SAPEM Chapter 12 Appendix 2nd Edition 2014
SAPEM Chapter 12 Appendix 2nd Edition 2014
SAPEM Chapter 12 Appendix 2nd Edition 2014
Chapter 12
Second Edition
South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
© 2013 South African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd. All rights reserved.
www.nra.co.za
[email protected]
SOUTH AFRICAN
Chapter 12
Second Edition
BACKGROUND
1. Introduction
3. Materials Testing
4. Standards
5. Laboratory Management
INVESTIGATION
8. Material Sources
DESIGN
IMPLEMENTATION
You are
here
12. Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
POST CONSTRUCTION
14. Post-Construction
South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
SCOPE
The South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) is a reference manual for all aspects of pavement
engineering. SAPEM is a best practice guide. There are many relevant manuals and guidelines available for
pavement engineering, which SAPEM does not replace. Rather, SAPEM provides details on these references, and
where necessary, provides guidelines on their appropriate use. Where a topic is adequately covered in another
guideline, the reference is provided. SAPEM strives to provide explanations of the basic concepts and terminology
used in pavement engineering, and provides background information to the concepts and theories commonly used.
SAPEM is appropriate for use at National, Provincial and Municipal level, as well as in the Metros. SAPEM is a
valuable education and training tool, and is recommended reading for all entry level engineers, technologists and
technicians involved in the pavement engineering industry. SAPEM is also useful for practising engineers who would
like to access the latest appropriate reference guideline.
SAPEM consists of 14 chapters covering all aspects of pavement engineering. A brief description of each chapter is
given below to provide the context for this chapter, Chapter 12.
Chapter 1: Introduction discusses the application of this SAPEM manual, and the institutional responsibilities,
statutory requirements, basic principles of roads, the road design life cycle, and planning and time scheduling for
pavement engineering projects. A glossary of terms and abbreviations used in all the SAPEM chapters is included in
Appendix A. A list of the major references and guidelines for pavement engineering is given in Appendix B.
Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and Behaviour includes typical pavement structures, material
characteristics and pavement types, including both flexible and rigid pavements, and surfacings. Typical materials
and pavement behaviour are explained. The development of pavement distress, and the functional performance of
pavements are discussed. As an introduction, and background for reference with other chapters, the basic principles
of mechanics of materials and material science are outlined.
Chapter 3: Materials Testing presents the tests used for all material types used in pavement structures. The
tests are briefly described, and reference is made to the test number and where to obtain the full test method.
Where possible and applicable, interesting observations or experiences with the tests are mentioned. Chapters 3 and
4 are complementary.
Chapter 4: Standards follows the same format as Chapter 3, but discusses the standards used for the various
tests. This includes applicable limits (minimum and maximum values) for test results. Material classification systems
are given, as are guidelines on mix and materials composition.
Chapter 5: Laboratory Management covers laboratory quality management, testing personnel, test methods,
and the testing environment and equipment. Quality assurance issues, and health, safety and the environment are
also discussed.
Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement Investigation discusses all aspects of the road prism and pavement
investigations, including legal and environmental requirements, materials testing, and reporting on the investigations.
The road pavement investigations include discussions on the investigation stages, and field testing and sampling
(both intrusively and non-intrusively), and the interpretation of the pavement investigations. Chapters 6 and 7 are
complementary.
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations covers the investigations into fills, cuts,
structures and tunnels, and includes discussion on geophysical methods, drilling and probing, and stability
assessments. Guidelines for the reporting of the investigations are provided.
Chapter 8: Material Sources provides information for sourcing materials from project quarries and borrow pits,
commercial materials sources and alternative sources. The legal and environmental requirements for sourcing
materials are given. Alternative sources of potential pavement materials are discussed, including recycled pavement
materials, construction and demolition waste, slag, fly ash and mine waste.
Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design discusses materials in the roadbed, earthworks (including cuts and
fills) and all the pavement layers, including soils and gravels, crushed stones, cementitious materials, primes, stone
precoating fluids and tack coats, bituminous binders, bitumen stabilized materials, asphalt, spray seals and micro
surfacings, concrete, proprietary and certified products and block paving. The mix designs of all materials are
discussed.
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
Chapter 10: Pavement Design presents the philosophy of pavement design, methods of estimating design traffic
and the pavement design process. Methods of structural capacity estimation for flexible, rigid and concrete block
pavements are discussed.
Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering covers the different forms of contracts typical for road pavement
projects; the design, contract and tender documentation; the tender process; and the contract documentation from
the tender award to the close-out of the Works.
Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines presents construction equipment and controls,
construction process guidelines, and the construction of trial sections. The construction equipment section includes
discussion on crushing and screening plant, asphalt production plant, concrete mixing plant, bituminous binder
distributors, cementitious agent tankers, milling machines, recycling machines, paving equipment, compaction
equipment and nuclear testing apparatus. The construction process guidelines cover roadbed preparation,
compaction of soils and gravels, cementitious stabilization, bitumen stabilization, modification of materials, cold
recycling, crushed stone base, waterbound macadam base, surfacing seals, asphalt, concrete and block pavements,
and proprietary products. Guidelines for the construction of trial sections for almost all layer types are also given.
Chapters 12 and 13 are complementary, with Chapter 12 covering the proactive components of road construction,
i.e., the method of construction. Chapter 13 covers the reactive components, i.e., checking the construction is done
correctly.
Chapter 13: Quality Management includes acceptance control processes, and quality plans. All the pavement
layers and the road prism are discussed. The documentation involved in quality management is also discussed, and
where applicable, provided.
Chapter 14: Post-Construction incorporates the monitoring of pavements during the service life, the causes and
mechanisms of distress, and the concepts of maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
FEEDBACK
SAPEM is a “living document”. The first edition was made available in electronic format in January 2013, and a
second edition in October 2014. Feedback from all interested parties in industry is appreciated, as this will keep
SAPEM relevant.
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This compilation of this manual was funded by the South African National Road Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). The
project was coordinated on behalf of SANRAL by Kobus van der Walt and Steph Bredenhann. Professor Kim Jenkins,
the SANRAL Chair in Pavement Engineering at Stellenbosch University, was the project manager. The Cement and
Concrete Institute (C&CI) and Rubicon Solutions provided administrative support.
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Construction Equipment and Controls ............................................................................................... 2
2.1 Crushing and Screening ........................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Types of Crushers ......................................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Screening and Washing Operation .................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Combined Crushing and Screening ................................................................................. 6
2.1.4 Stockpiling and Loading ................................................................................................ 7
2.1.5 Sampling and Testing ................................................................................................... 9
2.1.6 Crushing Problem Solving ............................................................................................ 10
2.2 Asphalt Production Plants ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Types of Production Plants .......................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Processes and Equipment for Batch and Drum Mixers .................................................... 13
2.2.3 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 16
2.2.4 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Concrete Mixing Plant ............................................................................................................ 19
2.3.1 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Bituminous Binder Distributors ............................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Distributor Components............................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 21
2.4.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Cementitious Agent Tankers .................................................................................................. 26
2.5.1 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 26
2.6 Milling Machines ................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Types of Milling Machines ............................................................................................ 28
2.6.2 Features of Milling Machines ........................................................................................ 29
2.6.3 Milling Operation ........................................................................................................ 34
2.6.4 Production ................................................................................................................. 36
2.6.5 Reuse of Asphalt Millings ............................................................................................. 38
2.6.6 Practicalities ............................................................................................................... 40
2.7 Recycling Machines ............................................................................................................... 40
2.7.1 Types of Recycling Machines ....................................................................................... 42
2.7.2 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 45
2.7.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 48
2.8 Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Machines ........................................................................................... 50
2.8.2 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 52
2.8.3 Problem Solving ......................................................................................................... 54
2.9 Concrete Paving Equipment ................................................................................................... 56
2.9.1 Placing Equipment ...................................................................................................... 56
2.9.2 Pavers ....................................................................................................................... 56
2.9.3 Vibrators and Compactors ........................................................................................... 58
2.9.4 Dowel Bar Inserters .................................................................................................... 58
2.9.5 Screeding and Finishing Devices .................................................................................. 58
2.9.6 Tining and Brushing .................................................................................................... 59
2.9.7 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 61
2.10 Compaction Equipment .......................................................................................................... 62
2.10.1 Type of Rollers ........................................................................................................... 62
2.10.2 Selection of Compaction Equipment.............................................................................. 64
2.10.3 Equipment Control Measures ....................................................................................... 67
3. Construction Process Guidelines...................................................................................................... 68
3.1 Roadbed Preparation ............................................................................................................. 68
3.1.1 Minimum Preparation .................................................................................................. 68
3.1.2 Special Preparation ..................................................................................................... 68
3.2 Fills ..................................................................................................................................... 71
3.2.1 Earth Fills................................................................................................................... 71
3.2.2 Rock Fills ................................................................................................................... 72
3.2.3 Roadbed Preparation for Fills ....................................................................................... 73
3.2.4 Drainage of Fills ......................................................................................................... 73
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
Preliminary Sections
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Asphalt Mix Problem Solving ....................................................................................................... 18
Table 2. Spraying Problem Solving ........................................................................................................... 25
Table 3. Production Adjustment Factor ..................................................................................................... 36
Table 4. Production Example for Small Milling Machine ............................................................................... 37
Table 5. Production Example for Large Milling Machine .............................................................................. 38
Table 6. Recycler Problem Solving ............................................................................................................ 49
Table 7. HMA Paving Problem Solving....................................................................................................... 55
Table 8. Selection of Compaction Equipment ............................................................................................. 65
Table 9. Prime Checklist ......................................................................................................................... 100
Table 10. Compaction Factors................................................................................................................... 116
Table 11. Asphalt Paving Trial Section Checklist ......................................................................................... 136
Table 12. Stone Seals Trial Section Checklist .............................................................................................. 140
Table 13. Crushed Stone Base: Checklist for Site Operations ...................................................................... 143
Table 14. Chemical Stabilization: Checklist for Site Operations .................................................................... 145
Table 15. In Situ Recycling with BSM: Checklist .......................................................................................... 147
Table 16. In Situ Recycling: Foamed Bitumen Checklist .............................................................................. 148
Table 17. In Situ Recycling: Bitumen Emulsion Checklist ............................................................................. 148
Table 18. In Plant Treatment: Foamed Bitumen Checklist .......................................................................... 149
Table 19. Concrete Paving Trial Checklist ................................................................................................... 151
Table 20. Block Paving Trial Checklist ........................................................................................................ 152
Table 21. Typical Production Rates............................................................................................................ 153
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Crushing Operation ...................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2. Jaw Crusher ................................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 3. Cross Section Through a Horizontal Impact Crusher ........................................................................ 3
Figure 4. Schematic Diagram of Cone Crusher .............................................................................................. 4
Figure 5. Aggregate Screens ....................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 6. Screw Classifiers .......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 7. Cyclone Crusher Plant .................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 8. Mobile Jaw & Cone Crusher with Screens ....................................................................................... 6
Figure 9. Mobile Crushing and Screening Plant ............................................................................................. 7
Figure 10. Aggregate Stockpiles .................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 11. Sampling from Stockpile ............................................................................................................... 9
Figure 12. Belt Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 13. Batch Plant Layout ..................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 14. Drum Plant Layout ..................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 15. Parallel-flow Drum Mixer ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 16. Counter–flow Drum Mixer ........................................................................................................... 13
Figure 17. Flow Bath Plant Drier ................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 18. Aggregate Bins .......................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 19. Cold Feed Bins with Conveyer ..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 20. Bitumen Binder Storage Tanks .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 21. Hot Mix Storage Bins .................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 22. Tilting Drum Mixer ..................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 23. Binder Distributor ....................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 24. Spray Bar .................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 25. Spray Nozzles ............................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 26. Spray Bar Height Test ................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 27. Bucket/”Bakkie” Test .................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 28. Streaky Sprays (Tram Lining) ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 29. Cementitious Agent Tanker ......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 30. Canvas Mat Test ........................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 31. Example of Milling Machine ......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 32. Small Milling Machine ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 33. Large Milling Machine ................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 34. Milling Drum .............................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 35. Spacing of Cutting Tools ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 36. Cutting Tools ............................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 37. Scraper Blades on Milling Machine (shown in red) ......................................................................... 32
Figure 38. Conveyer Belt for Milling Machine ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 39. Control Systems on Milling Drum ................................................................................................. 33
Figure 40. Milling Drums ............................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 41. Grading Curves Showing Effects of Increasing Cut Depth and Advance Speed ................................. 39
Figure 42. Recycling Machine Pulverising, Mixing and Placing ........................................................................ 41
Figure 43. Example Tyre Mounted Recycler Showing Recycling Wheel Paths ................................................... 42
Figure 44. Cutters on a Tyre Mounted Recycler ............................................................................................ 43
Figure 45. Example of a Track Mounted Recycler .......................................................................................... 44
Figure 46. Standard Milling Drum Fitted to a Large Machine .......................................................................... 44
Figure 47. Recycling Machine Fitted with On-Board Mixing Unit ..................................................................... 46
Figure 48. HMA Paver ................................................................................................................................ 50
Figure 49. Hopper ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 50. Screed on Asphalt Paver ............................................................................................................. 52
Figure 51. Concrete Placing Equipment ........................................................................................................ 56
Figure 52. Fixed Form Paver ....................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 53. Slipform Paver ........................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 54. Vibrators ................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 55. Dowel Bar Inserters ................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 56. Surcharge in Front of Beam ........................................................................................................ 59
Figure 57. Methods of Initial Finishing ......................................................................................................... 60
Figure 58. Tining ....................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 59. Burlap Drag ............................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 60. Vibrator Trails ............................................................................................................................ 61
Preliminary Sections
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Preliminary Sections
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with typical construction plant used in road building, including aspects of the equipment that need
to be checked during construction to ensure a good finished product. The construction processes, and related
control factors to ensure quality, are also discussed.
The discussion focuses on typical generic equipment that is widely used at the date of publication of this document.
It is meant for general information, rather than as a manual on how to use specific equipment. The intention is not
to replace any specification and related requirements, but to assist practitioners to expand their knowledge and
ensure that specified requirements are met.
The appendix contains all the checklists included in the chapter, and a few extras, in a ready to print format.
Standard Specifications
Note that when this chapter was written and updated,
the 1998 version of the COLTO Standard Specifications
was being used. However, these specifications are
currently being reviewed. A revised version of the
Standard Specifications is likely to be published in 2015
and is likely to be issued either by SANS or COTO.
Section 1: Introduction
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Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines
The crusher consists of a fixed jaw plate and a moving jaw plate that is coupled to an eccentric shaft. The moving
jaw plate moves up and down through the rotation of the eccentric shaft, resulting in the opening size between the
fixed and moving jaw plate continuously changing. This action results in the rock fragments being crushed in the
crushing chamber to a smaller size, and discharged through the outlet at the bottom of the crusher. This process is
schematically illustrated in Figure 2.
Fixed Jaw
Schematic Cross-section
Blow bars
The crusher, shown in Figure 4, consists of a cone shaped bowl liner that crushes the aggregate against the mantel
liner. The mantel liner has a pre-set closed side gap setting, to control the size of the aggregate produced. The
head of the shaft is positioned eccentrically from the vertical plane, which results in one face being against the
mantel at all times, while the aggregate is fed from above. As the cone shaped bowl liner moves to the mantel liner,
the aggregate is crushed. As the bowl liner moves away from the mantel liner, the aggregate is discharged from the
outlet.
Mantel Liner
Bowl Liner
From the primary crusher, the crushed rock material is normally transported to a screen that removes the minus
50 mm fraction. The oversized material is returned to the crusher for re-crushing. The screen vibrates for the
particles to move upward and forward, which greatly increases the output rate. The crushed material moves down
the screen on a covered screen deck, with screen mesh of a desired aperture. A screening plant can have as many
as three different screen decks to extract three different aggregate sizes. An example of a set of screens is shown in
Figure 5.
If the crushed material has a high dust content, washing of the aggregate is required to remove any inherent dust
clinging to the particles. Special screens are used to wash the aggregate in its final stages.
Classifiers are also used to separate different particle sizes in the crushed material. This is a wet process where the
material is drenched with pressurised water. The classifier creates an upward flow enabling the lighter finer particles
to be extracted at the top. The heavier coarser particles move to the lowest end for extraction. The wet finer
particles (sand) need to be de-watered by allowing it to drain freely, or is processed through a de-watering plant.
