required strength of concrete block pavers is significantly higher than the strength of concrete bricks, which have
compressive strengths in the order of 7 MPa. The strength of the blocks should be sufficient to ensure that the
blocks have adequate resistance to withstand the wedging effect between adjacent blocks during traffic loading, and
the abrasion effect of the tyres during traffic movements. It is thus essential that the strength of the individual
blocks is controlled to ensure proper performance.
The specification currently used is SANS 1058, referred to in the Standard Specifications, which requires the following
for the blocks:
 Minimum wet compressive strengths of:
 25 MPa for paving blocks for light traffic conditions
 35 MPa for heavy traffic conditions, with wheel loads higher than 30 kN
 Minimum tensile splitting strength of:
 2.2 MPa for light traffic conditions
 2.8 MPa for heavy traffic conditions
 The average and individual mass loss of blocks shall not exceed 12 g and 15 g respectively during the abrasion
resistance tests. This test is discussed in Chapter 3: 5.2.
 The average and individual water absorption measured in the blocks shall not exceed 6.5% and 8.0%
respectively. This test is discussed in Chapter 3: 5.2.
Although the specifications require a minimum strength for the blocks, research has shown that compressive and
tensile strengths significantly higher than the minimum specified have little structural advantage to the block paving
layer.
3.13.1.2 Block Shape

There are three different types of shapes of concrete paving blocks manufactured in South Africa. The difference
between the types is the effective interlock achieved between adjacent blocks in a laying pattern. The different
shape types are: Type S-A, Type S-B and Type S-C. These are discussed and illustrated in Chapter 9: 13.1.2. Clay
bricks are not used as paving blocks anymore, as they are generally only rectangular in shape.
3.13.1.3 Thickness
Block pavers of variable thickness are available, but the most common thickness used in heavily trafficked areas is
80 mm.
3.13.1.4 Dimensional Tolerance

It is very important for block pavers to be of similar dimensions to ensure good interlock between the pavers and to
provide a smooth surface on the constructed layer. The required tolerances on individual blocks as specified in SANS
1058 are ± 2 mm on plan dimensions and ± 3 mm on thickness.
The specification also requires that the thickness of the block, as measured at any point along the perimeter, not
vary by more than 2%. This specification is necessary to ensure an acceptable riding quality of the paved layer.
3.13.2 Laying Patterns

The laying pattern is an important contributor to the performance of the block paved layer. The efficiency of a block
layer is the degree to which blocks must rotate to achieve interlock. There are numerous patterns for the laying of
paving blocks. The following patterns are the most common, and are illustrated in Figure 106:

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 Stretcher pattern
 Herringbone pattern
 Basket weave pattern
Stretcher Pattern
Herringbone Pattern
Basket Weave Pattern
Figure 106. Common Laying Patterns of Paving Blocks
Paved areas with laying patterns other than the herringbone pattern are generally disturbed by traffic loading and
movement during the early stage of trafficking. This disturbance leads to irregular gaps between rows of pavers,
which in turn leads to a loss of jointing sand, resulting in excessive movements between blocks. An example is
shown in Figure 107. The excessive movements between individual blocks results in spalling of the contact points
between blocks. Another benefit of the herringbone laying pattern is that it can be laid around bends and corners
without interrupting the laying pattern.
Figure 107. Excessive Openings in an Area Paved with Type S-C Blocks

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3.13.3 Edge Restraint

Edge restraint is required along the edges of a block paved area. It is very important to retain the bedding sand,
and to ensure that the paving blocks at the edge of the paved area do not creep outwards or rotate under load,
causing opening of the joints and loss of the interlock between the paving blocks. The integrity of the paved layer is
lost if the joints open.
Varies types of edge restraint are used, including concrete drains, concrete kerbs and edge beams. The edge
restraints should have sufficient stability to withstand occasional vehicle impacts. They can also be used to separate
areas of different laying patterns, or as kicker blocks where steep grades are encountered.
3.13.4 Joint Filling Material

Filling the joint or gap between individual pavers is crucial to the performance of a concrete block paving layer as
block pavers develop very little, or no, strength with open joints. A block paving layer develops its structural capacity
by the wedging action between individual pavers during construction and under traffic.
The small gaps or joints, nominally 2 to 5 mm wide, between the block pavers are filled with a fine continuously
graded dry sand, The use of cement in the joint filling material is not recommended. Maintaining the jointing sand
protects the structural integrity of the paving layer. If sand is lost, it is essential to refill the joints, especially when
windy conditions and/or fast moving traffic are experienced.
The cumulative compactive effect of traffic causes the blocks to

bed further into the bedding sand layer, and displaces some of
the jointing sand upwards. Vehicle movements remove some of
the joint filling sand, which becomes part of the detritus on the Thickness of Bedding Sand Layer
surface of the paved layer. This detritus eventually forms an The thickness of the bedding sand layer is
upper plug over the jointing sand and assists in sealing the between 25 to 30 mm in a loose condition.
block paving layer. Most failures in block paving occur because
the bedding sand layer exceeds the
3.13.5 Bedding Sand Layer recommended limits. Bedding sand thicker
than 30 mm can result in differential
The bedding sand has a crucial influence on the performance of compaction under the blocks, leading to loss
a block paving layer. The following three factors are the main of interlock between the blocks.
contributors to the uniformity of the layer and should be
controlled during construction:
 Thickness of the sand layer
 Grading and angularity of the sand
 Moisture content of the sand during construction and in service
The thickness of the bedding sand layer is between 25 to 30 mm in a loose condition. Most failures in block paving
occur because the bedding sand layer exceeds the recommended limits. Bedding sand thicker than 30 mm can result
in differential compaction under the blocks, leading to loss of interlock between the blocks.
In addition, the following material requirements should be noted:

 Materials, such as clean graded crushed quarry fines and good quality concrete sands perform well, provided
the paving blocks are constructed correctly.
 Bedding sand shall be free from deleterious substances, be non-plastic and permeable. The silt and clay
contents should be less than 20%.
 Single-sized, gap-graded or material containing an excessive amount of fines, reduces performance. The
proportion of silt and clay material smaller than 0.075 mm should be less than 15%.
 River sand should be used with caution as the angle of shearing resistance is generally low due to the rounded
shape of the particles.
 Use of cement-bound material is not recommended.
The material should have a uniform moisture content of 4 to 8% when placed. Saturated material should not be
used.

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3.14 Proprietary Products

The construction of layers using proprietary products is essentially the same as the construction of granular layers
(Sections 3.3 and 3.8). The products are typically used as a compaction aid for granular materials. The
manufacturer may, however, have special requirements that should be followed.
Proprietary products are discussed in:

 Chapter 3, Materials Testing, Section 6
 Chapter 4, Standards, Section 6
 Chapter 9, Materials Utilisation and Design, Section 14

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4. TRIAL SECTIONS
A trial section is usually constructed to enable the assessment and verification of the proposed construction
procedures for the particular construction process. A trial section is recommended for all pavement layers
constructed with problem or sensitive materials. Trial sections should be constructed using the same materials,
plant, equipment and procedures as will be used in the permanent works.
Trial sections form a very important part of a proactive

approach to quality control. Any problems with mix
sensitivity, constructability, uniformity of product properties
as well as surface and smoothness can be identified Trial Sections
timeously, and corrected prior to commencement of the The construction of trial sections is very valuable,
permanent works. The successful trial is the reference and allows any problems to be sorted out in
against which the permanent works are compared, and advance of the permanent construction.
ultimately accepted. It is, therefore, important that a high The trial section is generally part of the main
level of monitoring, including careful visual assessment, data construction, done at the beginning of the
recording and testing, is carried out. It is vitally important section.
that the design engineer is present at the trial section.
A trial section is recommended for all pavement
layers constructed with problem or sensitive
Each specific product type and/or layer has its own unique
materials.
requirements for trial section procedures and information. It
is important to ensure that the condition and settings of A successful trial is the reference against which
equipment, as well as construction procedure and techniques the permanent works are compared, and
utilised for the construction of the approved trial section, ultimately accepted.
remain constant throughout construction of the permanent It is vitally important that the materials
works. engineer is present at the trial section.
The purpose of a trial section is to evaluate:

 The contractor’s ability to build the product according to the approved design and required properties.
 Suitability of the contractors’ plant to place and process the product.
 Suitability of the contractor’s construction techniques.
 Behaviour and relevant properties of the product constructed at the limits of the allowable tolerances.
Checklists for the more commonly constructed layers, which should be used as a basis for commencing and
evaluating trial sections are included in the relevant sections, and in printable format in the Appendix.
4.1 Asphalt Pavement Layers

Trial sections of asphalt pavement layers are essential to ensure that results obtained from laboratory testing can, in
fact, be achieved in practice. Most laboratory testing is carried out on laboratory compacted specimens of laboratory
or plant mixes. Trial sections involve laying a section of the asphalt mix to assess whether the batching plant and
laying systems are all working satisfactorily. Therefore, it is essential that everything is checked to ensure that the
trial section has a high probability of meeting requirements, and will not need to milled and replaced.
For this reason, it is also essential that a trial section involves a

reasonable amount of material, and not just one or two loads. Volume of Asphalt for Trial Section
Therefore, a typical trial section involves around 100 tons or 200
lane metres of a single asphalt mix, to facilitate a thorough test A typical trial section should utilise around
of all equipment. 100 tons, or construct about 200 lane
metres of a single asphalt mix. This is to
facilitate a thorough test of all equipment.
The site selected for the trial section depends on the purpose of
the mix, and the related functional and structural requirements.
If the requirements are not severe, consideration can be given to laying the trial mix on the road to be constructed.
However, in most cases, the trial mix is laid on an adjacent lower class road with a similar surface, strength and
gradient to that on which the design mix will be laid.
The trial section should only be started if there is confidence that the trial mix will be supplied and placed as
specified. Aborted trial mixes lead to a waste of time and money, especially when waiting for plant and equipment
repairs or replacement.
Section 4: Trial Sections

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Important aspects to note during asphalt trial sections are:

 Temperatures of the material:
 As placed in the truck at the batching plant
 As truck arrives on site
 When placed in the paver
 Uniformity of the temperature of the mix placed in the paver, and when extruded out of the paver, should
also be assessed using infra-red thermometers and/or video cameras.
 Condition of road surface, which should be clean and the tack coat should be dry with no puddles.
 Temperature of the road surface on which the material is laid.
 Rolling pattern to ensure complete coverages and proximity to the paver, as well as any problems related to
tender materials or roller pick-up.
 Straightness of the edge of the paved layer.
 Smoothness of the surface of the layer, and any stop starts that influence the smoothness.
 Uniformity of the surface of the layer.
 Neatness of handwork and removal of any edge spillage and loose materials.
 Number of roller passes to achieve required density.
A checklist for asphalt paving trial sections is given in Table 11.