Another example of a classifier is based on an inclined Archimedean Screw device, as illustrated in Figure 6. The
material is forced upward by the screw, while being washed. The screw has a gap setting, allowing coarser particles
to move up and out for re-processing.
A cyclone can also be used to wash the aggregate. In a cyclone, shown in Figure 7, the material is subjected to
centrifugal forces to remove the water.
Triple
Feeder Box Deck
Jaw Crusher Screens
Cone Crusher
Secondary
Crusher Jaw
Crusher
Screening
Plant
Building
the
Stockpile in
Horizontal
Layers
Completed
Stockpiles
Labelled
Stockpiles
Sampling is done from either a stockpile or conveyor belt. The following guidelines should be followed:
From Stockpiles. Take at least ten increments from different parts of the stockpile, working from the base of
the stockpile upwards, as shown in Figure 11. Avoid sampling in segregated areas, or from the surface of the
stockpile.
From Belts. Stop the conveyor and remove a one meter length of aggregate along the length of the belt using
the special apparatus shown in Figure 12.
Representative sample taken from bottom of the Collect representative samples from dumped
bigger stockpile with a front-end loader. material.
Some of the most common laboratory tests carried out on crushed aggregate are listed below. Many of these tests,
and the associated standards, are discussed in Chapter 3: 3 and Chapter 4: 3.
10% Fines aggregate crushing value (10% FACT)
Aggregate crushing value (ACV)
Alkali aggregate (silica) reaction (ASR)
Average least dimension (ALD)
All aggregates are tested for compliance with either the SANS specifications, the Standard Specifications or
contractual specifications.
In the batch plant process, individual aggregates are proportioned from the cold feed bins onto a single collector
belt, and sent to the dryer to be dried and heated through a hot gas stream. The dried and heated aggregates flow
into a bucket elevator and are carried to the top of the batch tower. From there, it is deposited onto multiple screen
decks, which separate the aggregate into different sizes and direct the fractionated aggregate into hot bins. The
screens in the tower determine the size of the aggregates in the hot bins, and how the blended aggregate mixture is
fractionated and readied for proportioning according to the specified asphalt mixture. The mixture is made by
weighing the fractionated aggregates stored in the hot bins with an accumulative aggregate weigh hopper,
positioned below the hot bins. Each predetermined material fraction is individually weighed in the aggregate weigh
hopper, until the entire batch is weighed.
In a separate action, the bitumen binder is weighed in a weighing device, typically called a bitumen weigh bucket or
bitumen scale.
After the aggregate and the binder are weighed, the aggregates are dropped into the pugmill mixer and blended
together, in what is called a dry-mix cycle. This 2 to 5 second cycle blends the aggregates thoroughly, before the
bitumen binder is added. When the dry-mix cycle is completed, the bitumen is dropped into the mixer and the wet-
mix cycle starts. The wet-mix cycle lasts between 25 and 45 seconds. The cycle time is determined by the time
required to produce a homogenous, well-coated mix. The uniform coating of large aggregate mixes typically takes
longer than fine aggregate mixes. The time is usually determined subjectively by visual inspection.
Batch plants were originally designed to accept a combined crushed aggregate product and sand. The screens at the
top of the batch tower were used to separate the aggregate into the individual fractions so that different mixes could
be produced. Currently, mixes can also be produced utilising different percentages of sized aggregates, at ratios
blended directly through the individual (single sized) cold feed bins. This eliminates some of the requirements of a
batch tower. Therefore, in modern batch plant production, the aggregate proportions for the specified mixtures are
usually first established/calibrated for the cold feed bins in order to obtain the target aggregate proportions for the
mixture, just like a drum-mix plant. The determined ratios of the individual hot bins then become the proportions
used to manufacture the final mix (job mix formula) with the batching plant.
Drum Mixers
Drum mixers are generally
the more popular mixers in
use today.
Baghouse Filter
Aggregate bins
Drum Mixer
The continuous flow of a drum mix plant requires the availability of very uniform stockpiled aggregate materials that
meet the specifications when proportioned, without rescreening. The individual aggregate materials are proportioned
directly from the cold feed bins to the final proportioning of the asphalt mix (job mix formula). The materials are
then sent to the drum to be dried and heated. If reclaimed asphalt is introduced into the mix, measures must be
taken to ensure that it is not brought into contact with the burner. En route to the drum, the blended aggregate
passes over a belt scale, which is a continuous-weighing device. The plant's control system uses the reading from the
belt scale to calculate the bitumen and other additives required.
The first drum mixers were parallel-flow dryers, meaning that the aggregate and the process gas flow in the same
direction, illustrated in Figure 15. The wet aggregates at ambient temperature are introduced to the entrance and
high end of the dryer drum where the burner is located, and the aggregate is dried as it moves away and down from
the burner. The binder is introduced near the exit and cooler part of the drum, just prior to discharge of the mix.
Drum mixers have evolved since this early parallel-flow configuration. Recent mixers include several different types
of continuous processing, such as counter flow mixers (Figure 16), dryers with a separate continuous mixer, and
dryers with continuous mixers fitted together in two concentric barrels (double–barrel mixer). The counter–flow
dryer also contains a mixing zone. Aggregate flow is still from high to low or right to left as shown in Figure 16. The
burner is inserted further into the drum to provide a mixing area behind the flame. In a flow bath plant drier, shown
in Figure 17, aggregate enters the uphill end of the dryer or on the right. Moisture is driven off and the aggregate
temperature increases. Note the direction of aggregate versus gas stream.
The driving force behind the latest designs is the desire to create a drum-mix facility that is more environmentally
friendly. By introducing the binder outside of the main gas stream used to dry and heat the aggregate, the
hydrocarbon particles released are smaller, reducing air pollution and reducing premature ageing of the binder during
the batching process.
When cold feed bins are changed, care should be taken to prevent contamination of the aggregate with underlying
materials, and to prevent segregation or grading changes.
Stockpiles should preferably be located on smooth, well drained concrete surfaces, and be covered with roofs to
avoid major changes in moisture content when it rains. Changes in moisture content are catered for by longer
heating times, to drive off the moisture.
The collected dust can either be returned to the mix-production process or removed from the system. If the dust is
returned, it is essential to ensure that it is reintroduced volumetrically through a calibrated feeder valve.
Alternatively, it can be weighted back into the production process.
The pipes that transfer the binder to the mixing unit must be insulated, and surrounded with an outer pipe or
“jacket”, containing hot oil, to keep the binder at the correct temperature throughout the entire process.
The baghouse cleaning and dust return must stop when the drier stops. This prevents large quantities of dust
transferring to the mixing area when the aggregate feed stops.
Large and rapid increases in production rate should be avoided. It takes time for the dust to be collected on the
bags, cleaned off the bags and returned to the mixing area. A mix produced during a large and rapid increase in
production will be short in fines, and thus have high voids. A mix produced
during a large and rapid decrease in production will have the opposite
result.
Binder Temperatures
2.2.3.5 Bituminous Binder Storage Silos The binder storage temperature
The storage temperature should be monitored regularly to ensure that the should be monitored regularly and
binder is kept at the proper temperature. Binder temperature affects should be maintained throughout
pumping and metering efficiency, and coating of the aggregate. It is the production process.
essential that the binder temperature is maintained throughout the
production process.
The heating elements on the silo walls should not be hotter than the mix temperature, as this may damage the mix
by overheating at the point of contact. Excessively high temperatures cause the asphalt binder to build up and
harden around the heating elements. Excessively high temperatures
can also prematurely age the binder.
must have an accurate and consistent aggregate grading, binder content and temperature. The entire production
process should run smoothly and consistently as starts and stops affect the quality of the mix produced. A problem
solving guide for drum and batch mix plant production is provided in Table 1.
Stiffening of concrete begins as soon as the cement and water are mixed, and increases with time. Under normal
conditions, the degree of stiffening that occurs in the first 30 minutes is not significant. However, high temperatures
can accelerate stiffening, and concrete must be kept cool during hot weather.
Concretes with a low water/cement ratio tend to stiffen more quickly than those with higher water/cement ratios. If
concrete stiffens to the extent that it cannot be placed or adequately compacted, workability can often be restored
by remixing. This should not be done if the concrete is more than two hours old.
Concrete should be designed to have a workability which allows it to be fully compacted by the paving plant. If
allowed to dry out during transportation or placing, the concrete loses workability and full compaction may not be
possible. Where drying out is a problem, richer, more workable mixes can be used.
Segregation occurs when unsuitable vehicles are used to transport or place the concrete. Jolting and vibration of
transport vehicles should be minimized to avoid segregation.
The binder distributor consists of a number of components that each need to be in a good working order, to ensure
the required application rate is consistent and uniform.
(i) Vehicle
The vehicle should be in a roadworthy condition at all times. It should have sufficient power to accelerate fast
enough from a standing start, with the tank filled to capacity, to reach and maintain the speed required to apply the
specified application rate.
The tank must be fitted with sufficient heating flues, symmetrically arranged to heat the contents of the tank using
adjustable burners.
Two suitable thermometers are fitted to the tank, one which can be read from the cab of the vehicle and the other
that is read at the back of the vehicle. These thermometers provide an accurate indication of the temperature of the
binder as it is circulated prior to, and during, spray operations.
A manhole with a readily removable cover is mounted on top of the tank. The safety aspects related to opening this
cover and inspecting the tank contents must be complied with at all times, to avoid fume inhalation and burns.
The tank is fitted with a gimbal and dipstick guide to maintain the dipstick in a vertical position. The dipstick is
constructed in the form of a T-piece, which is the fixed reference point for the dipstick readings. Dipstick readings
may also be affected by foam in the guide when bitumen emulsions are used. In this case, the foam can be settled
by decanting about 100 ml of paraffin down the guide before the dipstick is inserted. The formation of froth on
bitumen emulsions can be considerably reduced if the outlet of the pipe discharging into the tank is as near the
bottom of the tank as possible.
The spray bar has a height adjustment mechanism to set the height to deliver an exact overlap pattern of the nozzle
sprays.
The Calibration Certificate, as well as the calibration parameters such as road speed and pump output, must be
available for inspection purposes, and to assess the extent to which site tests are carried out.
2.4.2.2 Nozzles
The spray nozzles are shown in Figure 25. All the nozzles must be checked to ensure that they are all the same size
and type. The site staff should inspect all nozzles for blockages or wear and tear, and also visually check the angles
of the nozzles relative to the spray bar for uniformity.
Nozzle: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X X X X X X
Correct
spray bar
height
No overlap,
no gap
The optimal spray bar height should be adjusted accordingly before each spray.
The pump output calibration is carried out using a special oil with a viscosity that approximates a 150/200
penetration bitumen at spraying temperature. In practice, therefore, the pump output at a certain setting may
vary with changes in binder type and temperatures, and even with the same type of binder received from
different suppliers.
If the required spray rate is not obtained using the recommended settings, and there is an area that can be
used to test the actual spray rate, then the road speed can be adjusted as follows:
Note the settings for pump and road speed, as well as the temperature of the binder, for at least two short
trial runs. Road speed errors due to operator inefficiency can be checked by stopwatch. Plot the actual spray
rate against the road speed on the chart and draw a new line parallel to the calibration line. From this new
line, determine the corrected road speed for the particular binder type and temperature.
Repeat the above as required, for any change in binder type.
Alternatively, use a stopwatch and the “bakkie” test to measure the output rate and adjust the speed
accordingly. Note, however, that this only delivers a small quantity of binder and may require refinement
using the above trial run procedure.
For a consistent spray rate, the three variables are controlled:
Road speed: dependant on operator efficiency
Pump output: affected by changes in viscosity
Viscosity: affected by changes in temperature
By keeping the temperature and the setting for pump output constant for any particular binder, only the road
speed should be adjusted. The operator efficiency can easily be checked by stopwatch.
The spray rate should be confirmed at the end of each run. This is done by taking a dipstick reading from the
tanker parked on level ground and calculating the spray rate as a function of the bitumen applied and the surface
area sprayed.
The spray bar normally distributes the stabilizing agent over a width between 2.1 and 2.8 metres. The amount of
stabilizing agent distributed on the road is controlled by adjusting the air pressure in the tank and the speed of the
tanker. It is essential that the stabilizer be spread carefully and uniformly over the area to be treated. The
uniformity obtained during the spreading operation affects the amount of mixing necessary, and possibly also the
standard of mixing finally achieved.
2.5.1.2 Marking
The length of the road to be covered by the load of stabilizer must be clearly marked. A true line at the material
layer edges should be maintained with a string line.
2.5.1.4 Wind
Bulk spreading of cementitious material agent should not be carried out in strong windy conditions, as this leads to
poor distribution and contamination of the environment.
Wind action, created by fast moving vehicles adjacent to the section being treated, should be taken care of by
enforcing speed restrictions until the stabilizer is mixed into the material.
(1)
Ordinary Calculation. A secondary check on the spread rate is that the consignment of stabilizer should cover
the required length of road without a shortfall or surplus. It is most important that this length be calculated
correctly, and that this requirement is met.
The heart of these machines is the “milling drum” that is equipped with many individual cutting tools. The rotating
drum is lowered to the required depth in an existing pavement and the machine then advances along the road with
the drum rotating (normally) upwards relative to the direction of advance. As the machine moves forward, the
material within the milling horizon is broken up and windrowed to the centre. From there it is either lifted onto a
conveyor belt that feeds an attendant tipper truck moving at the same speed as the milling machine (see Figure 31),
or remains on the milled road surface, usually as a windrow (thereby facilitating pick up).
Milling machines are used extensively to maintain and rehabilitate existing pavements, where the upper layers
consist of asphalt. Milling machines work at ambient temperatures and are used in all climatic conditions, including
wet weather. Milling machines should not be confused with hot recyclers, known in the industry as “remixers”, which
recover asphalt from an existing pavement after it has been pre-heated.
The appropriate machine for a specific job is dependent on the type of work to be undertaken, and the conditions
prevailing on site. This is influenced mainly by the size of the project, i.e., amount of milling undertaken, the time
scale, and the number of obstructions that will be encountered. Traffic accommodation and lane closure
requirements also influence the decision.
The configuration of the drum and right rear wheel allows these machines to “flush cut” up against kerbs and other
obstacles. These machines are often used for production milling on smaller jobs, and as a secondary milling machine
on larger sites, thereby allowing the larger milling machines to concentrate on production.
In addition to standard milling drums, several different types of drum can be fitted to these machines for various
applications. For example:
Narrow drums, < 500 mm wide, are fitted to cut channels in the asphalt for trench excavations.
Drums with special tool configurations are used on smaller machines to remove road markings.
Large diameter cutting wheels or saw blades, 20 mm to 80 mm wide, can be fitted for the installation of loops
and cables.
Small machines, with a cut width more than 500 mm, are capable of cutting to depths of up to 300 mm. Machines
with a maximum cut width of less than 500 mm are relatively light, and are limited to a maximum cut depth of 100
mm. Most models are, or can be, fitted with a conveyor at the rear of the machine for loading the milled asphalt
onto a truck, as shown in Figure 32. The truck reverses to keep pace with the milling machine. The larger models in
this class are equipped with a front-loading conveyor for increased production.
These machines are used for production milling, where large areas of existing asphalt are removed, typically on
major roads and airport projects. The amount of reclaimed asphalt (RA) removed per working hour is dependent on
the size of machine deployed, the quality (hardness) of asphalt, and the efficiency of the site. Larger machines are
capable of removing in excess of 250 tons/hour. This makes them ideal tools for runway and highway work when
the working window is limited to a few hours, usually at night. See Section 2.6.4 for estimating the production.
Milling drums generally rotate upwards relative to the direction of advance, as shown in Figure 34. The speed of
rotation varies, normally between 100 and 200 rpm, to suit the hardness of material encountered, the depth of cut
and the speed of advance, which are all important features for prolonging the life of the cutting tools.
The milling drum rotates within an enclosed chamber manufactured from abrasion-resistant steel. To cool the
cutting tools and reduce dust emission, a fine spray of water is injected into the chamber through a multiple-nozzle
spray bar attached to the front face of the chamber. The water is stored in a tank on the machine.
The standard milling drum is equipped with cutting tools attached at regular intervals to achieve a spacing of
15 mm between the cut made by each tool, as shown in Figure 35.