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Table 11. Asphalt Paving Trial Section Checklist

Check Confirm/Reject
(Y/N)
1. Paver
a. Truck pushing rollers
i. Clean
ii. Free Running
b. Hopper
i. Are sides reasonably smooth
ii. Does side tilt mechanism work properly
iii. Are rubber skirts in good condition
iv. Do feed control gates work smoothly
v. Are feed conveyors in good condition
 Flights
 Bed (no holes)
 Chains, conditions and tension
c. Screed Unit
i. Are pivots free running
ii. Are screed plates smooth and flat
iii. Is bevel on tamper bars to specification
iv. Are tamper bars straight
v. Is clearance between tamper bars and screed correct
Note: Clearance ................... mm, Specified Clearance .............0.05...... mm
vi. Is protrusion of tamper bar below screed correct
Note: protrusion ................... mm, specified protrusion .....0.05 ........ mm
vii. Is gap between tamper bars and screed clean
viii. Are crown controls for screed working smoothly
ix. Is locking system for crown control adequate
x. Is screed inclination set correctly
Note: Turnbuckle gauge reading: Actual:................. Specified:..............
xi. Are augers in good condition and tight on shaft
xii. Are the centre auger flights reversed
xiii. Are augers set at correct height: Actual:................. Specified .................
xiv. If telescope screed is fitted:
 Do parts move smoothly
 Do wings form a smooth continuation of main screed without steps
 Are spreader screws extensions in good condition
 Are tamper bar extensions to specification and is clearance between tamper
and screed correct
 Do tamper bar extensions protrude the correct distance below the screed
xv. If screed is not telescopic:
 Are there sufficient extension boxes
 Are screed, tamper bars, spreader screws in good condition
 Does extension form a continuation of main screed unit without steps
 Are tamper bars and screed correctly set relative to each other
 Do extensions to spreader screws attach tightly to main section
xvi. Are screed heater burners working properly
xvii. Does screed control at working platform work correctly
xviii. Attachments
 Are side cut off plates free to move
 Is joint matcher securely attached to chassis
 Is joint matcher in good condition
 Is mounting for travelling straight edge securely attached to chassis
 Is travelling straight edge free to slide on its mounting
 Is travelling straight edge correct length
 Are shoes on straight edge free to move
 Is tensioning winch in good condition
 Is sensor unit working
 Are tyre pressure and ballast correct
Note pressure ...................kPa and ballast .................... Specified .............
 Are solid tyres on small wheels clean and intact
 Check for fuel, oil hydraulic leaks
 Is paver free of leaks
 Is guide chain arm free to move in chassis

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(Y/N)
2. Aggregates
a. Is there sufficient stockpile area
b. Is the material recovered from each stockpile pile uniform
Stockpile (Size of Uniform Conformance to design
aggregate) Yes/No grading
3. Hot Storage for Binder

a. Is capacity sufficient for the programmed rate of production
Capacity ................................ t Estimated daily demand …………................ t /day
b. Are tanks fitted with automatic temperature recording systems
c. If a modified binder is to be used, are the blending facilities and methods appropriate to
ensure a uniform product with the required properties
d. Is heating thermostatically controlled
e. Is there a warning system for variation in temperatures
f. Is binder circulated in tank and between tank and mixer
g. Are supply pipes lagged
h. Is there a level indicator
i. Are sampling points to specification
4. Cold feed bins
a. Are methods of controlling rate of feed operating smoothly
b. Are these controls accurate
c. Are precautions available to prevent spill over
d. Is there an adequate warning system if rate of feed alters
e. Is there an efficient interlock between cold feed and binder feed
f. Are fine aggregate feeds susceptible to arching
g. Is there a method of detecting and compensating for variations of moisture in the
aggregates
h. Has contractor calibrated rates against RPM of belt pulley
5. Mixing Plant
a. Is rated capacity sufficient for the programmed rate of laying
Rate Capacity.........................t/h Required Capacity.....................t/h
b. Are the proposed heating fuel and burners compatible
c. Is the method of control of the fuel/air mixture adequate
d. Are burners clean and nozzles to specification
e. Are drum rollers correctly set and in good conditions
f. Are drum flights in good conditions
g. Are binder spray bar and nozzles clean and in accordance with specification
h. Can position of spray bar be altered so as to control filler in mix and can adjustments be
easily made
i. Method of determining temperatures of binder at plant: Is this adequate and are the
results visible to the operator
j. Temperature controls of aggregate and final mix: Are these adequate and are the
results available to the operator
k. Is the plant fitted with suitable filler feed to allow accurate control of the filler content
6. Emission Control
a. Type: .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
b. Is dust collector matched to capacity of mixer
c. What method is used to return a portion of the recovered fines to the mix
..........................................................
d. What method is used for the disposal of unwanted fines
..........................................................
e. Do emissions from the stack comply with Act 45 of 1965 (as amended)
7. Buffer Storage
a. Is this of adequate capacity
b. Is this properly lagged
c. Do discharge gates operate smoothly
8. Elevator between Mixer and Buffer Store
a. Are buckets in good condition
b. Are chains and cables in good conditions

Page 137
(Y/N)
9. Steel Wheel Rollers
a. Are edges of rollers in good condition
b. Is change of direction smooth (no backlash)
c. Is roller properly ballasted (Record mass and position)
Mass........................ t Position........................
d. Do wheel spray bars give a uniform cover on wheels
e. Are wheel-cleaning mats in good condition
f. Are scrapers in good condition and set
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
h. Is roller free of leaks
i. Do brakes work
j. Is reversing smooth
10. Pneumatic Rollers
a. Are tyres in good condition
i. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure. If so, is it working and is
pressure gauge working and visible to driver
ii. Are all tyre pressures uniform. Note tyre pressures ........................ kPa
b. Are rollers properly ballasted
(Record mass and position)
Roller 1: Mass .............................. t Position ............................
e. Are spray bars working uniformly
f. Are cleaning pads in good condition
g. Check for fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
11. Hand Tools, etc.
a. Straight edge: Is it clean and straight
b. Rakes and shovels: Are they clean and in good condition
c. Are thermometers available: No. …….......... Size .............
12. Haulage Vehicles
a. Are the basins clean
b. Do tailgates open and close properly
c. Are load covers fitted
d. Are vehicles free from fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
e. Does tipping gear work
f. Registration numbers of vehicles

Page 138
4.2 Stone Seals

At the commencement of seal operations, a trial section is required. The minimum road surface, air and aggregate
temperature at sunrise, as well as just before the first trial section, and the temperature of the binder in the
distributor must be measured and recorded. All requirements should meet the specifications.
For an efficient first trial section, a reasonable length of road section should be sprayed, which should be determined
according to the volume of the aggregate in the chip spreader and/or trucks available awaiting discharge into the
spreader. The length sprayed must be such that it does not exceed the length that can immediately be covered with
the aggregate, to prevent the binder cooling, or starting to break before the application of the aggregate, or
acquiring a coating of dust that retards adhesion. This length is approximately 200 to 300 metres.
4.2.1 Binder Application Rate

The following problems with the binder application rate for surfacing seals occur, and can be remedied as suggested:
 Erroneous binder spray application. Reject for acceptance, and remedy with remedial action.
 Single application, under-spray. Adjust to obtain the correct total volume of binder by applying a second
spray, either diluted or undiluted.
 Minor single spray over-application. As an interim remedy, blind with fine aggregate. With severe bleeding,
the seal must be removed.
 Double binder spray application. Under-spraying or over-spraying of the first spray (tack coat) can be
corrected with the necessary adjustment in the second spray to obtain the required total volume of binder.
4.2.2 Aggregate Spread Rate

The following corrections to problems in the aggregate spread rates are recommended:
 Under chipping, i.e., spreading too thin. Immediately correct by back chipping by hand, followed by rolling.
 Uneven and/or overspreading. Brooming is required after the layer of aggregate has been rolled.
 Under or overspreading of the first trial run. This normally requires a second trial run, making necessary
adjustments to the spreader box opening and/or travelling speed. The total volume (m3) of aggregate spread
divided by the area (m2) covered by binder sprayed, gives the spread rate in m3/m2. When acceptable, it should
be used for the full-scale seal operation.
A checklist for trial sections of stone seals is given in Table 12.
Following Construction Processes

The construction process, as determined and
fixed during the trial section, must be
regularly checked during construction.

Page 139
Table 12. Stone Seals Trial Section Checklist

Check Confirm/Reject (Y/N)
1. Pre-treatment done, waiting periods and QA complete
a. Crack sealing
b. Edge break repair
c. Surfacing patching
d. Base patching
e. Functional patching
f. Rut filling
g. Texture treatment
h. Fog spray
2. Road Surface
a. Road surface
b. Is surface to be sealed clean
c. Is edge line of spray properly demarcated
d. Vegetation at edges, fine cracks cleared
e. Surface clean: no dust, mud, droppings, oil, etc.
3. Spray lanes demarcated with fibre rope
a. Straight 15 m pinned
b. Curves 2-3 m pinned
c. Measured from centre line
d. Joint positions not under wheel tracks or yellow line (offset 200 mm)
e. Reinforced paper at transverse joints
4. Traffic accommodation and safety
a. Road signs in place
b. Cones, delineators, barricades positions and spacing
c. Flagmen
i.
ii.
iii.
d. Stop-go setup and communications/standby
e. Safety & protective clothing
f. Dust control (deviations)
g. Standby traffic light system
h. Double traffic on new seal (due to half-width construction)
5. Weather limitations applicable to binder and seal to be applied
a. Past 24 hours minimum temperature check
b. Weather forecast: temperature, rain and wind
c. Look up
d. Air temperature
e. Surface temperature (at different positions)
f. Aggregate temperature
g. Wind
h. Base moisture/existing surface wet?
6. Aggregate
a. Clean and uncontaminated
b. Precoating uniform
c. Precoating dry
7. Binder
a. Has correct binder type been delivered
b. Is there a manufacturers’ certificate
c. Are there any test results supplied
d. Date of dispatch of load ___________________?
e. Storage period complies with specification
f. Binder temperature ______________ C complies?
8. Distributor
a. Valid certificate Expiry Date __________________________< 12 months old
b. Pump Serial No. ______________________ : Matches certificate
c. Spray Bar No. _______________________ : Matches certificate
d. Dipstick No. ________________________ : Matches certificate
e. Are their oil leaks
f. Are there binder leaks