Different drums, with variations in the number of tools, are used for different milling applications, classified by the
different cut spacing achieved:
> 15 mm for removing thick lifts of asphalt in a single pass, known as the “Eco cutter”.
8 mm for fine milling, normally followed by the application of a thin surfacing layer, often a slurry.
4 mm for micro milling or texturing, normally followed by the application of a fog spray.
If the tool is prevented from rotating, wear concentrates on one side only and the life of the tool is drastically
reduced. The wear pattern shown in Figure 36b develops rapidly, within a few revolutions of the drum. If not
detected early, the tool will be ground away, exposing the tool holder to
rapid deterioration and, eventually, the tool holder mounting and the drum
itself are damaged. Regular checks on the condition of the cutting tools are,
therefore, one of the most important procedures on a milling job. Cutting Tool
Regular checks on the condition
Several types of tool holders are available, ranging from simple inexpensive of the cutting tools are one of
weld-on types to complex “quick-change” models that bolt on to mountings the most important procedures
positioned on the drum. Since it is the angle-of-attack that is largely on a milling job.
responsible for rotating the tool within the holder, precise positioning of the tool holder is critical to ensure longevity
of the tools.
Cutting tools are expensive items. The cost of one standard all-purpose milling tool is around R30 at 2010 prices.
Special-purpose tools, e.g., abrasion-resistant tools, cost more. Cutting tools, therefore, play a major role in the cost
of milling, and all facets of the operation influencing tool wear need constant attention. In addition to tool wear, the
speed of rotation of the drum, the effectiveness of the water spraying system and advance speed of the machine
need monitoring.
The amount of pressure exerted on the scraper blades also influences the regularity of the milled surface, by
removing high ridges caused by irregular wear of individual cutting tools, especially when fine or micro-milling. This
practice increases the rate at which the blades wear. Preference should be given to maintaining the condition of the
cutting tools, rather than relying on the scraper blades to level off poorly cut surfaces.
Where a conveyor belt is not employed to remove the milled material, the rear plate is lifted to allow the material to
exit as a layer of uniform thickness. Some machines, including most of the large models, are equipped with a door in
the centre of the rear plate that allows the material to exit as a windrow, thereby making it easier to pick up using a
loader.
FAST FAST
SLOWSLOW
(a) Varying Speed of Conveyer Belt Facilitates Filling of Long (b) Change of Slewing Angle to
Trucks Redirect between Trucks
Some of the more modern large machines are equipped with a dust extractor that operates using the same principal
as a vacuum cleaner. The milling chamber is subjected to negative pressure that allows dust particles to be
collected, fed forward and deposited on the delivery conveyor. Water sprays directly onto the material as it
discharges off the delivery conveyor ensure a dust free operation.
Several different control systems are available, which all do the same job, but with varying degrees of accuracy:
The simplest system works on a wire rope sensor connected to the side plates of the milling chamber that run
on the surface of the existing pavement, sliding up and down relative to the cut depth. The long side plate acts
as a skid, levelling out minor local unevenness in the “reference surface” (the existing pavement surface). This
system is normally set up with the sensor measuring on one side of the machine only, and the transverse cut
slope set to a predetermined value, e.g., 2% on cambered sections.
Ultrasonic sensors use high frequency waves to reflect off a reference surface. Such sensors are contact-free
and are, therefore, more reliable. Several different reference surfaces can be employed, ranging from the side
plate of the drum housing to pre-surveyed string lines and long skids often used for paving operations. The use
of multiple sensors can even out roughness.
Rotating lasers define the reference surface. Sensors on the machine continuously feed data to an on-board
computer, which compares the existing and reference surfaces, and adjusts the height of each leg accordingly.
3D systems based on an advanced survey system, for example total station or DGPS, measure the absolute
position of the machine in three dimensions and automatically regulate the height and slope to meet the required
digital model, which is preloaded in to the on-board computer. These systems achieve the highest degree of
milling accuracy and are popular on large projects where multiple cuts are required to cover a wide pavement,
such as on multi-lane highways and airport runways.
Regardless of the control system employed, the limitations imposed by wear on the cutting tools must be recognised
when searching for accuracy. Specifying tight tolerances for milling, e.g., less than 5 mm, is impractical, since the
normal wear over the life of a cutting tool is more than 10 mm (see Section 2.6.2.2). However, where such accuracy
is deemed necessary, the milling drum needs to be in excellent condition and all tools changed at regular intervals,
not only those showing advanced wear. Such a requirement has a major impact on the cost of the project, especially
when using a micro-milling drum fitted with more than 200 tools.
A gradation control beam is a sturdy steel skid-type of frame, mounted on a swing-arm immediately in front of the
milling chamber. The beam is lowered hydraulically and locked in position to run on top of the pavement, thereby
preventing slabs of asphalt from lifting in front of the machine. The alternative is to turn the machine around and
mill in reverse, thereby achieving a down-cut. This practice, however, is not popular due to increased wear and tool
usage.
Work required before production milling can commence. In addition to closing off the working area, this
includes dealing with obstructions and, where required, establishing the necessary survey controls for accurate
milling.
Locating and dealing with hidden obstructions. This usually involves using a metal detector to locate,
investigate and, where necessary, remove obstacles such as buried manhole covers.
Work required after milling. In addition to sweeping and removing material remaining on the milled surface,
this work often involves the provision of temporary access to properties.
Clearing the site at the end of the shift. This may call for all plant and equipment to be transported to a
temporary holding area, that may be distant from the site.
Compiling a detailed list of all plant and equipment required on site, including details of when each item is
needed, the duration of deployment and any necessary back-up provision.
Deployment of personnel with suitable expertise, together with a detailed delegation of specific
responsibilities.
Logistics always play a leading role in determining the production rate achievable on site. Often a bottleneck is
encountered in disposing of the milled material. This may be caused by factors beyond the control of those
responsible for the project, e.g., traffic congestion. Material removal then becomes the primary factor to consider
when planning the work. It makes little sense to deploy a large milling machine and plan on removing 250 tons of
milled material per hour, when it is only possible to transport 50 tons per hour away from the site.
Where an asphalt overlay follows the milling, a standard drum is often used. However, where the milled surface is to
be trafficked or where a micro-surfacing or surface treatment is envisaged, a fine milling drum or micro-texturing
drum is preferred. Figure 40 shows the difference between a standard milling drum, Figure 40a, with tools
positioned to produce cuts at 15 mm spacing, and a fine milling drum, Figure 40b, producing cuts spaced at 8 mm.
The texture of the milled surface achieved with a fine milling drum is shown in Figure 40c.
For special applications, micro texturing drums that cut a 3 mm spacing are also available. The number of tools
fitted to a 2000 mm wide drum increases from 146 on a standard drum, to 274 on a fine milling drum, and 672 on a
micro milling drum.
Cutting slots in the asphalt for cables and loops. For these applications, special cutting wheels or blades
vary in width from 20 mm to 80 mm.
These applications use a standard machine fitted with a special-purpose drum, cutter or wheel. Although they can all
be carried out using other tools, for example, a concrete saw and breaker for trench cutting, using a milling machine
increases the utilisation of a machine that is often already on site, thereby reducing the overall cost of the project.
2.6.4 Production
The output of a milling machine is influenced by the following primary parameters:
Type and condition of the milling machine, especially the drum
Milling requirements, such as thickness and relative hardness of the asphalt to be removed
Site conditions, i.e., open, obstructions, restricted, or confined
Climate, especially the anticipated temperature range of the asphalt
Expected weather conditions, such as clear, raining, or misty
Trucking capacity for transporting the milled asphalt
Site access and traffic accommodation constraints
Competence and experience of work crew
These factors all need to be considered in estimating the anticipated production on a specific milling project.
Production estimates are normally based on performance data obtained from the manufacturer of the milling
machine, reduced to realistic expectations by applying a “production adjustment factor” that takes account of the
above parameters. The suggested parameters, and effective range of influence that each has on production, are
shown in Table 3.
The procedure used to estimate production is best explained by means of examples in Table 4 and Table 5.
90.0
80.0
Percentage passing
60.0
100mm cut FAST
25mm cut SLOW
50.0
25mm cut FAST
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 Sieve size (mm)
Figure 41. Grading Curves Showing Effects of Increasing Cut Depth and Advance Speed
Type of milling drum. The type of milling drum fitted to the machine significantly influences the grading of the
RA. Micro-texturing drums with closely spaced cutting tools produce a much finer RA than a standard milling
drum.
Direction of cut. When the direction of rotation of the milling drum lifts the asphalt (up-cutting), a coarser
product results than that obtained when down-cutting, where the cutting tools impact on the pavement from
above as the machine advances.
Condition of the machine, milling drum and cutting
tools. Poorly maintained machines invariably produce a RA
material with an inconsistent grading. In particular, the cutting
tools play a major role in determining the grading of the milled Condition of the Milling
material; a drum fitted with a new set of tools produces a more Machine, Drum and Cutting Tools
uniform product, compared with one where some of the tools Poorly maintained machines invariably
are new and some are worn. produce a RA material with an
Condition of the scraper blades. The condition of the inconsistent grading. In particular, the
scraper blades and, to a lesser extent, the lifting plates on the cutting tools play a major role in
drum, influence the maximum particle size and amount of determining the grading of the milled
material that remains on the milled surface, by escaping under material. A drum fitted with a new set of
the rear door as the machine advances. This material, later tools produces a more uniform product,
picked up by a sweeping and cleaning team, is usually disposed compared to one where some of the tools
of separately and not added back to the RA. Since most of this are new and some are worn.
material is composed of fines less than 5 mm, the effect on the
grading curve is significant.
Machine operation.
The machine set up and operation has a direct influence of the grading of the milled RA. As illustrated by
the grading curves in Figure 41, the depth of cut and speed of advance are primary factors. For example,
milling a 100 mm thick layer of asphalt in two 50 mm cuts produces a finer RA material than that produced
from a single 100 mm thick cut. In addition, drum rotation speed influences the grading; the faster the speed
of rotation, the finer the milled product.
Where the existing asphalt has severe crocodile cracks, maintaining the depth of cut within the body of
the cracked layer encourages pulverisation, rather than lifting chunks of asphalt from the pavement. When
such conditions are encountered, the use and positioning of a gradation control beam has a significant effect
on the grading of the product.
Another important factor is the consistency of the milling operation. The RA produced from a steady
continuous operation is different from that produced when numerous interruptions are encountered.
Maintaining a constant application rate of water sprayed into the milling chamber also influences the
amount of finer material that adheres to the coarser particles, and are thus included with the RA and not left
on the milled road surface.
2.6.6 Practicalities
It is important to recognise that the grading of milled RA material is always influenced by the purpose of the milling
exercise. Where a contractor is milling for the sole purpose of removing asphalt from the road, the focus is on
production at the lowest possible cost, not on the grading of the RA material. However, when the focus changes to
milling to recycle the RA, the attention is entirely different, since the grading of the milled product assumes greater
importance.
As the machine advances, the material encountered within the recycling horizon is pulverised, including previously
bound material, such as asphalt. Simultaneously, water and other fluids, for example, bitumen emulsion or foamed
bitumen, are accurately metered and injected into the recovered material inside the cutter housing or “mixing
chamber”. All materials are mixed together by the rotating action of the cutter to form a homogeneous mix. The
mixed material is then placed back on the road at the rear of the machine where it is shaped and compacted to form
the new layer. This process is termed the single-pass cold recycling process and is illustrated schematically in
Figure 42.
Where the material recycled from an existing pavement is not of sufficient quality for re-use, additional fresh material
can be imported, spread and shaped on top of the road surface prior to recycling. In this way, the in situ material is
blended together with the new material, to achieve the required quality.
The depth to which a specific pavement is recycled, and the requirements for stabilizers, are determined in the
pavement design process. Although most modern in situ recyclers can operate efficiently at cut depths between 100
mm and 500 mm, the normal depth of cut for most recycling projects is between 150 and 300 mm. This range is
used mainly due to difficulties compacting thicker layers.
Recyclers have introduced pavement engineers to a whole new range of possibilities, the most important being the
ability to construct thick monolithic layers of a stabilized material. This was not previously possible using
conventional road building machines, due to the sheer volume of material that had to be mixed, placed and
compacted within a limited period of time. From a structural perspective, a single 300 mm thick layer of stabilized
material has a higher load-carrying capability than two separate 150 mm thick layers constructed one on top of the
other, due to possible slippage on the interface between the layers.
In situ recyclers are designed to recover and mix the material from all types of flexible pavements whilst pushing
(and/or pulling) bulk tankers containing the required additives. They are, therefore, heavy machines equipped with a
large engine to deliver sufficient power for this purpose. They also have micro-processor controlled pumping
systems and spray bars to regulate the flow rate of stabilizers relative to the volume of material in the mixing
chamber. They should not be confused with lighter, less powerful machines that are used to mix relatively soft
material, known in the industry as “stabilizers” or “pulvimixers”. In situ recyclers can, however, be used as stabilizers
but stabilizers are neither capable, nor are they equipped, to recycle pavement layers.
The term “recycler” is sometimes used for off-site mixing plants capable of mixing a variety of materials, including
those recovered from pavement layers and placed in temporary stockpile. Where these units are specifically
designed to treat materials recovered from existing pavements, usually recovered asphalt millings, with stabilizer
(especially foamed bitumen), they are often referred to as “recycling units”. This is a misnomer because these
machines are actually sophisticated mixing units that treat a range of materials, as well as recycling those recovered
from existing pavements.
Two reference documents relevant to recycling machines that can be downloaded at no cost are:
Wirtgen “Cold Recycling Manual” (2010): www.wirtgen.de
Asphalt Academy’s TG2 “Technical Guideline: Bituminous Stabilised Materials – A Guideline for the Design and
Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Materials”: www.asphaltacademy.co.za
Figure 43. Example Tyre Mounted Recycler Showing Recycling Wheel Paths
The most popular machines have the cutter housing attached to the main frame. The cutter and its motor are
mounted on an arm that swings downwards as the drum is lowered into the pavement, thereby increasing the
volume of the mixing chamber above the cutter. This feature allows material recovered from varying cut depths, up
to a maximum of 500 mm, to be accommodated and effectively mixed in the chamber. Where the cutter and
housing are both fixed to the main frame of the machine, the depth of cut is constrained by the fixed volume of the
mixing chamber, as is the case with most track mounted machines.
As shown in Figure 44, the point attack tools are positioned in a chevron pattern and mounted on stanchions to
promote mixing. This tool configuration promotes mixing in the vertical plane, but not the horizontal. This means
that the recovered material is not thrown sideways (laterally) or lengthways (longitudinally) over any appreciable
distance from its original location within the pavement. The maximum movement measured from tests is
200 mm. Recycled material can, therefore, not be cross-blended with this type of cutter. Localised areas or strips of
different materials in the recycled horizon are returned to the pavement, after recycling, in approximately the same
location. The resulting material, therefore, reflects the original differences.
Layers of dense unbound material are easily broken apart, returning to their original uncompacted state. The degree
to which layers of bound material, e.g., asphalt, are pulverised and the resulting grading is influenced mainly by the
advance speed of the recycler, but also by the cutter rotation speed. The faster the advance speed, and the slower
the speed of rotation, the coarser the product. Large lumps of material that are not pulverised in the process, tend
to be thrown to the bottom of the layer and are not easily visible.
Since they are mounted on flexible tyres, these recyclers must attack thick layers of hard or well-bound material from
below. The cutter must first penetrate through to the underside of the hard layer before the machine can advance,
pulverising the material. Attempting to work with the cutter lowered only partially into such hard material, e.g., aged
asphalt, causes the machine to bounce, damaging the tools and tool holders.
The rear wheels of these machines are located inside the extremities of the cut width and, therefore, run on the
outer edges of the recycled material. This means that the material in the wheel paths is compacted, whilst the
material between the wheel paths remains in a loose (“fluffed”) state, as illustrated in Figure 43.
In addition to recycling, the inherent stability and traction capabilities make these machines ideal for soil stabilization.
They are also used extensively to pulverise thick layers of bound material in existing pavements, with larger
machines used for thicker layers. Increasing use is also being made of these machines to pre-treat thick layers, up
to 500 mm thick, in the lower portion of the pavement. Such pre-treatment includes breaking down clods of material
or soft rock, with the addition of water to achieve a consistent moisture content that facilitates compaction.
Instead of being lifted onto a belt and removed, as happens when milling, the recovered material exits through a
door in the rear of the milling chamber and passes between the rear tracks to be spread across the width of cut by
an auger fitted at the back of the machine. A paving screed is usually incorporated to pre-shape and pre-compact
the material spread by the auger. The required surface levels and shape can often be achieved by using such a
screed, thereby eliminating the need for a grader to cut final levels.
As with the tyre mounted recyclers, micro-processor controlled pumping systems are incorporated. Spray bars
attached to the outside of the drum housing inject fluid additives into the material in the milling chamber.
Unlike tyre mounted recyclers, the windrowing action of the tool pattern promotes blending of the material recovered
by each half-width of the drum. The material is, however, not fully cross-blended as the material tends to exit
through the rear door in the respective halves, and is spread back by the auger over the half where it originated.
Milling machines are designed and built to provide stability when cutting into layers of hard asphalt. Both the drum
housing and the milling drum are attached to the frame of the machine, and the depth of cut is varied by lifting or
lowering the whole machine. This means that:
The drum does not have to penetrate to the underside of thick bound layers to be able to recycle the
material. It is, therefore, possible to recycle only the upper portion of thick bound layers.
The volume of the milling chamber is constant, regardless of the depth of cut. The amount of material
that can be mixed is, therefore, limited, and this restricts the depth of cut that can be recycled. A maximum of
250 mm can be cut when treating with a non-cohesive stabilizer, i.e., cement, or less when applying a cohesive
stabilizer, i.e., foamed bitumen.
These machines are ideal for recycling 100% asphalt material. As with tyre
mounted recyclers, the degree to which the asphalt is pulverised is
influenced by the advance speed of the recycler and the rotation speed of Track Mounted Recyclers
the drum. However, unlike tyre mounted recyclers, there are different
These recyclers are ideal for
milling drums that can be used to vary the extent to which the material is
recycling 100% asphalt material.
broken down. For example, using a fine milling drum with twice the
number of point attack tools will produce a significantly finer material. In
addition, the direction of rotation of the drum can be changed from up-cutting to down-cutting to promote
fragmentation.
Furthermore, since milling drums are interchangeable, the width of cut may be selected by fitting a drum with the
required width. As an example, a 3.8 m wide drum can be fitted to a large milling machine to allow the full width of
a traffic lane to be recycled in a single pass.
The treated material is discharged from the pugmill mixer onto the road as a windrow and spread by auger, mounted
on the machine. A variable width paving screed is attached to the rear of the machine for placing the recycled
material true to the required profile. This screed is equipped with both tampers and vibration for pre-compaction.
However, since the machine has limited capacity for material retention, existing road surfaces that are badly out of
shape need to be pre-milled to the required cross-fall and surface elevations before recycling.
Recycling machines with on-board mixing units are not commonly used in South Africa.
2.7.2.2 Cutter
The cutter (Figure 44) is the most important part of the recycler. It does the hard work of recovering and breaking
down the material encountered in the recycling horizon. It also throws the material around inside the mixing
chamber to achieve a homogeneous mix. The cutter fitted to a tyre mounted recycler is different to that of a milling
drum on track-mounted machines. The main differences are:
Peripheral speed of the point attack tools. The basic drum diameter on a recycler is larger than that on a
milling machine. In addition, the individual tools on a recycler are fixed on stanchions that are attached to the
drum, thereby increasing the effective diameter of the cutter to almost twice that of a milling machine, where the
tools are fixed directly onto the drum. The peripheral speed of the tools is, therefore, far higher on a recycler
than a milling machine, resulting in better pulverisation of the material. This results in a finer grading, especially
where layers of bound material are recycled.
Elevating the tools on stanchions provides additional space for mixing the recycled material, especially when
the depth of cut increases.
The chevron mounting pattern for the tools on a recycler allows all the energy to concentrate on cutting and
mixing the material. The material is not moved sideways (windrowing) as it does with a milling machine where
the tools are mounted in a helical pattern.
The cutter must be monitored for wear, and must be capable of rotating consistently at the required speed
throughout the layer being processed.
The mixing chamber on tyre mounted recyclers is fitted with front and rear doors that open outwards (hinged at the
top) by hydraulic cylinders. The front door is kept closed whilst recycling and a “breaker bar” fitted along the base of
the door limits the space between the cutter and the breaker bar. This assists in breaking down oversized lumps of
material. A strike-off plate is fitted to the bottom of the rear door and the pressure applied by the hydraulic cylinders
dictates how long the material is retained in the mixing chamber. This has a significant effect of the quality of mix,
especially where the depth of cut is less than 150 mm. The schematic in Figure 42 illustrates the workings of the
mixing chamber.
The width of application for each spray bar must be independently adjustable. The system must allow individual
nozzles to be selectively closed off, thereby achieving application of the additive only over the required portion of the
cut width. This is important for ensuring that overlaps between adjacent cuts receive the correct treatment. In
addition, having the spray bars operating independently of each other allows different treatments to be applied
across the cut width, for example, water across the full cut width and bitumen emulsion across only half the width of
cut. However, remember that the application rate through a spray bar is constant over the width of treatment,
regardless of the selected width, i.e., each nozzle delivers the same flow rate.
The application rate through the spray bars must be micro-processor controlled with each feed line fitted with a flow
meter, for the system to be able to accurately regulate pump speed relative to the volume of material in the mixing
chamber. A pick-up, normally fitted to the left front tyre or track, constantly feeds the micro-processor with
information on the speed that the machine is advancing. The computer then: calculates the flow rate required for
each pump, using data that is entered into the computer before starting to recycle; checks the metered flow rate;
and, adjusts the pump speed accordingly. The data input includes the average density of the recycled material,
application rates for each spray bar, the width of application and the cut depth. On some recyclers, the width of
application and cut depth are automatically sensed from the machine settings.
Spray bars are supposed to “spray” into the mixing chamber to assist in the dispersion of the additive. This means
that the fluid entering the nozzle must be under sufficient pressure to be able to spray when forced through the
nozzle orifice. Low application rates, coupled with slow advance speeds, result in a poor mix, since the lower the
flow rate, the lower the pressure in the spray bar. When this situation is encountered, it may be necessary to fit
nozzles with smaller openings. To overcome this problem, some manufacturers equip their machines with an
electronic function that prevents the pumping system from operating below a minimum advance speed when the
machine is set to operate in “automatic” mode. Operators and supervisors need to understand these finer details,
since they can affect the uniformity of treatment across lateral joints, particularly at the start and end of cuts where
the advance speed of the machine is necessarily slow.
Equipping the individual spray bar nozzles with a “self-cleansing” function is always recommended. Most
manufacturers use needle and seat valves to operate the nozzles; the self-cleansing function quickly closes and
opens each valve on a regular cycle (usually once a minute), thereby forcibly removing any obstruction lodged on the
seat of the valve. This feature is most important for foamed bitumen spray bars, particularly where the bitumen is
flue-heated in the supply tanker and where small burnt bitumen particles invariably manage to pass through the
openings in the bitumen filter, especially when drawing the last remaining ton from the tanker.
Most paving machines can place a layer of asphalt less than 25 millimetres to approximately 250 millimetres in
thickness over a width between 2 and 7 meters. The wider the paving width, the more difficult it is to have sufficient
manufacture, transport and loading equipment to feed the paver with asphalt. Working speeds of paving machines
range from 3 to 20 meters per minute.
In some cases, asphalt pavers are also used to lay layers stabilized with cementitious and bituminous binders.
Pavers either have tracks or tyres, each with different advantages and disadvantages.
Pavers are equipped with levelling systems ranging from simple skid systems, which use the longitudinal profile of
the existing pavement to maintain line and level, to complex string line, sonic and laser systems.
Newer spray pavers have recently come onto the market which spray a tack coat immediately in front of the placed
material. This facilitates laying Ultra-Thin Friction Courses (UTFC).
The main components of an asphalt paving machine are the hopper, augers and screed.
(i) Hopper
The hopper, illustrated in Figure 49, is located in front of the tractor unit and receives the hot asphalt from the
hauling trucks. A conveyer system is used to move the material from the hopper through the tractor unit to the
augers in front of the screed. The volume of material required to match the width, depth and speed of placement is
precisely controlled, either by flow gates mounted at the rear of the hopper, or, by varying the speed of the conveyer
system. The flow gates are adjustable metal plates that change the size of the opening at the hopper discharge, and
are used to control the amount of material flowing out of the hopper.
When flow gates are not used, the auger and the conveyer are separated and controlled independently, to transfer
the correct volume of material. Split systems use an additional material sensor to control the volume of material
carried by the conveyer into the auger area.
The hopper is equipped with wings on either side to move material from the side to the centre of the hopper and
onto the conveyer.
(ii) Augers
The augers, Figure 48, distribute the material from the conveyers, moving it transversely and uniformly across the
full width of the screed. Material sensors, at the outer ends of the screed, control the volume of material in front of
the screed by speeding up, slowing down or stopping the rotation of the augers. The augers on the right and on the
left are independent of each other and are controlled by separate material-control sensors.
The augers, which are adjusted vertically, should always be 38 to 50 millimetres above the layer thickness being
placed. When paving is done with a screed wider than the basic screed, auger extensions and material confining
plates known as tunnel extensions should be added, to uniformly carry the material to the full width of the screed.
Auger tunnel extensions (slide-out or bolt-on) are located in front of the augers when running at extended widths (4
meters or more). Ideally, the auger tunnel extensions should be 0.3 to 0.5 meters from the edger plate of the
screed, to minimize the chances of material segregating.
(iii) Screed
The screed, shown in Figure 50, is located behind the tractor unit and is the most important component of the
asphalt paver. It is, essentially, a wide flat piece of heated steel that knocks down and smoothes out the mass of
material placed in front of it by the augers. In doing so, it places the material to the proper grade, cross slope and
texture, and provides initial compaction of the material.
The screed width can be extended beyond the width of the main screed to facilitate paving widths wider than the
basic machine width. The asphalt placed by the extension has the same characteristics in terms of texture,
smoothness, and pre-compaction as the material placed by the main screed. The extensions can be angled
differently to the main screed, allowing adjacent lanes and shoulders to be paved at a different cross-slope. In some
pavers, the screed can be extended hydraulically, providing for paving of variable widths.
Free-floating screeds are a standard feature of asphalt paving machines. The basic principle of a free-floating screed
is that, when it is pulled into the material deposited in front of it by the augers, it automatically rides up or down
seeking the level where the path of the flat screed plate is parallel to the direction of pull. At this point, the forces
which act upon the screed are in balance, and the screed lays a uniform mat thickness until one or more of the
forces change.
Screed
Paver screeds have tamper bars at the leading edge of the screed that serve a dual purpose. Firstly, they strike off
the material as it passes under the screed, and, secondly, give a greater initial density than a vibratory screed.
Vibrators on the asphalt screed provide some initial density. The compactive force, which is generated by offset
weights as they spin at high speeds around a central shaft, is applied to the material as it passes under the screed.
The vibrators should not be used when paving a thin lift because the aggregates may be crushed.
At the start of a paving shift, the screed is much colder than the material. To keep the asphalt material from sticking
to the colder metal of the screed, it must be preheated. Diesel, gas or electrical heating systems are used to preheat
the screed before each day's paving. Diesel burners are simple and easy to use, but they require proper operational
procedures so that excess fumes are not produced when air and fuel in the burner chamber are out of balance.
Electrical heating systems have heating elements immediately above the screed plate, surrounded by special heat
transfer oil, that help heat the screed uniformly without hotspots. This system minimizes fumes and provides an
even heat across the entire screed plate. Electrical heating systems operate in a couple of different modes. In one,
the screed is heated to operational temperature and the heating system shuts off. Alternatively, the screed is heated
to the desired temperature and cycles on and off to maintain this temperature throughout the paving operation.
Particular equipment adjustments required to obtain satisfactory results are discussed below.
2.8.2.5 General
The following important points must be kept in mind during paving of an asphalt layer.
Watch that material is not allowed to flow out or under the edge plates. This excess material can prevent the
making of a good joint, and should be pushed back to the hot side of the joint. Excess material should not be
cast across the mat.
Use proper rolling procedures for compaction.
Fixed form paving generally involves several individual pieces of equipment. Basic mechanized paving plant normally
consists of a spreader, a vibratory compactor and beam finisher, supplemented by poker vibrators. Other equipment
is used for wet forming of joints, mechanical placing of tie bars and dowels, and surface texturing and curing.
The slipform paver compacts concrete over the full paving width by means of internal vibration, or a combination of
internal and surface vibration. The forward rate of progress of the paver should not exceed that at which the
concrete can be fully compacted. As the travelling side forms provide edge support only during the concreting
operation, automated level and steering control is necessary.
Brushes should have stiff bristles, spaced to produce an acceptable texture. Brushes must be replaced when the
shortest tufts wear down to 90 mm. Stiff plastic brooms may also be used.
A Burlap drag may also be used to produce a uniform texture with corrugations about 1.5 mm in depth. Photos of
automated and manual burlap drag operations are shown in Figure 59. The drag should be such that at least 1
metre of the fabric is in contact with the pavement surface. The drag should consist of sufficient layers to provide the
weight required to produce the desired texture depth. Four layers of 340 g/m2 burlap have produced satisfactory
texture depths. Higher-mass burlaps have closer weaves and produce less texture depth. Texture depth may be
increased by removal of the transverse threads from the trailing 150 to 300 mm of the drag. Satisfactory results
have also been achieved by threading nails through the trailing edges of the burlaps.
Trailing Floats
The wheels and runners of the spreader must be checked to ensure they are free running. The mechanism for
opening the bottom gate of the hopper must be checked to ensure it is in good working order. When concrete is
being spread, the machine must be capable of spreading it evenly between the shutters, so that no low spots occur.
Where concrete paving machines are used, auger wear must be checked to ensure compliance with the
manufacturer’s specification. All moving parts must be checked for wear and alignment.
The final finish is normally provided by a burlap drag, which must be replaced as soon as any wear becomes
apparent.
To ensure the correct degree of stiffness of individual tufts and bristles, brushes must be replaced when the shortest
tufts wear down to 90 mm.
Burlap drags must be replaced when the trailing edges show signs of wear, and inadequate texture depth is
achieved.
A pneumatic roller shows up variations and weaknesses in the material layer. The rubber tyred wheel does not form
a bridge from one large aggregate particle to another, but rather compacts the weaker materials, which may occur
between the larger aggregate particles.
In practice, it is not cost-effective to apply more than between 2 and 4 roller passes with a vibratory roller and
between 8 and 12 passes with other rollers. Further passes normally result in very little increase in density, and if
additional density is required, a heavier or alternative type of roller will normally have to be used.
General guidelines for the selection of the most appropriate compaction equipment are provided in Table 8, and are
discussed below, as are guidelines for the compaction in different construction processes.
Guidelines for the compaction in different construction processes are summarized below.
If sandy gravels are used to construct the layer, a combination of rollers can be used for compaction, with the
exception of kneading rollers. Vibratory rollers with high frequencies and small amplitudes, grid rollers, pneumatic
rollers and flat wheel rollers are all normally used.
If clayey gravel is used to construct the layer, care should be taken not over compact the upper part of the layer,
before the bottom has been adequately compacted. This is known as “closing” the layer. The initial use of kneading
rollers is preferable, as well as grid rollers if the material is stony. In the final stages of compaction, a pneumatic
roller can be used, followed by a flat wheel roller.
(vi) Asphalt
The most commonly used rollers for compaction of asphalt layers are the following:
Three-wheel steel drum type. These compactors are well-known and commonly used. The roller compacts
from the top down, based on compression of the particles to squeeze and force them into a tight configuration.
Good lubrication is needed for this action, and the rollers are thus most effective when the material to be
compacted is hot. These rollers are, therefore, used as breakdown rollers.
Vibratory tandem rollers. This roller can be used on any asphalt layer, provided the appropriate amplitude,
frequency and speed are selected. The rollers densify by delivering a rapid succession of impacts on the surface
resulting in pressure waves that reduce the internal friction in the material to re-arrange the aggregate into a
denser configuration.
Pneumatic tyred rollers. These rollers are usually used in combination with steel drum rollers. They are more
capable of increasing density at lower temperatures than steel drum rollers. The wheel loadings are usually the
same on all wheels and the back tyres are offset from the front tyres to ensure coverage of the mat in one pass.