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g. Is spray bar height uniform and correct
h. Are nozzles of uniform type
i. Are nozzles correctly aligned
j. Are fishplates in place at ends
k. Is reinforced paper available
l. Has tray test been carried out
m. Is variation within 5%
9. Chip Spreader
a. Spreader width _______________________m Correct?
b. Do gates move freely when hopper is loaded
c. Does charging hopper move easily across spreader when loaded and on an
adverse camber
d. Are agitator prongs in good condition
e. Are planks available to allow wheels to travel on hot mix
f. Are 1 m² canvas sheets available
g. Is 15 or 20 kg spring balance available
h. Check for fuel and oil leaks. Is spreader free of leaks
i. Are rollers of distribution bins worn
j. Are conveyor belts in good condition
k. Are gates of the bins uniform and adjusted correctly
l. During “dry” run is chip application uniform
m. During “dry” run is chip application accurate
n. Is there a chip spreader on stand by
10. Steel Wheel Roller
a. Are edges of roller in good condition
Roller 1: Mass........................ t Position........................
e. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks. Is roller free of leaks
h. Do brakes work
i. Is reversing smooth
b. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure
c. If so, is it working and is pressure gauge working and visible to driver
d. Are all tyre pressures uniform
Note tyre pressures ……………………..kPa OK?
e. Is roller properly ballasted (record mass and position)
8. Trucks and Loader
a. Are there sufficient trucks for production rate
b. Are they in good condition; no oil leaks, etc.
9. Brooms
a. Are the rotary brooms in good condition
b. If required, is the “Z” broom in good condition
c. Is there sufficient labour with hand brooms

Page 141
4.3 Crushed Stone Layers

The crushed stone trial section involves assessing the following construction processes, and related material
characteristics:
 Dumping. The material is brought to the road and dumped at pre-determine intervals. The trial section must
assess whether the selected intervals of the dumped material result in the correct layer thickness. Normally, the
material dumped allows for 5% excess material, to avoid having a too thin layer and to allow for some spillage
along the sides of the layer.
 Spreading. The trial section is used to assess the spreading operation and how uniformly the material is spread
with the equipment and operators available, and to avoid having irregular spillage along the edge of the road.
 Watering. Once the material is spread it is thoroughly wetted while in its loose state. The optimum moisture
content for a crushed stone layer is near saturation and it is difficult to retain this moisture content throughout
the spreading and compaction processes.
 Compacting. When the layer has been thoroughly wetted and spread, compaction procedures are assessed to
develop rolling patterns that result in a well compacted layer. The density after such compaction before slushing
should be uniformly approximately 94% to 96% of apparent density.
 Slushing. When the layer has been compacted, watering is continued and slushing commences. The trial
section is used to assess what it takes to wet the material thoroughly, and how easily it compacts to the specified
density without over-slushing the layer and it starting to loosen up again. The visual appearance of the typical
stone-on-stone mosaic pattern achieved must be carefully assessed, and agreed upon for the remainder of the
project.
 Drying. The moisture content of layer must be assessed throughout its depth to determine how quickly it dries
out, and when it can be primed. Obviously this depends on the weather, but it is useful to know the minimum
number of days it takes before the material has dried sufficiently to be primed.
 Testing. Various tests are carried out on the final layer to assess how well it complies with the specified
requirements. These include:
 Density. The trial section provides an opportunity to assess the consistency of the Apparent Density (AD),
and how consistently the compaction requirements are met. Any density outliers must be carefully assessed
to determine the causes.
 Grading. The grading of the material in its compacted state must be compared with the specified
requirements and with the grading of the material as delivered. In this way, how many fines are typically
washed out in the slushing process as well as any material breakdown during compaction is assessed.
 Plasticity Index (PI). The plasticity of the compacted material is also measured and compared to the
specification and the PI of the material as delivered. If any high PI’s, or major changes in PI occur, these
should be investigated further.
 Review of the Results. The trial layer and test results are reviewed in a technical meeting to assess whether
the constructed section conforms to the specifications. If not, another trial section must be constructed with new
procedures, to assess whether any changes can produce the required result.
A checklist for trial sections of crushed stone layers is given in Table 13.

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Table 13. Crushed Stone Base: Checklist for Site Operations

1. Before Start of Activities
a. Confirm material quality and properties with laboratory before placing on site
b. Confirm water quality to be used during mixing
c. Confirm correct grading as per specification
d. Inspect underlying surface to be in good condition and not damaged either
mechanically or by rain
e. Inspect dumped material on preparatory section for any deleterious material
f. Inspect layer and evaluate effectiveness of pre shaping, i.e., quantities vs layer
thickness required (Refer to COLTO Section 3200 for preparation of material)
g. Check temperature and wind speed for current and forecast conditions
h. PPE equipment (masks, gloves, shoes, protection wear) available?
2. Processing
a. Ensure and evaluate moisture content of mixed material (preferably 1 or 2%
over OMC)
b. Confirm correct compaction equipment on site (grid, smooth and 3-point
roller/oscillating roller)
3. Compaction
a. Check density as compaction increases
b. Monitor compaction process to avoid under or over compaction
c. Monitor compaction process to avoid under or over vibrating material
4. Slushing
a. Check slushing equipment for condition and effectiveness
 Rotary Broom
 Smooth drum roller
 Water cart (spreading ability)
b. Monitor slushing sequence and process as described in COLTO Section 3604(c)
c. Inspect finished surface for tight fit closely knit mosaic pattern, free from excess
fines
d. Inspect surface to check rolled smoothly and not rolled out of shape
e. Sample final surface after slushing for Indicator tests (grading and PI) and ARD
(Apparent Relative Density)
f. Carry out density testing at 50 mm intervals and record
5. Curing and Finishing
a. Take levels on completed surface and evaluate against specification
b. Check density obtained against specification
c. Check grading against specified target grading and grading envelope, refer to
COLTO Table 3602/4
d. Approve or reject layer accordingly, as per statistical judgement plan
e. Monitor layer drying process (should be 50% below OMC at 100 mm depth)
f. Record moisture contents before applying prime
6. Trial Sections
a. The above steps should be followed prior to production processing as part of a
trial section
b. During production mixing, the same checking procedures as above should be
applied

Page 143
4.4 Cementitious Stabilized Layers

During laying of a trial section of a stabilized layer, the following aspects must be assessed.
 Gravel Material. Materials used in stabilized layers are often not very uniform and not well graded. The finer
and more variable the material, the more problematic it is to construct a uniform strong layer. Therefore, the
trial section should involve some of the more difficult materials to assess how well the equipment and procedures
work with the materials. There should be sufficient fines in the material to facilitate the growth of the
cementitious bonds throughout the stabilized material.
 Stabilizer. The stabilizer needs to be uniformly spread over the surface of the layer to be stabilized, to ensure a
uniform transverse and longitudinal distribution of stabilizer. After spreading, various measurements of the
thickness of the stabilizer should be made to assess uniformity and to ensure a good result is achieved.
 Mixing. The stabilizer should be mixed uniformly through the length, breadth and depth of the layer without
any unstabilized loose layers at the bottom. Various test holes must be dug through the loose mixed material
and visually assessed for uniformity. Any visual non-uniformities are an indication of more severe uniformities
that cannot be detected visually, and mixing must continue until a uniform result is achieved, or alternatively,
different equipment and techniques used to produce the required result. The procedures required to achieve the
required result must be monitored and noted for future reference.
 Watering. Cementitious stabilized layers must be compacted within only a few hours of adding the stabilizer
and water. Therefore, all mixing, watering and compaction equipment must be of good quality and capable of
producing the result in the required time.
 Compacting. When the stabilizer and water is uniformly mixed with the material, and the layer has been
trimmed to the required level, compaction commences. The rolling procedures and number of coverages are
monitored to assess when to stop compacting, and how uniformly the layer is compacted.
 Testing. Finally, the completed layer is tested for:
 Density. The density of the layer is measured and compared to the reference density. This should
preferably be done as soon as possible after construction. Measurements taken after 48 hours typically
cannot be referenced to the original maximum dry density (MDD), and a new reference density must be
determined. This is undesirable because the cementitious bonds are broken.
 Uniformity of stabilizer and moisture. The amount and uniformity of stabilizer and moisture in the top,
middle and bottom of the layer, and over the length and width of the layer, must be assessed through testing.
 Review of the Results. The observations, tests and results from the trial section must be discussed in a
technical meeting, to assess any issues and decide on the procedures to be followed in future. Criteria for
constructing another trial section also need to be decided.
A checklist for trial sections of cementitious stabilized layers is given in Table 14.

Page 144
Table 14. Chemical Stabilization: Checklist for Site Operations

1. Before start of activities
a. Inspect layer and evaluate effectiveness of pre shaping, i.e., quantities vs layer
thickness required. (Refer to COLTO Section 3200 for preparation of material)
b. Material is damp
c. All oversize material is removed or crushed to maximum size required
d. Pre shaped material in a fairly smooth ride able condition
e. Check temperature and wind speed for current and forecast conditions
f. PPE equipment (masks, gloves, shoes, protection wear) available
2. Before spreading of stabilizer (pockets)
a. Confirm cement quality and type of cement specified
b. Count pockets against square meter vs percentage stabilizer required
i.e., L X W X D x MDD x %stabilizer x compaction required = kg/m3 (divide by
50 = pockets required)
c. Count pockets per m2 after spacing at correct intervals
3. Before spreading of stabilizer (mechanical spreader)
a. Collect and inspect weighbridge ticket from spreader supplier
b. Check pressure gauges on spreader tanks at required setting
c. Place square metre mats at pre-determined intervals to weigh the cement after
spreading
d. Check hand scale for correctness and calibration before use
4. During stabilization
a. Check speed of spreader during application by mechanical spreader by weighing
each mat against calculated weight cement content
b. Check type of compaction equipment and mixing equipment for suitability and
effectiveness
c. Ensure laboratory is notified for taking UCS, MDD and Indicator samples
d. Monitor specified mixing time against type of stabilizer (see COLTO Table
3503/1)
e. No traffic allowed on freshly compacted surface
5. Compaction
a. Do nuclear tests to determine density (including calibration of testing
equipment)
b. Sample material for laboratory testing before final compaction
6. Finishing and curing
b. Check curing method applied and ensure constant moist surface to avoid
carbonation
c. Check density obtained from nuclear gauge against specification and specified
statistical judgement plan
d. Check laboratory obtained strengths for UCS and ITS
e. Check Indicator test results obtained from laboratory against specification and
specified statistical judgement plan
f. Approve or reject layer accordingly

Page 145
4.5 Bitumen Stabilized Materials

Trial sections for Bitumen Stabilized Materials are discussed in great detail in TG2. The following checklists for BSMs
are provided:
 In situ recycling with BSM: typical checklist (Table 15)
 In situ recycling
 Foamed bitumen (Table 16)
 Bitumen emulsion (Table 17)
 In plant treatment: foamed bitumen (Table 18)

Page 146
Table 15. In Situ Recycling with BSM: Checklist

Check Confirm/
Reject
(Y/N)
1. Recycler
a. Is recycler model appropriate for depth to be worked (Manufacturers limits)
b. Is recycler in good condition
c. Is the drum fitted appropriate for recycling
d. Are all picks in good condition and present
2. Tankers
a. Does tanker have the correct stabilizer
b. Are there sufficient water tankers for production rate
c. Do bitumen tankers contain the correct grade of bitumen/emulsion
d. Are they fitted with dipsticks
e. Is binder at correct temperature (Temperature........................ºC )
f. Are supply pipes properly lagged
g. Are all pipes fully “bled”
c. Are rollers properly ballasted
d. Do rollers have variable amplitude/frequency settings
e. Settings used for trial:
Passes No. (________________) Amplitude (__________________)
Passes No. (________________) Frequency (_________________)
f. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
g. Are scrapers in good condition and set
h. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
i. Do brakes work
c. If so, is it working, and is pressure gauge working and visible to driver
Note tyre pressures ………………………….………..kPa
Mass……………………………….……………t
Position……………………………………….…
5. Process
a. Are the number of cuts for the total width defined
b. Is the width of overlap for each longitudinal joint defined
c. Is the length of cut (i.e., when train should return for adjacent cut) defined
d. Is there sufficient volume of imported material for planned production
e. Is there sufficient bitumen/emulsion for planned production
f. Is there sufficient water for planned production
g. Is outer edge of 1st cut clearly demarcated
h. To ensure correct grading has rotation speed of drum been defined
RPM______________________________
i. To ensure correct grading has forward speed of recycler been defined
m per minute ___________________________
j. Is moisture content of recycled material as per spec
mc ___________________________%
k. Is application of cement in front of train as per spec
kg/m2________________________
l. Is grading of milled material similar to “design material”
m. Is depth of cut on both sides of drum uniform as per spec
n. Is final product completed within the allowable time period
__________________________hours

Page 147
Table 16. In Situ Recycling: Foamed Bitumen Checklist

Pre-Start Checklist Confirm/
Reject (Y/N)
1. Recycler (Start of shift)
a. Check the bitumen system heaters are operational
b. Check the temperature of the road surface (digital thermometer)
c. Check that the foam-water tank is full
d. Remove and clean the foam-water filter
e. Remove and clean the bitumen filter
f. Lift machine / lower drum / open chamber doors for visual inspection
Check: all foamed bitumen nozzles clear
all water injection nozzles clear
g. Check each expansion chamber for blockages using “pre-water” function
Switch # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nozzle # 1&3 2&4 5&7 6&8 9 & 11 10 & 12 13 & 15
Note any blockages:
h. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
i. Calculate cut lengths / finalise cut plan (with the operator)
j. Reset the on-board computer, enter data and check
Density Cut depth Application width
Bitumen application rate Foam water
2. Setting up the Recycling Train (Each new cut / tanker load)
a. Check cut guideline and position recycler on first cut
b. Check bitumen temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
c. Check bitumen tanker for leaks. Crack valve, check for cold plug
d. Check water tanker is full and free of leaks
e. Couple up bitumen tanker and bleed air from system
f. Check that the bitumen foams using test nozzle
g. Couple up water tanker and bleed air from system
h. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
i. Confirm cut plan / check computer settings & nozzle closure
j. Check solenoid lights controlling spray bars / nozzle closure
k. Close front & rear doors. Lower recycling drum to cut depth
l. Lift drum and measure temperature of material on cut face
m. Roller in place, drivers ready. Level control team standing by
Table 17. In Situ Recycling: Bitumen Emulsion Checklist

Reject (Y/N)
a. Check the bitumen emulsion system has been flushed.
c. Lift machine / lower drum / open chamber doors for visual inspection
Check: all bitumen emulsion nozzles clear
d. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
e. Calculate cut lengths / finalise cut plan (with the operator)
f. Reset the on-board computer, enter data and check
Emulsion application rate (percentage emulsion)
b. Check emulsion temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
c. Check emulsion tanker for leaks. Crack valve, check flow
e. Couple up emulsion tanker and bleed air from system
f. Couple up water tanker and bleed air from system
g. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
h. Confirm cut plan / check computer settings & nozzle closure
i. Check solenoid lights controlling spray bars / nozzle closure
j. Close front & rear doors. Lower recycling drum to cut depth
k. Lift drum and measure temperature of material on cut face
l. Roller in place, drivers ready. Level control team standing by

Page 148
Table 18. In Plant Treatment: Foamed Bitumen Checklist

Reject
(Y/N)
1. Mixing Plant (Start of shift)
b. Check the temperature of the material stockpiles
c. Check that the water tank is full
f. Aggregate feed bins. Check for material packing / blockages
Bin # 1. Material: Setting
g. Check the active filler bin and auger feed system
h. Open pugmill hatch and visually inspect for blockages
i. Check each expansion chamber for blockages using “pre-water” function
Nozzle # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Note any blockages:
j. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
k. Check delivery conveyor is clean and running free
l. Reset the computer, enter data and check
Material density Active filler Application rate
2. Setting up the Plant for Mixing (Each new batch / tanker load)
a. Check bitumen temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
b. Couple up bitumen tanker and bleed air from system
c. Check that the bitumen foams using test nozzle
d. Water supply. Open valves and bleed air from system
e. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
f. Check ancillary plant and equipment is ready for mixing

Page 149
4.6 Concrete Pavements

Research has shown that in the majority of cases, areas of premature failures on concrete pavements can be
attributed to poor workmanship or construction related problems. A very high and continuous level of supervision
and quality of batching, as well as placing operations, is, therefore, necessary to eliminate the risk of premature
failures.
Trial sections on concrete pavements, therefore, form a very important part of the proactive approach to quality
control. Any problems with mix sensitivity, constructability, uniformity of product properties and surface finish and
smoothness can be identified timeously and, thus, corrected prior to commencement of the permanent works. It is,
therefore, important that a high level of monitoring, including data recording and testing, is carried out by the
supervisory staff, especially during the trial. A successful trial is the reference against which the permanent work
should be compared and ultimately accepted.
There are various types of concrete pavements of which jointed unreinforced, jointed reinforced and continuously
reinforced pavements are the most commonly constructed in South Africa. See Chapter 2: 2.4 or Chapter 9: 12.2.2
for illustrations of the different pavement types.
Each specific pavement and product type has its own unique requirements for trial section procedures. It is very
important to ensure that the condition and settings of equipment, as well as construction procedures and techniques
utilised for the construction of the approved trial section, remain constant throughout construction of the permanent
works.
The following typical tests are required to monitor properties of the concrete materials, to ensure the concrete in the
pavement complies with the quality standards.
 Aggregate grading: A grading analysis of the sand should be made on at least each 100 m3 of sand used. An
additional analysis should be carried out at any time that a change in the sand, or, in the workability of the mix is
apparent.
 Moisture content of fine aggregate: The moisture content of fine aggregate should be determined at the
beginning, and halfway through each concreting shift, after showers or rain, or at other intervals as required.
 Slump of concrete: Slump testing should be carried out on the same sample of concrete from which 7 and 28
day compressive strength specimens are manufactured, and at such times or intervals as required.
 Air content: Air content testing should be performed on the same sample of concrete from which the
compressive strength specimens are manufactured, and at such times and intervals required.
 Compressive strength of concrete: Two samples for compressive strength tests should be taken from at
least every 100 m3 of concrete placed. From each sample of concrete, a group of not less than six test cubes is
made for testing. Three of these cubes are to be tested at seven days and three at 28 days.
 Flexural strength of concrete: The flexural strength of the concrete should be monitored regularly. Three
flexural strength specimens are to be made from each sample taken for testing, and tested at 28 days.
The selection of the contractor with the most appropriate construction plant and paving techniques, together with
the consistent application thereof, plays as important a role in the ultimate performance of the pavement as the
selection and utilisation of appropriate materials of uniform quality.
A checklist for trial sections of concrete pavements is given in Table 19.

Page 150
Table 19. Concrete Paving Trial Checklist

(Y/N)
1. Aggregates
a. Do aggregate sizes conform to that approved in the design
b. Have stockpiles been constructed correctly
c. Are materials in stockpiles of uniform grading and quality
d. Is moisture content of fine aggregate stockpile consistent
2. Cement
a. Is the correct cement stored in silo
b. Are test certificates available
c. If cement extenders are used, is the method of blending approved
3. Admixtures
a. Does the admixture conform to the specifications
b. Is the admixture being stored correctly
c. If required, is the admixture agitated prior to use
4. Batch Plant
a. Is the batch plant clean and in good working order
b. Are bins for storing aggregate separated adequately to avoid contamination
c. Have concrete slabs at base of bins been constructed according to the requirements to
avoid contamination
d. Have the batch plant scales been checked and calibrated
Certificate of Calibration
e. Has the accuracy of the scales been checked under dynamic conditions
Weigh full batches on weigh bridge and compare to batch plant print out
f. Do dials or digital read out return to zero after discharge of each batch
g. Do mixing blades have less than 10% wear
h. Is water-metering system accurate
i. Is admixture dispenser operating correctly and accurately
j. Does size of batch and speed of rotation comply with manufacturers specifications
k. Is mixing time adequate to ensure a homogenous mix
m. Are bins of trucks clean and are correct protection measures in place during transport
5. Supporting Substrate Layer
a. Has the layer been wetted for a minimum of 1 hour before paving
b. Is the substrate surface clean of all debris and free water
c. Is there evidence of heaving in the layer
d. Has the layer been fully accepted according to specified criteria
6. Slipform Paving
a. Is paver in good condition with no oil leaks
b. Are power tracks clean
c. Are guide wires staked firmly in ground
d. Has position and level of guide wires been checked
e. Is track path clean, firm and level
i. Are sufficient canopies available for protection of paved concrete
7. Side Form Paving
a. Are paving machines in good condition with no oil leaks
b. Are side forms clean and in good repair
c. Are form faces perpendicular to the base
d. Are forms true to line and level
e. Are forms true in all directions ( < 3 mm in 3 m )
f. Are locks securely fastened
g. Are forms fixed securely to substrate
h. Is packing placed under forms adequate, and is mortar (1:3 cement/sand) packing flush
with inside face
i. Have forms been oiled immediately prior to concrete placement
j Are sufficient canopies available for protection of placed concrete
8. Tie Bar Inserter
a. Are bars of correct diameter and length
b. Are inserters set at the correct distances from edge of pavement
c. Are the inserters set to the correct depth
d. Are there sufficient stocks available
9. Dowel Bar Inserter
a. Are the dowels of correct diameter and length
b. Are the dowels clean with sleeves properly fitted
c. Are the inserters set for the correct position and depth
d. Is there any excessive movement or lifting off the rails by the inserter during placement