The roller tyres densify the asphalt layer by kneading. This results in the particles moving around each other to
fill up the voids. These rollers also prevent lateral movement during rolling, and provide a more uniform degree
of compaction by compacting areas bridged by steel drum rollers. Pneumatic tyred rollers also close and seal the
surface of the compacted asphalt layer.
Grid rollers need to be checked to confirm that the knuckles formed by the grid stand well proud of the rest of the
grid, and are not worn and flat.
Steel wheel rollers are extensively used for compaction of asphalt layers. A thin spray of soapy water is sprayed
continuously on the drum to prevent pick-up of the hot asphalt. The spray bar should be checked before the start of
the compaction operation, to ensure that excessive spray does not occur, and runoff is avoided.
The mass of these rollers can be controlled by filling them up with either sand or water. It is essential that the mass
of the roller is recorded at the start of the compaction operation.
Soft clays under embankments also create problems due to settlement over time. The rate of settlement depends
on:
Mass of the embankment
Stiffness of the clay
Length of the paths along which moisture has to be expelled during consolidation
Permeability of the clay
In certain cases, if the side slopes are too steep, the in situ soils may be so soft that shear failures may occur
underneath high embankments. In these situations, geotechnical investigations and stability calculations are used to
determine safer slopes, which are generally in the range of 1:2, or 1:3 in severe cases.
Potential problem areas can normally be identified fairly easily. An initial estimate of the potential swell can be made
using the Van der Merwe method (1964). Quantitative predictions of the amount of swell require sophisticated
testing, such as consolidation tests.
There are a number of preventative measures applied to reduce or retard the occurrence of deformation and
cracking due to active clays, which are described briefly below.
Remove active clays and replace with inactive materials. Such measures are only economical where the
thickness of the active clay is limited, or where the replacement material is readily available. The material used
to replace the clay should preferably be impermeable so that it does not form a collection point for moisture
underneath the road. Clay, which has been removed, can be used to seal the sides of embankments, to prevent
moisture ingress.
Remove plant growth within the confines of the roadbed, plus at least 5 metres on either side, at an early
stage of construction. The plant growth should preferably be removed using a weed killer. This should be done
at least one summer or wet season prior to construction to allow the underlying moisture content to stabilize to a
condition likely to prevail once the pavement has been built.
Irrigating clay. In the case of wide roads such as freeways, consideration can be given to irrigating the clay.
Clay is relatively impermeable, and irrigation may have to continue over several months. Moisture ingress into
the clay layer only progresses to a depth of approximately 1 metre, unless sand drains are provided for deeper
percolation.
Capillary action and evaporation can be retarded by using a 100 to 300 mm thick layer of sandy material on top
of the layer. When construction commences, the sides of the sandy material must also be sealed to stop
moisture movements in a horizontal direction.
Lime stabilization reduces the activity of the clay. This can be considered for the upper part of the clay if it is
economically justified. The lime should be mixed throughout the clay several times, with intermediate rest
periods, so that the calcium ions within the lime can react with the clay. The lime stabilized layer will act as a
fairly effective working platform, particularly in wet weather.
Grade culverts and surface drains to avoid water ponding. The culverts must be waterproof and long
enough to extend beyond the toe of the embankment. Impermeable material should be used for backfilling.
Keep the surface of shoulders impermeable. Moisture changes in clay and the resulting cracks in the
pavement layer are reduced when the shoulders of the riding surface are sealed to be impermeable. Where the
shoulders are not sealed, consideration can be given to widening the formation by 3 to 4 metres on either side.
High embankments do not need to be widened over their total height and only the lower 1 to 2 metres can be
widened to reduce horizontal moisture movements.
Dump rock can also be considered as pioneer layer of roughly 300 to 400 mm thick. Such materials are,
however, normally fairly scarce in active clay areas.
Blue gum (Saligna) or Karee (Rhus Lancea) trees should not be planted within 20 metres of the shoulder
breakpoint, as these trees have deep roots that aggravate moisture changes.
Rigid cemented (high stabilizer content) pavement layers tend to have wider cracks than unstabilized layers, because
the horizontal movements are concentrated at the shrinkage cracks. However, stabilization of the poor materials that
normally occurs in these areas is generally required for strength.
The moisture content of a material normally increases when a road surface is placed over it and this, together with
the dead weight of the pavement structure and the vehicle loadings, results in severe deformation.
To avoid this problem, the material should be treated with an impact roller prior to construction of the pavement.
However, the strength of the material builds up very rapidly when it is compacted and it often bridges the lower
collapsing material to reduce the effect of the impact roller at depth. Hence, impact rolling may require several
passes to be effective, and may need to be preceded by irrigation and wetting to weaken the cementitious bonds
between the particles. The effective depth of the treatment of the impact roller can be checked fairly easily using a
DCP (see Chapter 6: 7.4.5).
The in situ soils in dolomitic areas may be extremely variable over very short distances. The extent of the variability
is normally very difficult to assess. Detailed drilling surveys, coupled with gravity surveys, may be required to
identify the dolomite pinnacles and valleys filled with extremely compressible wad. An impact roller, or dynamic
compaction in extreme cases, may be used to compact the material to an appropriate depth, before placement of the
pavement structure.
In all dolomitic areas, extreme care should be taken to ensure that all run-off water is led away from the roadbed
area and that no concentration of runoff, damming or moisture ingress into the subgrade occurs. Any water which
ingresses into the subgrade may lead to the occurrence of sink holes and severe deformation.
formation of erosion gulleys and piping in these soils, particularly at joints, cracks and other areas where water flow
is concentrated. An example of an erosion gulley is shown in Figure 67. Dispersive soils are discussed in
Chapter 6: 6.7.
There are few easy solutions to this problem. Most remedial or preventative measures centre around the
construction of drainage berms and channels, or topsoiling and vegetating the material. Treatment with gypsum
may be effective.
3.2 Fills
The construction of high fills or embankments is relatively costly and hence these should be constructed with care, to
avoid failures occurring. Such failures are normally of significant extent and can be catastrophic. Therefore, it is
essential that high embankments be designed and constructed properly. Embankments/fills are discussed in
Chapter 7: 4.
Any fill higher than 10 metres, measured vertically from the toe of the embankment to the edge of the riding surface,
is regarded as a high fill. Lower fills also require similar care and preparation, but the scale of this work is less than
for high embankments.
The design of high fills is a specialised field. This section only provides broad guidelines regarding the construction
of fills of earth and rock.
The following construction control measures should be exercised during the construction of fills.
All organic material must be removed, prior to construction of the embankment.
Fill materials should be placed systematically, in uniform layers with thicknesses not greater than 300 mm,
and to the correct width and side slope. The compacted layer thickness is dependent on the maximum particle
size of the material, but does not generally exceed 300 mm.
For cohesionless sands, layers of up to 400 mm thick can be compacted, provided the necessary testing is
carried out to ensure that the correct densities are achieved.
Care is required to avoid loose uncompacted edges due to either blading off of surplus material or the
addition of material, as a result of insufficient width.
The layers should be placed with a suitable camber or crossfall for water to drain freely from the surface, to
avoid saturation of the fill material.
The quality of the material should comply with the specifications throughout the fill construction. However,
since tests generally only represent a minute portion of the fill, competent judgement must be exercised to
ensure that the areas tested are, as far as possible, representative of the entire fill. This requires continuous
visual inspection, to ensure that proper procedures and control requirements are adhered.
Where material variations occur, the correct reference density should be used. In most cases embankments
are placed fairly quickly, and attention needs to be paid to density testing.
Rock fills are normally constructed from rock, with fine materials placed between the rock particles. These are
normally constructed by end tipping. Because no density testing can be carried out to determine conformance with a
specification, the construction method should be carefully controlled to ensure a stable end-product. All construction
efforts should be aimed at ensuring that the voids are filled with finer materials. Individual boulders should not
control the layer thickness, as the presence of such boulders prevents the compaction of the rest of the layer.
Rock fills are constructed to ensure rock particle to rock particle contact is maintained, and further movement or
consolidation is prevented. Material which breaks down under compaction is, thus, not acceptable as rock fill.
Broken rock should be placed at the bottom of the embankment. Gravel placed on top of this rock material must be
forced into the voids as far as possible using vibratory rollers. In this way, further ingress of material into the voids
is prevented.
The ultimate performance of rock fill in terms of long-term settlement is an important consideration, particularly
where placed as approach embankments to structures, or where an existing roadway is widened.
The requirements for rock fill are an attempt to minimise settlement within the embankment, by providing sufficient
fine materials to fill the void space between larger rock particles. To evaluate all aspects influencing the required
characteristics of rock fill being placed for large construction projects, large-scale field density tests need to be
conducted in trial sections to establish/verify a procedural specification. The trial section offers an opportunity for a
compaction study, to assess the effectiveness of different compaction equipment and the break-down/disintegration
of the rock fill material.
All organic material in the natural soil must be removed prior to construction of fill. If this is not done properly, the
material can rot, resulting in a weak plane in the embankment. This can lead to severe failure, particularly if the
embankment is constructed on a fairly steep side slope.
The roadbed should be assessed for potential instability, such as signs of seepage or springs, hammocking ground or
tension cracks, which indicate previous movements and discontinuities in the local geology.
The in situ soils should all be compacted to at least 90% of maximum dry density (MDD). If this is not achievable,
then the in situ material must either be stabilized or removed and replaced with better quality material.
With side embankments, the bottom of the embankment should be constructed in benches, which are cut into the
natural side slope, to ensure proper compaction and to avoid sliding of the embankment on the underlying soil. The
benches must have a crossfall of 1:50 to ensure surface drainage during construction and sub-surface drainage after
construction, if the subgrade is more impermeable than the fill. Blanket filter drains coupled to a series of collector
drains must be laid in all areas where water seepage into the fill occurs, or is likely to occur. Cut-off drains can also
be installed in certain instances.
Cut off drains may be required along the upper edge of the embankment. If the entire embankment is placed on a
clay layer which can deform, then an additional cut off drain may be required at the toe of the embankment.
The result of the sieve analyses is plotted in a graph which represents the grading curve for these materials.
Gradings and grading curves are also discussed in Chapter 3: 2.3. The shape of the grading curve indicates the
material to be:
Continuously or densely graded. These soils have a
reasonably even distribution of particle sizes throughout the
soil mass.
Uniformly or open graded. The particle sizes in these soils Soils and Gravels
are mainly single sized. Various aspects of soils and gravels are
discussed in:
Gap-graded. These soils lack particles within a certain size
range, usually the middle range of sizes. Chapter 3: Testing, Section 2
Chapter 4: Standards, Section 2
Each of the above materials has different compaction
Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement
characteristics. Usually, the more continuously or densely graded
Investigation, Section 5 and 6
a material, the easier it is to compact because the voids between
the larger size particles are filled with successively smaller sized Chapter 8, Material Sources, Section 2
particles. In contrast, materials which are very fine, or which and 3
consist mainly of single sized particles (uniformly graded), with Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and
less than 10% fines (< 0.075 mm), are usually difficult to Design, Section 4
compact because the layer tends to remain unstable during Chapter 10: Pavement Design,
compaction. Gap-graded soils are also difficult to compact to a Sections 5 to 9
very dense matrix with low voids.
Chapter 13: Quality Management,
3.3.1.2 Particle Shape Section 3
Flaky, angular or elongated particles are normally more difficult to compact than cubic or round particles. This is
because badly shaped particles resist the compactive effort, which results in a higher void content in the compacted
material.
A test to determine the maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content of soil or gravel was developed
by Proctor. This test involves compacting soil in moulds using a standard compactive effort and varying moisture
contents, to determine that moisture content (OMC), at which the maximum density is achieved. This is done by
plotting the moisture content versus density curve, shown in Figure 72.
As compaction equipment became more efficient, the Proctor compactive effort was inadequate to simulate the
compaction achieved in the field. Therefore, compactive effort used in testing was increased to that required by the
newer Modified AASHTO density test. These compaction tests are discussed in Chapter 3: 2.6.
In all testing for road works, the density of natural gravels is expressed as a percentage of the maximum dry density
(MDD) achieved with Modified AASHTO compactive effort at the optimum moisture content. In this way, the density
actually achieved in the field can be compared to a repeatable and reproducible laboratory value. It should be noted
that density is not necessarily an indication of strength, as a high density on a weak material does not necessarily
result in a high shear strength or stiffness. In practice, shear strength tests are carried out at more than one density
so that the strength-density relationship of the material is determined.
The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density (MDD) values are used as follows:
To ensure that the material in the field is compacted at the correct moisture content.
The MDD is used as a measure to determine the relative density of materials in the field, to be able to judge
whether the field density is satisfactory.
To provide a reference density at which to compare the shear strength of various materials and various other
material characteristics, such as its resistance to erosion.
The density of the material in the compacted layer is determined using one of two methods, the sand replacement
method or with the nuclear density apparatus. The nuclear density gauge is discussed in Chapter 3: 2.7.1. The
resulting value is then compared to a reference density and expressed as a percentage, and is known as the relative
density. The procedures followed in the field differ depending on the material.
The achievement of the specified density in a cost-effective manner during construction requires careful control of
the moisture content, number of roller passes applied and type of roller used. A maximum density is achieved at a
particular moisture content when a particular compactive effort is applied. If additional density is required, a higher
compactive effort has to be applied, or the moisture content changed.
When experience with the material has been obtained, it may be possible to assess the OMC by compressing a
handful of soil. The OMC is generally near the point where a compressed handful of material just does not fall apart.
At this point, the layer normally requires a further single application of water, mixed with a disk plough, to bring it to
OMC.
Should the material show wet areas, it should be cut out with the grader and spread uniformly over the rest of the
layer, after which the material should again be mixed with the disk plough. Care should be taken to ensure that the
moisture is distributed throughout the entire depth of the layer and that a thin dry layer does not occur at the
bottom. If necessary, the entire layer may have to be cut to the sides, or the middle of the road, with a grader, to
ensure uniform and careful mixing of all of the moisture.
The mixing of water can be facilitated by moistening the layer thoroughly in the afternoon prior to compaction on the
following day. Evaporation of water during mixing can be reduced by carrying out this process early in the morning.
The length and width of the layer to be processed must not exceed the capacity of the water tanker or mixing or
compaction equipment.
When applying water, it is important the tanker does not stand on the layer at the beginning and end of the section.
If water drips from the tanker, this results in wet areas in the layer.
The plasticity or clayeyness of a material also influences compaction. Clay is relatively impermeable and the particles
are packed into a dense matrix. It is, therefore, difficult to ensure an even distribution of moisture throughout the
material.
significantly. The efficiency of static compaction reduces rapidly with depth, whereas impact pressure is very
effective for deep densification. Vibration pressure is very effective in overcoming friction between particles as it
cause the particles in a soil to move correspondingly in a rotary motion or up and down, and forces the moving
particles into a greater degree of interlock. Guidelines on the selection of these rollers are discussed in
Section 2.10.2.
Quality control during the construction of a stabilized layer is thus of utmost importance to ensure adequate
performance.
type for road stabilization may, therefore, not be available. It is very important to go through a proper stabilization
design process to ensure that the correct cement type, in conjunction with the specific material, is used.
3.4.2.1 Preparation
The material to be stabilized should be prepared as per the specification, shaped and lightly compacted. It is
advisable that the moisture content of the material be corrected to the field compaction moisture content the
previous day, so that it can soak overnight to aid mixing of the material and the stabilizer.
3.4.2.2 Spreading
The cementitious agent can either be spread by hand from bags or by bulk
using mechanical spreaders. Spreading by hand from bags has increased
during recent years, especially due to the enhancement of the labour content Spreading Cement
on a project, as well as the short length of stabilized sections during
Labourers spreading the
rehabilitation contracts. Spreading with mechanical spreaders and tankers is
cementitious agent must wear
discussed in Section 2.5.
the necessary protective
clothing.
If spreading by hand from bags, the following should apply:
The bags should be neatly laid out in 3 or 4 rows, evenly spaced over
the width of the road. The number of rows must be chosen that the spacing between rows is approximately the
same as the spacing between bags in every row, as shown in Figure 73. The calculation of the bag spacing
done using Equation (1).