Page 151
(Y/N)
e. Are the inserted dowels, after compaction, within the allowable tolerances with regards
to alignment
 parallel to the finished surface
 to the centre line of the carriageway
 to each other
10. Finishing, Texturing and Curing
a. Does the burlap drag conform to specification
b. Do the metal grooving tines conform to specifications
c. Are random spacings of tines set correctly
d. Is depth of texturing within specified tolerances
e. Are spray nozzles for curing compound clean
f. Are adequate protection measures available for spraying during windy conditions
g. Has the correct curing compound been supplied
h. Can the curing compound be continuously agitated during spraying
4.7 Block Pavements

A checklist for the construction of block paving trial sections is given in Table 20.
Table 20. Block Paving Trial Checklist

(Y/N)
1. Formation to receive paving
a. Levels
b. Area (particularly width)
c. Soft spots
d. Root growth requiring removal
e. Smoothness
f. Compaction
g. Services needing protection
2. Kerbing
a. Excavation
b. Levels
c. Alignment
3. Bedding sand
a. Right type
b. Grading
c. Pre-compaction prevented
d. Protection: Rain
Strong winds
e. Thickness before compaction
4. Laying
a. Main axis of laying
b. Laying pattern
c. Infill blocks
d. Primary compaction
e. Joint sand: Right type
Grading
f. Pre-compaction levels and smoothness
g. Secondary compaction
h. Damaged blocks
i. Finished levels
j. Joint widths
l. Tidy up site

Page 152
5. PRODUCTION RATES
To facilitate scheduling and an understanding of the rate at which construction can occur, Table 21 contains a list of
typical production rates. These rates are given purely for illustrative and estimated programming purposes. The
actual rates of production are obviously very dependent on numerous factors, such as:
 Capacity of the relevant batching plants
 Distance from source
 Traffic accommodation constraints
 Restricted access
Table 21. Typical Production Rates

Construction Process Typical Production Unit
(per day)
Single seal 10 000 – 20 000 m2 (full width)
Double seal 10 000 – 12 000 m2 (½ width)
Asphalt surfacing 350 – 400 tons
Asphalt Base 400 – 600 ton
G1 base 2 500 – 3 000 m2
BSM base 3 000 – 4 000 m2
Cemented subbase 3 000 – 4 500 m2
Natural gravel layers 4 000 – 5 000 m2
Waterbound macadam (hand placed) 400 m2
Prime/tack 15 000 – 50 000 m2
Concrete
 JRCP (220 mm hand placed) 420 m2
 CRCP (180 mm hand placed) 480 m2
UTFC 6000 - 8000 m2 (400 tons)
Section 5: Production Rates

Page 153
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

AFCAP. 2013. Guideline on the Use of Sand in Road Construction in the SADC Region. African Community
Access Program. InfraAfrica (Pty) Ltd, Botswana; CSIR, South Africa; TRL Ltd, UK; Roughton International,
UK; CPP Botswana (Pty) Ltd. AFCAP/GEN/028/C. Download from www.afcap.org.
BONFIM, V., 2008. Cold Milling of Asphalt Pavements. Sao Paulo, Brazil.
COLTO. 1998. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities. Committee
for Land and Transport Officials. Pretoria.
CMA. 2009. Concrete Block Paving. Book 1: Introduction; Book 2: Design aspects; Book 3: Specification and
installation; Book 4: Site management and laying. Concrete Manufacturers Association. Available for
downloaded from www.cma.org.za
C & CI. Perrie, B. and Rossmann, D. 2009. Concrete Road Construction. Cement & Concrete Institute. ISBN
978-0-9584779-2-5.
FHWA. 2005. Guidelines for Using Prime and Tack Coats. FHWA-CFL/TD-05-002. Federal Highway
Administration under the sponsorship of the US Department of Transportation.
NETTERBERG, F., Paige-Green, P., Mehring, K. and Von Solms, C.L. 1987. Prevention of Surface Carbonation of
Lime and Cement Stabilized Pavement Layers by Appropriate Curing Techniques. Proceedings Annual
Transportation Convention. Volume 4A.Pretoria.
OHS. 1993. Occupational Health & Safety Act No. 85 of 1993, As Amended.
SABITA. Manual 8. 2011. Guidelines for the Safe and Responsible Handling of Bituminous Products. 4th
Edition. ISBN 978-1-874968-51-1. Available for download by SABITA members at www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA. Manual 26. 2006. Interim Guidelines for Primes and Stone and Precoating Fluids. Available for
download by SABITA members at www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA Manual 27. 2008. Guideline for Thin Layer Hot Mix Asphalt Wearing Courses of Residential Streets. Sabita.
ISBN 978-1-874968-33-7. Available for a fee from www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA Manual 28. 2011. The Design and Construction of Slurry Seals. Sabita. ISBN 978-1-874968-42-9
Available for a fee from www.sabita.co.za.
SANRAL. 2006. Drainage Manual. 5th - Edition fully Revised. South African National Roads Agency Limited. ISBN
1-86844-328-0. Available for download www.nra.co.za.
SANS 1200. Standard Specification for Civil Engineering Construction. Series DM (Earthworks), MG
(Bituminous Surfacing Treatments), D (Earthworks), M (Roads). SABS
webstore www.sabs.co.za.
SANS 50197. (2002). Cement. Part 1 and 2. SABS webstore www.sabs.co.za

TRH Revisions
SAT. 2005. Hot Mix Asphalt Trouble-Shooting Guide. Society for Asphalt
Many of the TRH
Technology.
guideline documents are
TG1. 2007. Technical Guideline: The Use of Modified Bituminous Binders in in the process of being
Road Construction. Second edition. November 2007. Published by the updated. See the
Asphalt Academy. Download from www.asphaltacademy.co.za. SANRAL website,
www.nra.co.za for the
TG2. 2009. Technical Guideline: Bituminous Stabilised Materials – A latest versions.
Guideline for the Design and Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and
Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Materials. Second edition May 2009. ISBN 978-0-7988-5582-2, published by
the Asphalt Academy. (available for download on www.asphaltacademy.co.za)
TRH3. 2007. Design and Construction of Surfacing Seals. Version 1.5. Published by the South African National
Roads Agency Ltd, May 2007 (available for download on SANRAL website www.nra.co.za)
VAN DER MERWE, D.H. 1964. The Prediction of Heave from the Plasticity Index and the Percentage Clay Fraction.
Transactions. SAICE, Volume 6.
References and Bibliography

Page 154
WIRTGEN. 2004. Manual for the Application of Cold Milling Machines. Wirtgen GmbH. Windhagen,
Germany. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
WIRTGEN. 2006. Cold Milling Machines: Calculating the Working Performance. Wirtgen GmbH.
Windhagen, Germany. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
WIRTGEN. 2010. Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology. 3rd Edition. Wirtgen GmbH. Windhagen, Germany.
ISBN 3-936215-05-7. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
References and Bibliography

Page 155
CHAPTER 12: CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHOD GUIDELINES
APPENDIX
Nuclear Density Meter Checklist

Asphalt Paving Trial Section Checklist
Stone Seals Trial Section Checklist
Prime Checklist
Crushed Stone Base Checklist for Site Operations
Chemical Stabilisation Checklist for Site Operations
In Situ Recycling with BSM Checklist
In Situ Recycling with Foamed Bitumen Checklist
In Situ Recycling with Bitumen Emulsion Checklist
In Plant Treatment with Foamed Bitumen Checklist
Concrete Paving Trial Checklist
Backfill to Structures Checklist
Gabions Checklist
Earthworks Cut Checklist
Drainage Pipes Checklist
Concrete Side Drains Checklist
NUCLEAR DENSITY METER CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
Project: ________________________________ Contract No: ____________________________

Check Confirm/
Reject (Y/N)
1. Has the operator proved capable of operating the instrument and is acquainted with all the safety
precautions?
2. Confirm the log-book has been completed every time the gauge has been, and is, removed from its
storing facility.
3. All transport radiation labels are placed on the transport vehicle when transporting the gauge.
4. The gauge source is locked in the shielded or off position.
5. The emergency procedures in case of an accident and the relevant emergency telephone numbers
are available.
6. The shutter mechanism is thoroughly cleaned.
7. The battery is fully charged.
8. The gauge is locked in its shipment box when not in use.
9. The following documents are with the gauge:
a. Monthly standard counts log-book
b. Operational manual
c. Compliance certificate (12 months)
d. Leak test results (certified)
e. Authorisation to operate the nuclear gauge
f. Authority to possess a nuclear gauge issued by the Department of Health
10. The following must be carried out before the operation of any count:
a. Gauge is in the correct test mode.
b. All offsets have been disabled.
c. Correct depth measurement has been selected.
d. Correct time duration of the count has been selected (4 min. for standard count and 1 min.
for field count).
e. Material’s MDD and OMC are entered into the gauge’s memory.
f. Area is cordoned off with appropriate signage.
g. Gauge is warmed-up for 20 minutes, or according to the manufactures instructions, before
operation to allow the regulators and detectors to stabilise. Source rod should be in the
“safe” position at all times during the warm-up period.
11. Gauge should be at least 10 m away from any other nuclear device, and at least 3 m away from
other objects, to prevent external factors influencing the density measurements.
12. The following is ensured during pre-drilling of the hole to accommodate the source probe and
during insertion of the source probe into the hole:
a. Hole is vertical, or the gauge will not seat properly causing inaccurate test results.
b. The pre-drilled hole is 50 mm deeper than the desired depth to be tested.
c. The drill rod does not vibrate when it is hammered into the test material.
d. The guide plate is seated level on the surface of the test material.
e. The source probe or rod rests snugly in the hole before a count is taken.
13. The following checks are carried out before commencing with the count:
a. All offsets are disabled.
b. Correct standard density for the material has been entered.
c. Gauge is in the correct mode.
d. Correct depth of measurement has been selected.
e. Correct time for the duration of the count has been selected.
f. Testing is done as soon as possible after final compaction (± 24 hours)
g. No testing in rainy or wet conditions, or directly onto water-laden material.
h. Surface of the test material is level, smooth and free from voids.
i. Shutter mechanism is thoroughly cleaned.
j. Handle of the source rod engages properly into the catch position for the different positions
of measurements.
k. Bottom of the gauge does not stand proud of the level surface of the test area due to
excessive wear of the base of the gauge (rocking).
l. Only half the counts are received due faulty detector tube, or only one is functioning.
m. Detector tubes out of alignment due to excessive bumping of the gauge.
n. Voltage low, or voltage module is broken, leading to the incorrect quantity of counts
detected by the detector tubes being recorded.
o. Incorrect count ratio due to excessive source decay, or standard count determined in a cold
state, i.e., gauge not sufficiently warmed-up.
p. Source probe or rod depth divisions out of alignment.
Acceptance/Approval NAME SIGNATURE DATE
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
ASPHALT PAVING TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
1. Paver
a. Truck Pushing Rollers
i. Clean
ii. Free Running
b. Hopper
i. Are sides reasonably smooth
ii. Does side tilt mechanism work properly
iii. Are rubber skirts in good condition
iv. Do feed control gates work smoothly
v. Are feed conveyors in good condition
 Flights
 Bed (no holes)
 Chains, conditions and tension
c. Screed Unit
i. Are pivots free running
ii. Are screed plates smooth and flat
iii. Is bevel on tamper bars to specification
iv. Are tamper bars straight
v. Is clearance between tamper bars and screed correct
Note: Clearance ............... mm, Specified Clearance .............0.05...... mm
vi. Is protrusion of tamper bar below screed correct
Note: protrusion ......... ..... mm, specified protrusion ........0.05 ........ mm
vii. Is gap between tamper bars and screed clean
viii. Are crown controls for screed working smoothly
ix. Is locking system for crown control adequate
x. Is screed inclination set correctly
Note: Turnbuckle gauge reading: Actual:................. Specified:..............
xi. Are augers in good condition and tight on shaft
xii. Are the centre auger flights reversed
xiii. Are augers set at correct height: Actual:................. Specified .................
xiv. If telescope screed is fitted:
 Do parts move smoothly
 Do wings form a smooth continuation of main screed without steps
 Are spreader screws extensions in good condition
 Are tamper bar extensions to specification and is clearance between
tamper and screed correct
 Do tamper bar extensions protrude the correct distance below the
screed
xv. If screed is not telescopic:
 Are there sufficient extension boxes
 Are screed, tamper bars, spreader screws in good condition
 Does extension form a continuation of main screed unit without steps
 Are tamper bars and screed correctly set relative to each other
 Do extensions to spreader screws attach tightly to main section
xvi. Are screed heater burners working properly
xvii. Does screed control at working platform work correctly
xviii. Attachments
 Are side cut-off plates free to move
 Is joint matcher securely attached to chassis
 Is joint matcher in good condition
 Is mounting for travelling straight edge securely attached to chassis
 Is travelling straight edge free to slide on its mounting
 Is travelling straight edge correct length
 Are shoes on straight edge free to move
 Is tensioning winch in good condition
 Is sensor unit working
 Are tyre pressure and ballast correct
Note pressure ..........kPa and ballast ............. Specified .............
 Are solid tyres on small wheels clean and intact
 Check for fuel, oil hydraulic leaks
 Is paver free of leaks
 Is guide chain arm free to move in chassis
ASPHALT PAVING TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST (2 of 3)
(Y/N)
2. Aggregates
a. Is there sufficient stockpile area
b. Is the material recovered from each stockpile pile uniform
Stockpile (Size of Uniform Conformance to design
aggregate) Yes/No grading
3. Hot Storage for Binder

a. Is capacity sufficient for the programmed rate of production
Capacity ............................ t Estimated daily demand ................. t /day
b. Are tanks fitted with automatic temperature recording systems
c. If a modified binder is used, are the blending facilities and methods appropriate to
ensure a uniform product with the required properties
d. Is heating thermostatically controlled
e. Is there a warning system for variation in temperatures
f. Is binder circulated in tank and between tank and mixer
g. Are supply pipes lagged
h. Is there a level indicator
i. Are sampling points to specification
4. Cold feed bins
a. Are methods of controlling rate of feed operating smoothly
b. Are these controls accurate
c. Are precautions available to prevent spill over
d. Is there an adequate warning system if rate of feed alters
e. Is there an efficient interlock between cold feed and binder feed
f. Are fine aggregate feeds susceptible to arching
g. Is there a method of detecting and compensating for variations of moisture in the
aggregates
h. Has contractor calibrated rates against RPM of belt pulley
5. Mixing Plant
a. Is rated capacity sufficient for the programmed rate of laying
Rate Capacity.........................t/h Required Capacity.....................t/h
b. Are the proposed heating fuel and burners compatible
c. Is the method of control of the fuel/air mixture adequate
d. Are burners clean and nozzles to specification
e. Are drum rollers correctly set and in good conditions
f. Are drum flights in good conditions
g. Are binder spray bar and nozzles clean and in accordance with specification
h. Can position of spray bar be altered so as to control filler in mix and can adjustments be
easily made
i. Method of determining temperatures of binder at plant: Is this adequate and are the
results visible to the operator
j. Temperature controls of aggregate and final mix: Are these adequate and are the
results available to the operator
k. Is the plant fitted with suitable filler feed to allow accurate control of the filler content
6. Emission Control
a. Type: .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
b. Is dust collector matched to capacity of mixer
c. What method is used to return a portion of the recovered fines to the mix
..........................................................
d. What method is used for the disposal of unwanted fines
..........................................................
e. Do emissions from the stack comply with Act 45 of 1965 (as amended)
7. Buffer Storage
a. Is this of adequate capacity
b. Is this properly lagged
c. Do discharge gates operate smoothly
8. Elevator between Mixer and Buffer Store
a. Are buckets in good condition
b. Are chains and cables in good conditions
ASPHALT PAVING TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST (3 of 3)
(Y/N)
Mass........................ t Position........................
e. Are wheel-cleaning mats in good condition
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
i. Do brakes work
i. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure. If so, is it working, and is
pressure gauge working and visible to driver
ii. Are all tyre pressures uniform. Note tyre pressures ........................ kPa
b. Are rollers properly ballasted
e. Are spray bars working uniformly
f. Are cleaning pads in good condition
g. Check for fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
11. Hand Tools, etc
a. Straight edge: Is it clean and straight
b. Rakes and shovels: Are they clean and in good condition
c. Are thermometers available: No. …….......... Size .............
12. Haulage Vehicles
a. Are the basins clean
b. Do tailgates open and close properly
c. Are load covers fitted
d. Are vehicles free from fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
e. Does tipping gear work
f. Registration numbers of vehicles
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
STONE SEALS TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
1. Pre-treatment done, waiting periods and QA complete
a. Crack sealing
b. Edge break repair
c. Surfacing patching
d. Base patching
e. Functional patching
f. Rut filling
g. Texture treatment
h. Fog spray
2. Road Surface
a. Road surface
b. Is surface to be sealed clean
c. Is edge line of spray properly demarcated
d. Vegetation at edges, fine cracks cleared
e. Surface clean: no dust, mud, droppings, oil, etc.
3. Spray lanes demarcated with fibre rope
a. Straight 15 m pinned
b. Curves 2-3 m pinned
c. Measured from centre line
d. Joint positions not under wheel tracks or yellow line (offset 200 mm)
e. Reinforced paper at transverse joints
4. Traffic accommodation and safety
a. Road signs in place
b. Cones, delineators, barricades positions and spacing
c. Flagmen
i.
ii.
iii.
d. Stop-go setup and communications/standby
e. Safety & protective clothing
f. Dust control (deviations)
g. Standby traffic light system
h. Double traffic on new seal (due to half-width construction)
5. Weather limitations applicable to binder and seal to be applied
a. Past 24 hours minimum temperature check
b. Weather forecast: temperature, rain and wind
c. Look up
d. Air temperature
e. Surface temperature (at different positions)
f. Aggregate temperature
g. Wind
h. Base moisture/existing surface wet?
6. Aggregate
a. Clean and uncontaminated
b. Pre-coating uniform
c. Pre-coating dry
7. Binder
a. Has correct binder type been delivered
b. Is there a manufacturers’ certificate
c. Are there any test results supplied
d. Date of dispatch of load ___________________?
e. Storage period complies with specification
f. Binder temperature ______________ C complies?
8. Distributor
a. Valid certificate Expiry Date ________________< 12 months old
b. Pump Serial No. _________ : Matches certificate
c. Spray Bar No. ___________ : Matches certificate
d. Dipstick No. _____________ : Matches certificate
e. Are their oil leaks
f. Are there binder leaks
g. Is spray bar height uniform and correct
h. Are nozzles of uniform type
STONE SEALS TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST (2 of 2)
8. i. Are nozzles correctly aligned
j. Are fishplates in place at ends
k. Is reinforced paper available
l. Has tray test been carried out
m. Is variation within 5%
9. Chip Spreader
a. Spreader width ______________m – correct
b. Do gates move freely when hopper is loaded
c. Does charging hopper move easily across spreader when loaded and on an
adverse camber
d. Are agitator prongs in good condition
e. Are planks available to allow wheels to travel on hot mix
f. Are 1 m² canvas sheets available
g. Is 15 or 20 kg spring balance available
h. Check for fuel and oil leaks. Is spreader free of leaks
i. Are rollers of distribution bins worn
j. Are conveyor belts in good condition
k. Are gates of the bins uniform and adjusted correctly
l. During “dry” run is chip application uniform
m. During “dry” run is chip application accurate
n. Is there a chip spreader on stand by
10. Steel Wheel Roller
a. Are edges of roller in good condition
e. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks. Is roller free of leaks
h. Do brakes work
i. Is reversing smooth
Note tyre pressures ……………………..kPa OK?
Roller 1: Mass.................................. t Position................................
Roller 2: Mass.................................. t Position................................
8. Trucks and Loader
a. Are there sufficient trucks for production rate
b. Are they in good condition; no oil leaks, etc.
9. Brooms
a. Are the rotary brooms in good condition
b. If required is the “Z” broom in good condition
c. Is there sufficient labour with hand brooms
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
PRIME CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:

Aspect Yes/No
Base preparation Completed
According to specification
Cured
Within time limit for stabilized base
Granular base < 50% of OMC
Spray Cleaned
preparation Dampened
String lines
Joint paper
No wet prime
Materials: Binder
Sampling, testing  Correct type
and specifications  Stored temperature
 Spray temperature
 Properties
Aggregate
 Blinding for excess removal
 Blinding for traffic accommodation
 Treatment of wet areas before seal
 Aggregate properties
“No go” Misty or wet conditions
environmental Rain threatening
conditions Strong wind blowing that would cause an uneven application
Temperature of the road surface dropped below 20 °C before priming
(10 °C in case of MC-10 or emulsion)
After sunset
Equipment Binder distributor
condition checks Water sprinkler
Rotary broom
Other equipment
Application rate Trial confirmation
Effective width
After care Traffic off
Dry before sealing
Blinded for traffic accommodation
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
CRUSHED STONE BASE CHECKLIST FOR SITE Doc No:
Rev No:
OPERATIONS Date:

1. Before Start of Activities
a. Confirm material quality and properties with laboratory before placing on site
b. Confirm water quality to be used during mixing
c. Confirm correct grading as per specification
d. Inspect underlying surface. To be in good condition and not damaged either
mechanically or by rain
e. Inspect dumped material on preparatory section for any deleterious material
f. Inspect layer and evaluate effectiveness of pre-shaping, i.e., quantities vs layer
thickness required (Refer to COLTO Section 3200 for preparation of material)
g. Check temperature and wind speed for current and forecast conditions
h. PPE equipment (masks, gloves, shoes protection wear) available?
2. Processing
a. Ensure and evaluate moisture content of mixed material (preferably 1 or 2%
over OMC)
b. Confirm correct compaction equipment on site (grid, smooth and 3-point
roller/oscillating roller)
3. Compaction
a. Check density as compaction increases
b. Monitor compaction process to avoid under or over compaction
c. Monitor compaction process to avoid under or over vibrating material
4. Slushing
a. Check slushing equipment for condition and effectiveness
 Rotary broom
 Smooth drum roller
 Water cart (spreading ability)
b. Monitor slushing sequence and process as described in COLTO Section 3604(c)
c. Inspect finished surface for tight fit closely knit mosaic pattern, free from excess
fines
d. Inspect surface to check rolled smoothly and not rolled out of shape
e. Sample final surface after slushing for Indicator tests (grading and PI) and AD
(Apparent Density)
f. Carry out density testing at 50 mm intervals and record
5. Curing and Finishing
b. Check density obtained against specification
c. Check grading against specified target grading and grading envelope, refer to
COLTO Table 3602/4
d. Approve or reject layer accordingly, as per statistical judgement plan
e. Monitor layer drying process (should be 50% below OMC at 100 mm depth)
f. Record moisture contents before applying prime
6. Trial Sections
a. The above steps should be followed prior to production processing as part of a
trial section
b. During production mixing, the same checking procedures as above should be
applied
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
CHEMICAL STABILISATION CHECKLIST FOR Doc No:
Rev No:
SITE OPERATIONS Date:

1. Before start of activities
a. Inspect layer and evaluate effectiveness of pre-shaping, i.e., quantities vs layer
thickness required. (Refer to COLTO section 3200 for preparation of material)
b. Material should be damp
c. Make sure all oversize material is removed or crushed to maximum size required
d. Pre shaped material should be in a fairly smooth rideable condition
e. Check temperature and wind speed for current and forecast conditions
f. PPE equipment (masks, gloves, shoes protection wear) available
2. Before spreading of stabilizer (pockets)
a. Confirm cement quality and type of cement specified
b. Count pockets against square meter vs percentage stabiliser required
i.e., L x W x D x MDD x %stabiliser x compaction required = kg/m3
(divided 50 = pockets required)
c. Count pockets per m2 after spacing at correct intervals
3. Before spreading of stabilizer (mechanical spreader)
a. Collect and inspect weighbridge ticket from spreader supplier
b. Check pressure gauges on spreader tanks to be at required setting
c. Place square meter mats at pre-determined intervals to weigh the cement after
spreading
d. Check hand scale for correctness and calibration
4. During stabilisation
a. Check speed of spreader during application by mechanical spreader, by weighing
each mat against calculated weight for cement content
b. Check type of compaction equipment and mixing equipment for suitability and
effectiveness
c. Ensure laboratory is notified for taking UCS, Mod and Indicator samples
d. Monitor specified mixing time against type of stabilising agent (see COLTO Table
3503/1)
e. No traffic allowed on freshly compacted surface
5. Compaction
a. Do nuclear tests to determine density (including calibration of testing equipment)
b. Sample material for laboratory testing before final compaction
6. Finishing and curing
b. Check curing method applied and ensure constant moist surface to avoid
carbonation
c. Check density obtained from nuclear gauge against specification and specified
statistical judgement plan
d. Check laboratory obtained strengths for UCS and ITS
e. Check Indicator test results obtained from laboratory against specification and
specified statistical judgement plan
f. Approve or reject layer accordingly
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
IN SITU RECYCLING WITH BSM Doc No:
Rev No:
CHECKLIST Date:
Check Confirm/ Reject
(Y/N)
1. Recycler
a. Is recycler model appropriate for depth to be worked (Manufacturers limits)
b. Is recycler in good condition
c. Is the drum fitted appropriate for recycling
d. Are all picks in good condition and present
2. Tankers
a. Does tanker have the correct stabilising agent
b. Are there sufficient water tankers for production rate
c. Do bitumen tankers contain the correct grade of bitumen/emulsion
d. Are they fitted with dipsticks
e. Is binder at correct temperature (Temperature..............ºC )
f. Are supply pipes properly lagged
g. Are all pipes fully “bled”
c. Are rollers properly ballasted
d. Do rollers have variable amplitude/frequency settings
e. Settings used for trial:
Passes No. (_______________) Amplitude (_____________)
Passes No. (_______________) Frequency (_____________)
f. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
g. Are scrapers in good condition and set
h. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
i. Do brakes work
Note tyre pressures ……………………kPa
Mass…………………………t
Position………………………
5. Process
a. Is the number of cuts for the total width defined
b. Is the width of overlap for each longitudinal joint defined
c. Is the length of cut (i.e., when train should return for adjacent cut) defined
d. Is there sufficient volume of imported material for planned production
e. Is there sufficient bitumen/emulsion for planned production
f. Is there sufficient water for planned production
g. Is outer edge of 1st cut clearly demarcated
h. To ensure correct grading, is rotation speed of drum defined
RPM_____________
i. To ensure correct grading, is forward speed of recycler defined
m per minute _____________
j. Is moisture content of recycled material as per spec
mc ______________%
k. Is application of cement in front of train as per spec
kg/m2_________
l. Is grading of milled material similar to “design material”
m. Is depth of cut on both sides of drum uniform as per spec
n. Is final product completed within the allowable time period
_______________hours
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
IN SITU RECYCLING WITH FOAMED BITUMEN CHECKLIST
Pre-Start Checklist Supervisor:
Date:
Machine ID:
Check Confirm/
Reject (Y/N)
c. Check that the foam-water tank is full
f. Lift machine / lower drum / open chamber doors for visual inspection
g. Check each expansion chamber for blockages using “pre-water” function
Switch # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nozzle # 1&3 2&4 5&7 6&8 9 & 11 10 & 12 13 & 15
Note any blockages:

h. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
i. Calculate cut lengths / finalise cut plan (with the operator)
j. Reset the on-board computer, enter data and check
b. Check bitumen temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
c. Check bitumen tanker for leaks. Crack valve, check for cold plug
e. Couple up bitumen tanker and bleed air from system
f. Check that the bitumen foams using test nozzle
g. Couple up water tanker and bleed air from system
h. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
i. Confirm cut plan / check computer settings & nozzle closure
j. Check solenoid lights controlling spraybars / nozzle closure
k. Close front & rear doors. Lower recycling drum to cut depth
l. Lift drum and measure temperature of material on cut face
m. Roller in place, Drivers ready. Level control team standing by
IN SITU RECYCLING WITH BITUMEN EMULSION CHECKLIST
Date:
Machine ID:
Check Confirm/ Reject
(Y/N)
a. Check the bitumen emulsion system has been flushed.
c. Lift machine / lower drum / open chamber doors for visual inspection
Check: all bitumen emulsion nozzles clear
d. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
e. Calculate cut lengths / finalise cut plan (with the operator)
f. Reset the on-board computer, enter data and check
Emulsion application rate (percentage emulsion)
b. Check emulsion temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
c. Check emulsion tanker for leaks. Crack valve, check flow
e. Couple up emulsion tanker and bleed air from system
f. Couple up water tanker and bleed air from system
g. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
h. Confirm cut plan / check computer settings & nozzle closure
i. Check solenoid lights controlling spraybars / nozzle closure
j. Close front & rear doors. Lower recycling drum to cut depth
k. Lift drum and measure temperature of material on cut face
l. Roller in place, drivers ready. Level control team standing by
IN PLANT TREATMENT WITH FOAMED BITUMEN CHECKLIST
Date:
Machine ID:
Check Confirm/
Reject (Y/N)
1. Mixing Plant (Start of shift)
b. Check the temperature of the material stockpiles
c. Check that the water tank is full
f. Aggregate feed bins. Check for material packing / blockages
g. Check the active filler bin and auger feed system
h. Open pugmill hatch and visually inspect for blockages
i. Check each expansion chamber for blockages using “pre-water” function
Nozzle # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Note any blockages:

j. Obtain loading / weighbridge certificate for bitumen tanker
k. Check delivery conveyor is clean and running free
l. Reset the computer, enter data and check
Material density Active filler Application rate
2. Setting up the Plant for Mixing (Each new batch / tanker load)
a. Check bitumen temperature in tanker (loading hatch)
b. Couple up bitumen tanker and bleed air from system
c. Check that the bitumen foams using test nozzle
d. Water supply. Open valves and bleed air from system
e. Check all supply lines and feed pipes for leaks
f. Check ancillary plant and equipment is ready for mixing
NOTES:
CONCRETE PAVING TRIAL CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
(Y/N)
1. Aggregates
a. Do aggregate sizes conform to that approved in the design
b. Have stockpiles been constructed correctly
c. Are materials in stockpiles of uniform grading and quality
d. Is moisture content of fine aggregate stockpile consistent
2. Cement
a. Is the correct cement stored in silo
b. Are test certificates available
c. If cement extenders are used, is the method of blending approved
3. Admixtures
a. Does the admixture conform to the specifications
b. Is the admixture being stored correctly
c. If required, is the admixture being agitated prior to use
4. Batch Plant
a. Is the batch plant clean and in good working order
b. Are bins for storing aggregate separated adequately to avoid contamination
c. Have concrete slabs at base of bins been constructed according to the requirements, to
avoid contamination
d. Have the batch plant scales been checked and calibrated
Certificate of Calibration ………………………
e. Has the accuracy of the scales been checked under dynamic conditions
Weigh full batches on weigh bridge and compare to batch plant print out
f. Do dials or digital read out return to zero after discharge of each batch
g. Do mixing blades have less than 10% wear
h. Is water-metering system accurate
i. Is add mixture dispenser operating correctly and accurately
j. Does size of batch and speed of rotation comply with manufacturers specifications
k. Is mixing time adequate to ensure a homogenous mix
m. Are bins of trucks clean and are correct protection measures in place during transport
5. Supporting Substrate Layer
a. Has the layer been wetted for a minimum of 1 hour before paving
b. Is the substrate surface clean of all debris and free water
c. Is there evidence of heaving in the layer
d. Has the layer been fully accepted according to specified criteria
6. Slipform Paving
a. Is paver in good condition with no oil leaks
b. Are power tracks clean
c. Are guide wires staked firmly in ground
d. Has position and level of guide wires been checked
e. Is track path clean, firm and level
i. Are sufficient canopies available for protection of paved concrete
7. Side Form Paving
a. Are paving machines in good condition with no oil leaks
b. Are side forms clean and in good repair
c. Are form faces perpendicular to the base
d. Are forms true to line and level
e. Are forms true in all directions ( < 3 mm in 3 m )
f. Are locks securely fastened
g. Are forms fixed securely to substrate
h. Is packing placed under forms adequate, and is mortar (1:3 cement/sand) packing flush
with inside face
i. Have forms been oiled immediately prior to concrete placement
j Are sufficient canopies available for protection of placed concrete
8. Tie Bar Inserter
a. Are bars of correct diameter and length
b. Are inserters set at the correct distances from edge of pavement
c. Are the inserters set to the correct depth
d. Are there sufficient stocks available
CONCRETE PAVING TRIAL CHECKLIST (2 of 2)
(Y/N)
9. Dowel Bar Inserter
a. Are the dowels of correct diameter and length
b. Are the dowels clean with sleeves properly fitted
c. Are the inserters set for the correct position and depth
d. Is there any excessive movement or lifting off the rails by the inserter during placement
e. Are the inserted dowels, after compaction, within the allowable tolerances with regards
to alignment
 parallel to the finished surface
 to the centre line of the carriageway
 to each other
10. Finishing, Texturing and Curing
a. Does the burlap drag conform to specification
b. Do the metal grooving tines conform to specifications
c. Are random spacings of tines correctly set
d. Is depth of texturing within specified tolerances
e. Are spray nozzles for curing compound clean
f. Are adequate protection measures available for spraying during windy conditions
g. Has the correct curing compound been supplied
h. Can the curing compound be continuously agitated during spraying
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
BLOCK PAVING TRIAL CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
Confirm/Reject
Check
(Y/N)
1. Formation to receive paving
a. Levels
b. Area (particularly width)
c. Soft spots
d. Root growth requiring removal
e. Smoothness
f. Compaction
g. Services needing protection
2. Kerbing
a. Excavation
b. Levels
c. Alignment
3. Bedding sand
a. Right type
b. Grading
c. Pre-compaction prevented
d. Protection: Rain
Strong winds
e. Thickness before compaction
4. Laying
a. Main axis of laying
b. Laying pattern
c. Infill blocks
d. Primary compaction
e. Joint sand: Right type
Grading
f. Pre-compaction levels and smoothness
g. Secondary compaction
h. Damaged blocks
i. Finished levels
j. Joint widths
l. Tidy up site
Client’s Rep
________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep
________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
DOC No:
BACKFILL TO STRUCTURES CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Project: _______________________________ Contract No: ___________________________
Structure: _____________________________ Date: ________________________________
Element: ______________________________ Inspection No: _________________________
Drawing No: ___________________________ Quantity (m3): _________________________
Rev No: _______________________________ Location: _____________________________
ITEMS TO BE CHECKED CHECKED BY (initial & date) REMARKS

Foreman/ Site
Client’s Rep
Engineer
Structure completion / approval received
Approval of backfill material & source
Compaction equipment agreed upon
Backfill in layer thicknesses prescribed

Density test result from lab acceptable (Attach
result)
Approval of final level
_________________ _________________ _________________

Client’s Rep:
_________________ _________________ _________________
Contractor’s Rep:
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
DOC No:
GABIONS CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Section: ________________________________ Date: __________________________________
CH Start: ______________________________ CH Finish: ______________________________
Length: ________________________________ Inspection Request No.:___________________
Drawing No: ____________________________ Revision: _______________________________
CHECKED BY (Initial & Date)

ITEMS TO BE CHECKED Contractor Foreman/ Client’s REMARKS
Contractor Rep
Correct Drawing Revision or as per RE’s instruction
Gabions: Material and Size-Specification
Setting out – Alignment/Position
Setting out – Level
Excavations
Gabions Bedding
Mesh size: 80 mm x 100 mm
Min wire diameter: 2.7 mm
Mattresses, Standard size :
L=6 m; W=2 m; Depth=0.2 m; 0.3 m or 0.5 m
Boxes, Standard size: L=1 m, 2 m, 3 m or 4 m; W=1 m;
Depth=0.3 m, 0.5 m or 1 m
Filter Fabric type. Filter fabric to have min 300 mm overlap
and to be fastened at joints
Stone/Rock size: ALD= 125 mm
Maximum stone size: 150 x 200 x 250 mm
Internal horizontal bracing wires at 330 mm vertical centers
wrapped around 2 mesh wires at the front and back (4 to
every 1 cube of fill)
Securely wire/lace along all the edges (top, bottom, sides and
at diaphragm points) and to all adjacent boxes/mattresses
before filling with rocks
Internal vertical bracing wire @ 330 mm where water falls
onto boxes and at mattresses (high water velocity)
End of lacing wire turned to the inside of the box/mattress
Vertical facing plumb and straight
Top level checked
Backfill/Soilcrete
Suitable for the next level basket
Sub-Contractor’s Rep: _________________ _________________ _________________
Contractor’s Rep: __________________ _________________ _________________
Client’s Rep: __________________ _________________ __________________
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
DOC No:
EARTHWORKS CUT CHECKLIST REV No :
DATE
Section: ________________________________ Inspection Request No: ___________________
Chainage: ______________________________ Drawing No: ____________________________
Slopes: ________________________________ Date: __________________________________
CHECKED BY (initial & date)

ITEMS TO BE CHECKED Foreman/Site REMARKS
Client’s Rep:
Engineer:
Latest Drawing revision used
Received approval of disposing materials
Equipment inspection and approval
Is protection of services in place
Survey-natural ground level recorded
Clear & grub approved
Stripping of topsoil approved
Survey: setting out of profiles
Earthwork cut: Constantly checking cut slops
Are undercuts identified
Temporary drainage: maintenance satisfactory
Survey payment line measured and recorded
Formation level
Client’s Rep: _________________ _________________ __________________

Contractor’s Rep: _________________ _________________ __________________
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
DOC No:
DRAINAGE PIPES CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Section: ________________________________ Diameter: ______________________________
Chainage: ______________________________ Orientation: ____________________________
Drawing: _______________________________ Revision: _______________________________
Inspection Request No:____________________ Date: __________________________________
CHECKED BY (Initial and Date)

Sub- Foreman/ Client’s
ITEMS TO BE CHECKED REMARKS
contractor Site Rep.
Engineer
Latest drawing revision used
Piping material: Size and state
Setting out work: Alignment and level
Permission to excavate received
Excavate: Correct depth and width
Compaction of excavation floors

Density test done on excavation floors
(attach lab result)
Bedding material and thickness
Check that pipes are free from damage
Check seating of joints
Check joint seal; bidum and wrapping
Check wrapping overlaps
Check orientation and line
Check invert levels

Check connection into inlet and outlet
structures
Repair to lifting holes and release to backfill
Sub-Contractor’s Rep: __________________ _________________ _________________
Contractor’s Rep: __________________ _________________ _________________
Client’s Rep: __________________ _________________ __________________

DOC No:
CONCRETE SIDE DRAINS CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Section: ________________________________
Chainage: ______________________________
Drawing: _______________________________
Inspection Request No:____________________ Date: __________________________________
CHECKED BY (Initial and date)

ITEMS TO BE CHECKED Sub- Contractor Client’s REMARKS
contractor Rep.
Position as per drawing
Levels checked
Contraction joints @ 2.5m c/c
Contact area @ joints painted with bitumen
Expansion joints @ 30 m c/c

Excavation compacted to 93% Mod. AASHTO
Density
Reinforcing: Welded steel fabric Ref 311
Saw cutting of road: Cut to full depth of
concrete: ___________ mm
Saw cutting of road: In straight line
End shutters (traverse shutters) flush with
surfacing and back shutter
Back shutter in straight line
0.15mm Polyethylene sheeting or invert
bitumen emulsion to trimmed excavation
surfaces
Approval obtained from Engineer to cast
concrete
Concrete: Class 30/19
Concrete: Surface finish U2
Expansion joints sealed with flexi cell

Sub-Contractor’s Rep: __________________ _________________ _________________
Contractor’s Rep: __________________ _________________ _________________
Client’s Rep: __________________ _________________ __________________

SAPEM Chapter 12 Appendix 2nd Edition 2014

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SOUTH AFRICAN

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL

Construction Equipment and

AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

Date of Issue: October 2014

First edition published 2013

Printed in the Republic of South Africa

SET: ISBN 978-1-920611-00-2

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL

Construction Equipment and Method

AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

Date of Issue: October 2014

2. Pavement Composition and Behaviour

TESTING AND LABORATORY

6. Road Prism and Pavement Investigations

7. Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations

9. Materials Utilisation and Design

10. Pavement Design

DOCUMENTATION AND TENDERING

11. Documentation and Tendering

13. Acceptance Control

To provide feedback on SAPEM, please email [email protected].

The following people contributed to the compilation of Chapter 12:

This SAPEM manual was edited by Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions.

Photos for this chapter were provided by:

3.2.5 Side Slopes ................................................................................................................ 74

4.5 Bitumen Stabilized Materials ................................................................................................ 146

Figure 61. Single Wheel Padfoot Roller ........................................................................................................ 63

The chapter is divided into three sections:

In this chapter, reference is only made to the Standard

2. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS

2.1 Crushing and Screening

There are 3 stages in most crushing operations:

Figure 1. Crushing Operation

2.1.1 Types of Crushers

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Figure 2. Jaw Crusher

2.1.1.2 Impact Crusher

Figure 3. Cross Section Through a Horizontal Impact Crusher

2.1.1.3 Cone Crusher

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Figure 4. Schematic Diagram of Cone Crusher

2.1.2 Screening and Washing Operation

Horizontal and Inclined Vibrating Screens Double Deck Screens

Figure 5. Aggregate Screens

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Figure 6. Screw Classifiers

Figure 7. Cyclone Crusher Plant

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

2.1.3 Combined Crushing and Screening

Figure 8. Mobile Jaw & Cone Crusher with Screens

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Figure 9. Mobile Crushing and Screening Plant

2.1.4 Stockpiling and Loading

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

Figure 10. Aggregate Stockpiles

Section 2: Construction Equipment and Controls

2.1.5 Sampling and Testing

Figure 11. Sampling from Stockpile

Figure 12. Belt Sampling