(1)
where L = Length between bags when such bags are placed in a single row, in metres
M = Mass of the bags, in kg (1 bag cement typically = 50 kg)
T = Thickness of the compacted layer, in millimetres
W = Width of the road to be stabilized, in metres
P = Percentage stabilizing agent required, by mass of stabilizer to mass of raw soil
D = Density of the soil after compaction, in kg/m³. This is not the modified density of the soil,
but the required density that must be obtained after compaction. Supposing the soil’s
modified density is 2167 kg/m³ and the soil must be compacted to 96%, then
D = 2167 x 96/100 = 2080 kg/m³.
When the bags are laid out in more than one row, the distance between the bags can be obtained by
multiplying the distance for a single row (L) by the number of rows.
After the positions for the bags have been marked on the prepared surface of the layer, the bags can be laid out
on these marks. The bags should be opened using a spade, and the stabilizer should be spread evenly over
the surface. After the stabilizer has been spread with shovels, it is advisable to further spread the material more
evenly using hand brooms or squeegees, as illustrated in Figure 73. A grader blade should not be used to spread
the stabilizer, unless the surface is very even.
Where two stabilizers are specified, special attention must be given to ensure that each one is spread evenly.
Labourers spreading the cementitious agent must wear the necessary protective clothing.
An example of how not to spread cement prior to stabilization is given in Figure 74. In this situation the
cement will be unevenly distributed across the layer.
3.4.2.3 Mixing
There are various methods used to mix the cementitious agent and water into the material. The methods most
commonly used are with conventional equipment, such as graders and disc-harrows, or in situ recycling equipment.
The method followed depends, to a great extent, on the type of material and the availability of plant. The use of in
situ recyclers for mixing in the cementitious agent and water has increased significantly over recent years.
Guidelines for using in situ recyclers are provided in Section 2.7.
3.4.2.4 Compaction
Stabilized materials should be compacted at a moisture content below 80% of saturation, to reduce cracking in the
stabilized layers. Some materials are more difficult to compact after the addition of stabilizer than before, while
others become more readily compactable. This behaviour is directly attributed to the change in the grading of the
material, caused by the addition of the fine stabilizer. If the material is fine graded, the compaction techniques
should be adapted to ensure that laminations (thin layers) are not built into the stabilized layer. For each type of
material, the most effective and economical compaction procedure should be established. As the majority of
materials tend to become non-plastic with stabilization, they should be compacted with care to prevent the formation
of shear planes under the roller. Shear planes are built-in weak spots, which may give problems at a later stage. It
is normally preferable to use 10 passes with a light roller, than one pass with a heavy roller, which may overstress
the material.
Cementation starts immediately as the soil and cement come into contact with the compaction water. Therefore, the
mixing and compaction process should be completed as soon as possible, to maximise the benefits of stabilization.
Cognisance should be taken of the fact that the strength gain of the stabilized material is dependent on the type of
cement used. A very fine ground cement, such as CEM 1 42.5, has a fast strength gain. This affects the time
available to mix, compact and shape the layer. The time generally allowed from the when the stabilizer and water is
added to the material to the completion of the layer is 6 hours for cement and 12 hours for lime.
3.4.2.5 Reworking
When a stabilized layer cannot be satisfactorily compacted within the prescribed time, both the dry density and the
final strength are reduced, and the layer is not likely to conform to the specification. In this case, the layer must be
ripped, re-stabilized and reconstructed. When reworking, not more than half the stabilizer application must be added
because, although most of the exchange and flocculation reactions have already taken place, some residual (and still
active) stabilizer is left. Reworking should not be permitted more than seven days after the initial construction.
Reworking should not be allowed more than once. When reworking material with additional stabilizer, the maximum
dry density (MDD) should be re-determined.
3.4.2.6 Curing
This is the most important aspect of stabilization. The
requirements should be strictly adhered to. The most important
requirement is that the completed layer should never be allowed to Curing
dry out. This is because keeping the layer damp:
Curing is the most important aspect of
Inhibits carbonation of the stabilizer. stabilization. The layer must never be
Provides enough moisture at the surface of the layer for allowed to dry out to:
cementation to take place. Inhibit carbonation
Prevents the temperature of the surface increasing compared Allow cementation
to the rest of the layer, which may induce thermal stresses and
potentially inducing cracking.
Prevent thermal stresses developing
The layer should be kept damp for at least
If a course graded material such as a crushed stone is stabilized, 7 days after stabilization and compaction
slushing of the layer to obtain the required density is not allowed. have been completed.
The layer should be kept damp for at least 7 days after stabilization and compaction are complete. However,
especially for lime stabilization, the curing period should be longer. This could be achieved by, after the 7 day curing
period has elapsed and the layer is strong enough for traffic, dumping and spreading the next layer on the lime
stabilized layer.
To prevent damage to the layer during the curing period, a very light water cart or a ‘side spray bar’ should be used
to water the layer.
Curing membranes should be applied as soon as possible after completion of the layer, but not later than 48 hours.
The layer being kept continually moist before the membrane is placed.
A disadvantage of this method is that the black mat causes heating of the layer, accelerating the hydration process,
and also inducing thermal stresses, which could lead to cracking. The high temperatures in the upper part of the
layer also reduce the ultimate strength of the material. In addition, the thick impermeable layer of bituminous
membrane on the base layer can create a problem when the final surfacing is applied.
This is the preferred method where appropriate, due to the moisture retention capacity of the material and its cost
effectiveness. It is also suitable for the longer curing periods required for lime and, in some cases, lime/slag
stabilization.
Over and above curing in order to facilitate the cementation process, protection of the completed layer is also vital
when stabilising during expected cold (sub-zero) night temperatures to prevent freeze/thaw damage, particularly on
cemented treated bases. Current experience indicates that even by applying a covering layer of only 75 mm of
gravel soon after completion of compaction, facilitates the retention of the heat generated during the hydration
process. This maintains the cemented layer at a temperature in the order of 5 to 7 °C above the ambient
temperature, thus reducing the risk of any potential freeze/thaw damage.
Unnecessary delays in the placing of the next layer on a stabilized layer must be avoided. Stabilized base
courses must be sealed as soon as possible after construction.
The stabilizer must be as fresh as possible, and must not be stored for long periods before use.
Where difficulties in achieving a well-compacted and cured layer are envisaged, the thickness of the layer
should be increased to allow skimming of the upper layer prior to sealing. Success of this depends, to a large
degree, on the grading of the material in the layer.
Emulsion and penetration grade bitumen, when used as a prime coat, are more effective in limiting carbonation than
the conventional cut-back bitumen.
BSM layers are used instead of crushed stone bases. These materials involve mixtures of emulsion or foamed
bitumen and crushed stone or good quality natural gravels, with net bitumen contents ranging from 0.5% to 3%.
Approximately 1% cement is also normally added into the material to facilitate complete "breaking" of emulsion and
to aid distribution of the bitumen, and for early strength. The cement and bitumen binder together facilitate the
construction of a dense, strong, fairly impermeable layer. The additional cost of the bitumen and cement is
considerable, and hence BSMs are almost exclusively used when reworking
existing base courses, in very wet areas, or where traffic must be
accommodated by the layer prior to surfacing. Traffic accommodation on
the completed layer is only possible if the surface is enriched with a 50:50 Primes on BSM Layers
diluted emulsion, and the layer is kept dry. In wet weather, problems can Primes should not be used on
be experienced if traffic is accommodated on this layer without a surfacing. BSM layers.
Primes should not be used on BSM layers.
Modification would normally be done on crushed stone or natural base material, to reduce a PI which is slightly
outside the standard specification to within the required limits, or on a clayey subgrade to improve workability.
There is a strong likelihood that some of this PI could return after some time and it is important that the natural
strength of the material meets the required specification.
The cold recycling process is described in detail in the Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology Manual (2010).
In-plant processing is generally the more expensive option, in terms of cost per cubic metre of material processed,
primarily due to haulage and handling costs not applicable to the in-place recycling process.
The main benefits that accrue from in-plant mixing compared to in-place mixing include:
Control of input materials. In-place recycling allows little control on the material recovered from an existing
pavement, whereas a required end-product can be obtained by blending different aggregates using in-plant
mixing. Input materials can be stockpiled and tested prior to mixing, and input proportions changed as required.
Quality of mixing. Various changes can be made to the mixing operation of the pugmill to vary the time the
material is retained within the mixing chamber, thereby changing the quality of the mix.
Stockpiling capabilities. Particularly with foamed bitumen treated materials, the mixed product can be placed
in stockpile and used when required, thereby removing the inter-dependency of the mixing and placing
processes.
Placement. The materials can be placed using a simple motor grader or asphalt paver.
However, in-place recycling is becoming very popular due to the advent of large powerful recycling machines
(described in Section 2.7), which have the capacity to recycle thick pavement layers up to 500 mm in a single pass.
However, the most common recycling depths are 200 to 300 mm.
longitudinal joints running parallel to the centre line of the road, and lateral joints that run at right-angles to the
centre line. All joints are essentially discontinuities in the pavement and, unless they are properly treated, have the
potential to negatively affect the structural integrity of the recycled layer. Longitudinal and lateral joints are very
different. Longitudinal joints are "designed" to fit the road geometrics, while lateral joints are produced every time
the recycling operation stops.
The recycling process is relatively simple, as most of the process is taken care of by the recycler and its related
control equipment. However, the equipment and related checks must be carefully controlled to provide a satisfactory
result. The various operational control measures are summarised as follows:
(i) Planning
The day’s activities must be planned to conceptualise the cut plan, detailing overlaps between the various cuts and
the consequential requirements for configuring nozzle closures on each spray bar.
(iii) Start Up
This includes pre-start checks on all plant and equipment, especially the pumping systems and spray bars on the
recycler. Also included in these checks are the critical temperatures, e.g., in the material to be recycled and the
bitumen products in supply tankers. Thereafter, the start-up procedures must be strictly followed.
(v) Stabilizer
Any stabilizer or active filler requirement is accurately spread on the layer surface ahead of the recycler (see Section
3.4.2.2).
These checks are on-going. It is imperative that they are carried out on a regular basis to ensure that the recycled
product consistently meets the quality requirements. This demands diligence on the part of the supervising team.
Recycling is monotonous and, when everything is working properly, carrying out regular checks appears to be
unnecessary. However, thanks to the high output achieved by recycling, if something does goes wrong and the
problem is not immediately detected, remedial measures can be onerous.
(vii) Compaction
Compaction is carried out immediately behind the recycler using
the correct roller combination and rolling technique. See
Section 2.10 on rollers. Cut Plans for Longitudinal Joints
(viii) Final Levels Achieving properly overlapped joints is
important for the ultimate performance of the
Final levels must be accurately cut and the layer correctly recycled layer. The cut plan detailing each
finished off. overlap is one of the first requirements when
planning a project. Clear guidelines must be
(ix) Longitudinal Joints established for each cut, not only the first cut.
The width of the recycled cut is invariably less than the road or carriageway width. Several passes (or cuts) are,
therefore, required to completely recycle the full width, resulting in a series of longitudinal joints between adjacent
cuts. Overlaps are required along the full length of each joint to achieve continuity between the two cuts.
Therefore, only the first cut recycles virgin material over the full drum width. Thereafter, the effective width of all
subsequent cuts is reduced by the width of overlap. Careful consideration must be given to ensure that the
application rate of stabilizer and water is both uniform and continuous across all overlaps.
The number of cuts necessary to recycle the full road width, and the location of each longitudinal joint is influenced
by:
Width of road to be recycled and cross-section details. Cambered roads should preferably be treated in
half-widths to achieve a uniform depth of recycling across the crown. The first cut on the first half-width to be
recycled is normally extended across the centre line by the width of the overlap. The first cut on the second half-
width is then positioned to follow the centre line, thereby re-establishing the crown.
Type of recycling machine being used on the project. In particular, the width of the milling drum.
Width of overlap. Recyclers are large machines and require a tolerance for adhering to a steered line. The
recommended minimum overlap width is 150 mm. This may be generous when working with an experienced
team, when it may be relaxed to 100 mm, the absolute minimum. To take cognisance of the propensity of coarse
materials to segregate, the width of overlap should increase with layer thickness and coarseness.
Longitudinal joints. These should always be located away from the outer wheel path.
The cut plan detailing each overlap is one of the first requirements when planning a project. The overlap must be
subtracted from the drum width to determine the effective stabilizing width for each cut that, in turn, governs the
quantity of water and stabilizer to be added. Where there is any doubt about the uniformity of application for water
and stabilizers across the width of an overlap, an enlarged cut plan should be compiled, showing the overlap relative
to the position of the relevant spray bars.
The achievement of properly overlapped joints is important for the ultimate performance of the recycled layer, and
must receive due attention. Where problems arise, they are generally caused by the improper operation of the
recycler, resulting in unrecycled strips between adjacent cuts or double-dosing due to accidentally increasing the
width of overlap. To assist the operator in steering the recycler correctly, a clear guideline must be established for
each cut, not only the first cut. Before starting a fresh cut, the guideline must be checked to ensure that it is clearly
visible over the full length of cut. In addition, the nozzle configuration should be checked before starting to ensure
that the correct nozzles are closed, in accordance with the planned overlap. Examples of cut plans and nozzle
configurations are given in TG2 (2009).
The key to treating these joints properly is to have a clear understanding of what is happening inside the recycler’s
mixing chamber, particularly the process of adding stabilizer. Most problems encountered are the result of under or
over-application of stabilizers and/or water at the joint.
achieved by reversing the train at least the diameter of the milling drum (approximately 1.5 m) back into the
previously recycled material, thereby ensuring that all material receives treatment across the effective width of
joint. When starting, the operator should apply full power and accelerate immediately to the usual operating
speed.
Similar to paving asphalt, lateral joint problems only arise when the operation stops. The recycler should, therefore,
only be stopped when really necessary, for example, when a supply tanker is empty, or at the end of the day’s
production.
Crushed stone is often used in high quality bases, such as G1 or G2 bases. One of the primary requirements for the
successful performance of a crushed stone base layer is adequate support in the form of a well cemented subbase
layer. The cemented subbase layer is less moisture susceptible, and this facilitates slushing of the crushed stone
layer with water to achieve the required high density. The strong support provided by the cemented layer allows a
high density to be achieved, and has a confining effect on the base layer, which increases the stiffness and reduces
the probability of shear failure occurring within the crushed stone layer.
The heaps of shoulder material must be flattened and watered to optimum moisture content. Thereafter, it should
be compacted and cut to the required level. After final compaction, the inside of the shoulder must be cut at right
angles to the surface of the subbase. All excess material must be removed from the subbase surface, to prevent
contamination of the crushed stone layer.
Provision must be made for draining the crushed stone layer at low points, particularly if the shoulder material is
fairly impermeable.
If the shoulder is too narrow for normal construction equipment, then it is normally constructed wider and cut back
to the required width.
The crushed stone must be dumped between the built up shoulders and, preferably, along the centre line of the
road. It is essential that material be dumped as evenly as possible to ensure that it can spread uniformly. Where
cross overs are required for traffic, it is preferable for the traffic to drive over the spread crushed stone. Photos of
dumping and spreading crushed stone are given in Figure 75.
Segregation generally originates during the building phase of the crushed stone stockpiles. The stockpiles should be
built in layers and care should be taken not to end tip the material near the perimeter of the stockpile which results
in the courser material running down the sides of the stockpile, causing segregation. Loading material from the
stockpile should also be controlled. A front end loader should be used and loading should be done from the bottom
upwards, to ensure that the different layers of material in the stockpile are mixed before it is dumped in the trucks.
It is thus essential that segregation be controlled at the stockpile site before the material is dumped on the road.
Figure 76 shows a typical segregated stockpile showing the extent of single size coarse aggregate. Figure 77 shows
a typical non segregated stockpile.
On the day prior to the compaction of a particular section, the material which has been dumped along the centre of
the road should be spread in such a manner that a water bowser can drive on it. An example is given in Figure 75.
In view of the fact that the material is dry, segregation easily occurs, and, therefore, the material must be moved as
little as possible. The material can normally be effectively spread with a grader.
Uniform mixing of the moisture throughout the crushed stone layer requires the water to be added at least 12 hours
prior to the actual mixing. The moisture spreads throughout the crushed stone layer on its own accord, which
facilitates mixing of the material and inhibits segregation, as many of the finer particles adhere to the coarser
particles.
After the material has been spread out, it must be watered. The water bowser drives over the spread material and
waters the full width of the material. The quantity of water required varies, and care should be taken to ensure that
the optimum moisture content for this specific material is not exceeded.
(iv) Mixing
After the layer has been watered, the material is spread and mixed over the full width of the layer to be constructed.
The material is cut from one side of the road to the other, using a grader blade. The amount of material handled
within each pass should be such that the power of the grader is adequate to maintain a reasonable speed. It is
highly undesirable for the machine to move at a variable speed,
and skidding and sliding must be avoided.
During the final stage of mixing, the blade of the grader must be Watering Crushed Stone Layers
in contact with the subbase to avoid leaving a layer of fine
The optimum moisture content for the
material on the surface.
particular material and compaction method
should not be exceeded, as it will be difficult
Should the material be too dry, it should be watered and remixed.
to dry out the material.
The exposed surface of the subbase can also be watered at this
stage if it is too dry. The mixing process must continue until all
When the layer is too wet, compaction
the material is mixed uniformly over the entire width of the road.
should be postponed until the layer has
Material which has already been mixed, must be placed in its final
dried out sufficiently.
position to avoid unnecessary cutting and segregation.
It must be emphasized again that the optimum moisture content for the particular material and compaction method
should not be exceeded, as it will be difficult to dry out the material.
(v) Compaction
The layer is compacted starting with the rollers at the outside edges of the layer, and working towards the centre
line, to maintain its shape. Where vibratory rollers are used, initial rolling may have to be carried out without
vibration. The recommended number of coverages, prior to re-shaping the layer, is typically between 2 and 4
complete coverages with a vibratory roller and/or a pneumatic roller. Results from the test section aid in determining
the number of coverages. Should problems be experienced with the density or grading of the material, then it may
be necessary to construct the layer in 50 mm thick increments, using pneumatic and/or grid rollers.
The layer must be cut and shaped during the early stage of compaction. The first cut should start at the windrow
and the cut should be such that the blade is full of mixed material. After the layer has been cut back into shape,
compaction continues until the layer achieves stability and the required density.
As soon as the layer has reached a stable condition, a further cut of the windrow is made to spread finer material
from the windrow over the entire width and length of the layer. At this stage, no attempt should be made to cut the
layer to the correct shape or height, as it should already have been compacted to that position and shape.
After the final cut, the layer is finished with a vibratory roller, 10 to 12 tonne combination roller, or a flat roller,
provided that the moisture content of the layer does not exceed the optimum for this particular roller. The optimum
moisture content for a crushed stone is normally in the range of 2% to 4%. Where it is found that the layer is too
wet, the rolling process should be postponed until the layer has dried out sufficiently. Thereafter, the rolling is
continued.
The rolling is carried out systematically from the sides towards the middle of the road with half-wheel overlaps, until
the entire surface is covered, and the layer is not rolled out of shape. It is also important to carry out the first pass
with the driving wheels of the roller in front, otherwise some material could be pushed in a wave in front of the
roller, which could result in corrugations. The rolling continues until the material shows minimum movement
underneath the roller. It is essential that no movement occurs towards the end of this process, as stability at this
stage aids the slushing process significantly.
Dry crushed stone fines can be rolled into any loose or segregated areas at this stage to further aid the slushing
process.
(vi) Slushing
The process of slushing is a critical operation. The purpose is to ensure that all aggregate particles interlock with
one another to form a dense integrated mass of particles. Proper slushing results in closure of all the openings in the
upper surface of the layer, and a smooth mosaic of stones. The purpose of slushing is not to simply slush fines to
the surface of the road. The slushing process also provides a good test for the stability of the layer under saturated
conditions.
Slushing is carried out by watering the layer thoroughly, and then rolling with vibratory rollers without vibration,
pneumatic rollers or static rollers, and squeezing fines to the surface. The fines are subsequently broomed towards
the coarser areas and finally broomed off the road
surface. Because the volume of air between the
aggregate particles decreases as the particles interlock,
fine material in the form of a slush migrates to the Slushing
surface. The fines that are almost totally saturated with Slushing is carried out by watering the layer
water act as a lubricant. thoroughly and then rolling the layer with vibratory
rollers without vibration, pneumatic rollers or static
The layer can be slushed immediately on completion of rollers, and squeezing fines to the surface. The fines
compaction, provided that the layer is stable. are subsequently broomed towards the coarser areas
Alternatively, the process can be postponed for a day or and are finally broomed off the road surface.
two so that the surface of the layer dries out and
achieves stability. The process should however, not be The purpose of slushing is to ensure that all
delayed for too long, otherwise the layer will dry out too aggregate particles interlock with one another, to
much for slushing to be effective. form a dense integrated mass of particles. Proper
slushing results in closure of all the openings in the
In general, 5 to 7% fines are required to fill all the voids upper surface of the layer, and a smooth mosaic of
between the coarser aggregate particles. Therefore, if stones.
the crushed stone initially contains less than this amount of fines, then all the voids will not be filled and no fines will
be slushed to the surface. In this case, the required density will also probably not be obtained.
The water application rate should be kept as low as possible. It is more effective to apply small quantities of water
more regularly than large quantities at longer intervals. With large quantities, a lot of water runs off the road
without performing any useful task, and is just wasted. The water should primarily be applied to the higher parts of
the road profile, such as the centre of a crown or the high edge, in the case of a super-elevated section.
The crushed stone is normally slushed in short sections of between 30 and 50 metres depending on the number of
rollers and brooms available. Normally, at least two rollers should be used for slushing. In general, the rollers
should gradually be moved from the edges towards the middle of the road, with regular overlaps.
In the early stages, the fines can be broomed down the length of the road or across the road to obtain a uniform
texture. Stiff hand brooms or a light mechanical broom are used for this purpose. When a uniform texture is
achieved, the road must be rolled systematically from the sides to the middle, and all excessive fines must be
removed from the road with brooms. The fine material must be removed before it dries out and hardens. At all
times, care should be taken not to roll a layer out of shape.
Should segregation occur, it may be necessary to concentrate rolling in the areas where more fines occur, and these
can then be broomed over to the coarser areas.
The slushing process must continue until the slushing water is clear. The fines which slush out of the layer are
normally silty, and care must be taken not to over slush the layer. If the slush becomes coarser and sandy, slushing
must be stopped, otherwise the layer may loosen and become unstable. Slushing should not be used to provide
significant additional density. Excessive densification during slushing causes deformation of the surface profile.
In certain situations, the outer 500 to 800 millimetres of the crushed stone tends to become over-saturated when a
shortage of fines is present in these areas. It is desirable to construct small furrows through the shoulder to the full
depth of the crushed stone layer, to drain excessive water from the layer. In extreme cases, these furrows could be
placed at 2 metre intervals.
The most important practical requirement when slushing, is that no movement should be present under the roller at
the end of the slushing process. Should the layer continue to move under the roller, even after slushing for a
considerable period, then the layer should be broken up, remixed and re-compacted. In isolated cases, small
movements occur under the roller after slushing. In these cases, it may be possible to stop the slushing process
temporarily to let the layer dry out for a few days. If the layer is then slushed again, movement should cease.
Should movement, however, still occur, then the layer must be ripped up, remixed and re-compacted.
After the excess fines are squeezed out of the layer and a close-knit, stable surface has formed, the layer should be
watered again and all the free water broomed off the layer without further rolling. A photo of a segregated material
is shown in Figure 81, where a lack of large aggregates is visible. A well knitted surface is shown in Figure 81.
(vii) General
During the slushing process, care should be taken not to pick up any shoulder material with the roller, to avoid rolling
this into the crushed stone. The surface of the crushed stone layer should be broomed with a mechanical broom not
more than 24 hours prior to the application of prime.
The prime should be applied as soon as the moisture content at any point in the layer is less than 50% of OMC.
Should the weather be inclement and the layer does not dry out, the prime can be applied even if the layer is wet,
but the application rate should be reduced slightly as less prime will be absorbed by the layer. In any event, the
layer should be moistened immediately prior to the application of a prime. No unnecessary traffic may be allowed on
the layer until a surfacing layer has been placed. The layer should not be surfaced until it has dried out to well below
saturation.
The purpose of the prime on the crushed stone layer is not to penetrate the upper surface of the base, but rather to
protect the surface of the base from construction traffic and to allow better bonding between the surfacing and the
base.
(viii) Testing
Cohesionless materials, such as crushed stone, do not have a clearly defined moisture density curve and hence it is
difficult to determine the maximum density and optimum moisture content in a similar manner to that of natural
gravels. Therefore, instead of using the maximum dry density, crushed stone is controlled using another reference
density, called the apparent density. The apparent density is that density which would theoretically be achieved if
the material were compacted to such an extent that no air or
moisture remains between the aggregate particles. This is similar,
although not exactly the same, as the specific gravity of the
material, as some small voids are present within the aggregate Apparent Density
particles themselves, which cannot be eliminated in the test Crushed stone is controlled using a
procedure. reference density called the apparent
density (AD-CS). This is the density which
The apparent density depends on the type of material and its would theoretically be achieved if the
specific gravity, as well as the degree to which moisture is material were compacted to such an extent
absorbed by the aggregate particles. It is determined using that no air or moisture remain between the
SANS 3001–AG22. The test is discussed in Chapter 3: 3.2.9. aggregate particles. See Chapter 3: 3.2.9.
(i) Grading
The grading of the crushed slag must be within the specifications for crushed stone. Should the material be too
coarse, particularly the percentage retained on the 5 and 2.0 mm sieves, then it will be more difficult to compact. It
is also important to ensure that the percentage fines (passing the 0.075 mm sieve) should not be less than 5%.
(ii) Handling
Segregation is a serious problem when handling crushed slag. The coarse and fine particles separate easily and
handling must be minimized. If possible, material should be loaded directly from the crusher’s conveyor belt into
waiting trucks and then dumped on the road.
(iii) Compaction
Vibratory rollers are preferred for compaction of slag. Should these not be available, grid rollers can be used for
initial rolling, because they will assist in breaking down the coarser aggregate particles and producing more fines.
Wet slag can be rolled out of shape fairly easily with a heavy pneumatic roller. Therefore, it is preferable to carry out
all initial rolling with a vibratory or grid roller, until the material is stable.
be very coarse and loose, a grid roller can also be used to roll the fines into the slag. As soon as the slag is filled
with fines, the slushing process can commence.
(v) Slushing
Slushing should proceed in a similar manner to that on normal crushed stone.
(vi) General
Segregation of slag is a significant problem and should be continually guarded against. In addition, the slag can
become unstable, in which event it easily deforms under the roller, particularly in the early stages of compaction.
Therefore, rollers and graders should be used very carefully during this stage of compaction. Due to the porosity of
the material it is, in most cases, difficult to achieve the specified density, and modifications to the test methods and
density requirements are necessary.
The construction of waterbound macadam may be divided into two components: firstly, the placement of the large
aggregate, and secondly, the filling of the voids in the large aggregate skeleton with a fine filler. Manual labour may
be used to varying extents in each of these components, but the principles of construction should remain the same
for labour-intensive or plant-intensive construction. The following steps in the construction process are discussed:
Subbase and edge restraint preparation
Placement of the large aggregate
Filling of the voids in the coarse aggregate skeleton with a fine filler
If concrete edge restraints are used, the line and level of the shutters on the front face of the edge restraint are
surveyed at 20 metre intervals on straights and 10 metres on curves. String lines and dipsticks are then used from
the top of the completed concrete edge restraints for level control on the waterbound macadam base. The problem
with string lines is that they sag towards the centre line if the span across the road is too wide. Modern laser
instruments used to control the levels are, therefore, preferable if the span across the road is wide.
If temporary steel shutters are used on the centre line and at the edges of a carriageway, the coarse aggregate for
the waterbound macadam may be levelled against a screed rail placed on spacers on top of the steel shutters. The
problem with this method is that, because of the fixed height of the shutters, any undulation at the top of the
subbase is reflected to the top of the base layer. It is, therefore, recommended that the steel shutters should only
be used as an initial thickness guide and should be removed before any compaction is applied to the coarse
aggregate layer. Final level control should then be done by string line and dipstick from levelled survey pegs.
About 33 per cent reduction in the thickness of the loose, coarse aggregate should be allowed for during compaction.
Spacers of the required height are therefore placed on the edge restraints and the coarse aggregate is spread to the
top of the spacers using the preferred method. Before any compaction is done on the coarse aggregate layer, a level
surface finish should be obtained. This is done by filling in lean spots on the surface of the layer by hand, and by
removing excess material from high spots. An uneven surface of the loose coarse aggregate layer before compaction
results in an uneven surface after compaction.
The maximum layer thickness constructed in one lift should not exceed twice the size of the coarse aggregate, to
ensure the proper penetration of the layer with the fine aggregate. Once a level surface is achieved on the loose,
coarse aggregate layer, the spacers are removed from the concrete edge restraints or the temporary shutters are
removed. The furrows left by the temporary shutters are then filled with loose aggregate. The coarse aggregate
layer is now ready for compaction. A 12 ton, 3 wheel roller; an 8 ton tandem roller, or, a vibratory roller is used for
the compaction of the coarse aggregate layer. Breaking or crushing of the course aggregate under the roller should
be monitored. Ideally, a trial section should be constructed to determine the degradation of the coarse aggregate
under 12 ton or vibratory compaction. If degradation of the coarse aggregate proves to be a problem, 8 ton tandem
rollers should be used.
The coarse aggregate layer is first rolled on the lower outside edge and then on the higher outside edge, after which
compaction is continued to the centre of the layer. If gravel shoulders are used, the drum of the roller is allowed to
overlap onto the shoulder. After the initial compaction passes, the surface of the layer is again rectified by hand.
Rolling should continue until no movement of the coarse aggregate is visible under the rollers and the coarse
aggregate is keyed-in.
3.8.2.3 Filling of the Voids in the Coarse Aggregate with Fine Aggregate
The fine aggregate is spread on the keyed-in coarse aggregate layer by hand using shovels or by mechanical chip-
spreader. The thickness of the loose filler placed in one application should not exceed 25 mm and should be evenly
distributed over the surface of the coarse aggregate layer. If the material is slightly moist, it should be left to dry
before vibratory compaction is applied, to enable the fine aggregate to filter down into the voids in the coarse
aggregate layer. The process of successive applications of fine aggregate and vibratory compaction is continued
until the layer is choked with fine aggregate. If the dry process is selected, the construction process stops at this
point. The dry method is appropriate for arid areas where very little water is available for construction. In this case,
waterbound macadam construction compares favourably with the construction of a continuously graded material,
which requires compaction water.
If slushing is selected, the choked layer is watered and compaction should resume, working from the highest to the
lowest point. Drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure that the construction water drains freely from the
layer. The excess fine aggregate should be slushed from the layer and broomed to the side of the layer. After
completion of the slushing process, the layer should be left to dry and then broomed again. The layer is then ready
to be primed. A blanket of loose fine aggregate may be left on top of the layer to prevent kick-out of the coarse
aggregate under construction traffic, but all loose material must be broomed off before the prime is applied. If the
layer needs to be trafficked, a slurry penetration layer can be used in the top portion of a waterbound macadam base
layer to prevent damage to the base layer.
A completely wet process can be used in areas where the fine aggregate will not dry sufficiently to flow freely into
the coarse aggregate layer. A water cart with a modified spray bar can be used to blast the fine aggregate into the
voids with water jets. If this technique is used, the drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure that the
construction water drains from the base layer.
Emulsified products generally cure faster than cutback bitumens. Bitumen emulsions require a minimum of
24 hours to fully cure, while cutbacks require a minimum of 72 hours to fully cure.
It is riskier to place an asphalt layer over an uncured prime coat than an unprimed base, because the uncured
prime can cause more base movement than construction
on an unprimed base. Excessive prime remaining on the
surface can also be absorbed into overlying asphalt
layers. The solvents in the prime used to liquefy the Weather Conditions for Prime
bitumen, typically kerosene or diesel fuel, can damage Application
the asphalt layer quickly, contributing to pavement
Primes should not be applied unless the air
slippage or rutting and lateral movement of the asphalt
temperature in the shade and pavement
during rolling operations. At a minimum, construction
temperature are 10 C, and rising, and when
traffic should be kept off a fresh prime coat until cured
the weather is not foggy or rainy.
sufficiently, to prevent tracking of the prime.
Primes should not be applied unless the air temperature Emulsified products generally cure faster than
in the shade and pavement temperature are 10 C, cutback bitumens. Bitumen emulsions require
and rising, and when the weather is foggy or rainy. a minimum of 24 hours to fully cure, while
cutbacks require a minimum of 72 hours to
A checklist for construction with primes is given in Table 9. A fully cure.
printer ready version of this checklist is included in Appendix A.
Binder products, including prime and tack coats, must be kept out of waterways. Prime and tack coats enter
waterways through a direct spill, or through a spill entering storm water, waste water sewers, drainage ditches, etc.
Rainwater can also wash a freshly applied uncured prime coat into a waterway. Primes should thus not be placed if
there is a high probability of rain within 24 hours of application, or before the prime can be fully absorbed into the
base and the excess removed with blotter sand.
Illustrations of these seal types are included in Chapter 2: 2.3.1.2, Chapter 9: 11 and TRH3. Stone seals are
constructed by evenly spraying a thin layer of bitumen on the surface and thereafter distributing aggregate evenly
over the sprayed area, and finally rolling the aggregate to embed in the layer of bitumen to create a smooth riding
surface. The success of stone seals depends on the adhesion of the stone to the binder and road surface. Hence,
both the stones and the road surface must be clean and free from dust during the seal process, so that the binder is
able to adhere properly to both.
A fine slurry seal provides an economic treatment to improve the surface texture of a road that needs resealing. A
coarser slurry seal provides an effective reseal for roads to improve the riding quality.
3.10.2 Safety
Safety audits are required at regular intervals to ensure adherence to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS,
1993).
Seal construction most often occurs under traffic, requiring extreme care to avoid accidents, injuries and loss of life.
Specific attention to road signs and traffic accommodation is required. Typical problems on seal construction are:
Non-conformance to road sign layout
Barricades and delineators not adequate to prevent traffic entering
the construction zone
Not adjusting road sign layout for adequate sight distance, Process Control of Seals
specifically in mountain passes Inappropriate specifications, poor
Loose aggregate materials and bad workmanship can
No flagmen at farm entrances and between stop-go positions drastically reduce the service life of
a seal. Process control is therefore,
Pedestrians running across the hot bitumen layer critically important.
Vehicles driving on bitumen before aggregate application
Hot bituminous binders are applied up to 210 C, requiring the use of
protective clothing. Specific attention should be given to training and
dealing with bitumen burns. It should be noted that immediate
evacuation to an appropriate medical care facility is required. DO NOT Hot binders
EVEN TOUCH. Refer to SABITA Manual 8. Hot bituminous binders are applied up
to 210 C, requiring the use of
3.10.3 Environment protective clothing. Specific attention
should be given to training and
Typical problems to avoid during seal construction are: dealing with bitumen burns.
Spillage of bitumen at batch plants, precoating areas and where Immediate evacuation to an
testing the distributor nozzles. appropriate medical care facility is
Draining of precoating materials from stockpiles. required. DO NOT EVEN TOUCH.
Traffic volumes and the heavy vehicle components and actions could change during the course of a project due to
construction traffic movements, road conditions and closures elsewhere, as well as traffic accommodation
arrangements. These changes might require protection of the new seal, redesign or changing the surfacing or seal
type.
Risks of premature aggregate loss could be minimized during colder periods by:
Addition of additional binder, e.g., 0.2 ℓ/m2
Application of fog sprays
Blinding specific areas with coarse, precoated sand
Converting to a double seal or Cape seal
Keeping traffic off during night times, or when the road surface temperature < 25 C
Attention to construction process and additional rolling
If wet stone is used for sealing, or if rain is expected within the first 24 hours after the construction of the seal, a
wetting agent may be used. The wetting agent is added to the binder shortly before spraying and circulated in the
tank to mix through. Or, the aggregate can be covered directly with the wetting agent. These agents are not stable
at high temperatures, and should, therefore, not be kept at spraying temperature for long periods.
If the existing surface is porous or very dry, it can be pre-treated with a surface enrichment. This ensures
that the binder needed for the seal is not absorbed by the dry surface, which causes stone loss on the new seal
due to insufficient binder left for retention of the aggregate in the new seal.
(ii) Aggregate
Aggregate stockpiles should be spaced at economic intervals along the road, for easy accessibility when loading
trucks, and to minimize loading and travel time between stockpiles and the seal site.
Stockpile sites must be properly cleared to minimize contamination and pollution.
Each stockpile must be properly sampled to ensure the required field samples are obtained, and all relevant
tests are carried out to determine the quality of the aggregate and to establish application rates for the different
aggregate sizes.
Uncoated, single-sized, coarse aggregates in a stockpile may, in certain cases, be dampened with water to
eliminate the negative effect of excessive dust adhering to the aggregates. When using certain types and grades
of binders, excessive free water on the aggregate is detrimental to the breaking, curing and adhesion of the
binder to the aggregate.
The type of precoating fluid used to precoat the aggregate, and the application rate required to ensure a
uniform coating and prevent ageing, depends on the time interval between the coating and the seal operation.
Fresh, dry precoated aggregates are required to ensure the effectiveness of the seal.
Temperature of the aggregate in the stockpile, especially when damp and after unexpected cold nights, also
has an influence on the adhesion of the binder to the aggregate.
(iii) Binder
Site location for stationary bulk tankers should be such as to enable easy accessibility for filling the bitumen
distributor, and to minimize the refilling and travelling time between the bulk tanker and the site.
A site should be levelled to enable correct volume measurements of binder in the distributor obtained by
dipstick readings.
An appropriate, specified binder, must be ordered, delivered and correctly transferred to a stationary bulk
tanker reserved for that specific binder. Different types and grades of bitumen binders must not be mixed.
Particulars of the binder supplied, such as batch number, viscosity and recommended spray temperature,
must be provided by the supplier.
For modified binders, the blending process on site must be according to the prescribed procedure or method.
Only water which is compatible with the appropriate type of emulsion should be used for diluting the
emulsion or with slurry seals.
Recommended application rates for each type and size of aggregate, as well as binder type and grade, need
to be obtained.
Temperature of the binder in the distributor must be according to the required spray specification.
The transverse distribution test, or “bucket/bakkie” test (SANS BT24), shown in Figure 84 and described in Section
2.4.2.4, must be done to check the distributor complies with the requirements. The maximum permissible tolerance
permitted between the troughs, excluding the outer 300 mm of the spray bar, is dependent on the viscosity of the
binder type, and should be as follows:
Emulsions, cut back bitumen and penetration grade bitumen: 5%
Homogeneous polymer modified binders: 7%
Non homogeneous binders (bitumen rubber): 10%
100m 50mm
m
(vi) Nozzles
The nozzles must be uniform in size, and aligned correctly at 30 degrees. Incorrect alignment and angle settings
lead to flair interference and a poor spray, as illustrated in Figure 85 and Figure 86. All the nozzles must be clean,
open and function properly. This is tested by spraying a trial on reinforced paper, well away from the road prism.
Spray bar
Correct height
Control and verification of the spread rate is a critical component of seal work. The following guidelines should be
followed:
As part of the trial section, the target spread rate (final matrix) should be determined by hand packing, e.g.,
on 1 m2. Figure 91 shows a hand packed 1 m2 mat.
A dry trial run could be done away from the road, to ensure that the aggregate is uniformly applied at the
target spread rate.
The aggregate distribution should be tested by means of canvas patches, each 1.0 metre by 1.0 metre and
placed side by side. The mass of chips spread onto each individual canvas patch should not deviate by more than
10% from the calculated average spread per canvas patch.
The design engineer, supervisor and operator should agree on the acceptability of the spread rate and the
final matrix, in comparison with the target set.
After the trial run with the chip spreader, the full scale seal construction trial can commence. Control of the
aggregate spread is exercised by measuring the aggregate weight per m2, as shown in Figure 92.
(xii) Rollers
The supervisor should ensure that the contractor has at least two self-propelled pneumatic tyred rollers, fully
ballasted on site in good working condition (20 tons unballasted), and depending on the daily output planned by the
contractor. An additional pneumatic roller is recommended if more than 7500 m2 per day is planned.
Heavy pneumatic rollers are specified for single seal reseal work and new construction seals. Light steel wheel rollers
(6 to 8 ton) are specified, in addition to heavy pneumatic rollers, for double seals and could be used on single seals
where the existing surface is smooth, to iron it out before the application of a fog spray.
Finer slurry is generally placed by hand squeegees. Coarser slurry is placed using a spreader box, which is normally
part of a purpose built slurry mixing and placing machine.
Process control for slurries for surfacing layers placed by spreader box includes:
Prior to placing the slurry, the road surface should be cleaned and pre-wetted by water fogging, but no free
water should be present.
Slurry mix should be placed by a spreader box and by competent operators with additional rubber-blade
squeegees available for rounding off, where necessary. A spreader box is shown in Figure 95.
The spreader box should be of a proven and approved type. The box should be constructed to distribute
the weight onto metal skids in such a way that no damage is be done to the surface when the box is in operation.
Soft rubber belting should be attached to the frame in such a manner as to prevent the slurry from spilling
past the sides of the spreader box, when in operation.
The spreader box should be capable of spreading a uniform application of slurry in adjustable widths of
1.5 m up to 3.7 m for general purposes, at specified spread rates.
The slurry mix should be homogenous, with no segregation or premature breaking of emulsion during
the continuous flow mixing process. The consistency of the slurry mix, should be such that no flowing of the
fresh slurry occurs due to high flow characteristics or a steep gradient. For a coarse slurry, the flow
measurement should not exceed 10 to 20 mm.
With volume batching, in determining the spread rate, expressed in kg/m2, the theoretical mass of only the fine
aggregate is obtained by compensating for unit mass and moisture corrections.
Rapid setting coarse slurries should be sufficiently stable to be rolled after 45 minutes, before opening to
traffic.
When coarse slurries are used to improve the rideability of roads, it should be placed as follows:
Step 1: Place the corrective layer, or layers, by setting the sliding rails as low as possible, preferably on the
existing surfacing. After the emulsion in the slurry mix has broken and the layer is dry enough, roll it
thoroughly with heavy pneumatic tyred rollers before the second layer is applied.
Step 2: Place the wearing course layer with a uniform minimum thickness of approximately 10 mm.
Compact it properly with pneumatic tyred rollers before opening to traffic.
Mixing of the slurry system should be carried out in a mixing machine designed to provide a rapid mixing time,
and be capable of continuous mixing.
The purpose designed mixing machine should be equipped with precise metering systems to enable the
various constituents to be combined continuously to the desired formulation. No central mixing plant should be
allowed.
Stationary or mobile batch mixers must be in a good operational condition, while weigh bridges and volume
indicators must be calibrated.
Mobile continuous flow mixing machines must be roadworthy. The volume or mass of the hopper capacity
must be recorded. Operational functions of the mixer and spreader box must be in good condition, and
adjustable for various widths.
Bitumen in Emulsified Form Emulsion Breaking in Patches Emulsion Broken and Slurry Set
Due to the additive in the emulsion of quick set slurries, the breaking process of the emulsion is not dependent
on air and road temperatures, but it is chemically controlled by the amount of additive added. Quick set slurries
can be rolled 20 to 30 minutes after placement.
When a colour variation is noticed on a completed slurry seal, it should be determined whether it has a damaging
effect or not, to be able to take remedial and or preventative steps.
Depending on the volumes of slurry mix required, it can be mixed with a concrete mixer. When large volumes need
to be placed, it is normally mixed in a batching plant.
The single seal is constructed as described in Section 3.10.8.1. However, the aggregate spread rate is normally
much lower to accommodate the layer(s) of fine slurry.
When a second layer of slurry is required, it should preferably be placed within four weeks of the first slurry opening
to traffic. The layer is placed as described above for the first slurry, with the following additional points:
The second slurry is spread to the full width of the sealed surface.
The edges are finished off in a straight line and the final surface is dense with a uniform appearance, with just
the tops of the aggregate exposed after rolling is finished.
The quality control measures at the production plant are dealt with in Section 2.2. The control measures applied
during hauling, paving and compaction operations are discussed below.
3.11.1.1 Hauling
Hauling of HMA from the production plant must consider the following:
Trucks should be fitted with elongated tailpieces to prevent spillage around the paving unit.
An acceptable release agent, such as water containing a small proportion of detergent, is used to prevent
asphalt adhering to the body of the truck. Oil-based materials such as engine oil, paraffin or diesel fuel must not
be used.
Trucks should be in a roadworthy condition and, especially, be free of oil leaks.
To minimise heat loss and hardening of the binder films because of exposure to air flow, the asphalt in the trucks
is covered with a tarpaulin or a suitable thermal blanket.
Trucks are of sufficient capacity to ensure a continuous supply of asphalt to the paver.
Risk of “drain-down” of the binder in open-graded type of mixes, such as SMA or porous asphalt, when
transported over long distances or very rough delivery routes.
3.11.1.2 Paving
The paver unit and operation is described in detail in Section 2.8, and includes construction control measures to
ensure a smooth pavement and good joints. The following control measures should be given additional attention
during the paving operation.
Level control equipment depends on the required smoothness of the finished paving, and the smoothness of
the surface on which the layer is laid.
To average out the level of the base or existing surfacing, and thus achieve a desired average mat thickness, a
levelling beam (Figure 97) is used for level control.
To pave to a design level, a line on pedestal is used.
To tie in to an existing level, a joint matcher is used.
To achieve a constant crossfall, a beam, joint matcher or line on pedestal on one side with the constant cross
sensor on the other side, are used.
3.11.1.4 Compaction
The compaction operation is the most important aspect of the paving process.
Compaction develops the strength and stability of the mix, and closes the
interconnected voids through which water and air could penetrate the mix in Compaction
the layer. Compaction equipment, i.e., rollers are discussed in Section 2.10. The compaction operation is the
most important aspect of the
(i) Compaction Stages paving process. Compaction
Compaction is carried out in three stages: develops the strength and
stability of the mix.
Breakdown rolling (150 °C – 120 °C range)
This stage takes place immediately behind the paver where the mat temperature is highest.
Most of the compaction is achieved during this stage, e.g., an increase in density from about 84% of
Maximum Voidless Density (MVD) behind the screed, to about 91% of MVD.
Rollers with the highest compactive effort are used to reach adequate density rapidly on mats where the
temperature is typically in excess of 135 °C for continuously graded asphalt. This is best accomplished by
static steel wheel rollers, especially three-wheel rollers.
Vibratory rollers have a wider compaction temperature range than static rollers, and achieve density in fewer
passes.
Pneumatic tyred rollers can achieve the required density, but on a very hot mat may give rise to rideability
problems.
Intermediate rolling (120 °C – 90 °C range)
This stage follows directly after breakdown rolling while the mat is still plastic and at a temperature that
permits further compaction. This stage of compaction continues until the required compaction is achieved,
and the density is increased to the specified requirement, e.g., 93% to 95% MVD and the surface is well knit.
This stage is best accomplished by rollers effective at lower temperatures, i.e., generally in the range of 95 to
135 °C. Vibratory and pneumatic tyred rollers are suitable for this stage, with pneumatic tyred rollers
effective at temperatures as low as 70 °C, and where knitting of the surface is required.
Heavy steel wheel static, or vibratory rollers at very low amplitude vibration, are employed to iron out any
roller marks. This stage should be completed before the mat reaches a temperature of about 90 °C, although
evening out of the surface may be achieved at temperatures as low as 70 °C, depending on the viscosity of
the binder.
Modified binders may have a marked influence on the compaction temperatures. Workability of these mixes
should be carefully investigated during trial sections, and when any changes of binder and additive sources
occur, to set appropriate construction controls.
Finishing rolling (90 °C – 70 °C range)
During this final stage, irregularities in the surface are smoothed over to remove roller marks with little further
densification of the layer.
Final kneading of the surface is achieved.
Due to the inherently colder ambient temperatures, commencement of the compaction process has to be
more timeous and efficient to achieve the required level of compaction, especially for relatively thin surfacing
mixes.
Even with adequate lighting, aspects such as segregation and unevenness are more difficult at night, and, as
such, more vigilance/supervision is invariably necessary.
At the time of placing the concrete, primer coats must be properly dried. The surface of the subbase must be kept
cool and damp, to reduce the risk of heating the new concrete, which can lead to premature cracking, particularly in
hot weather.
Immediately before placing the concrete, any excess water should be broomed off the subbase to ensure that the
subbase is still damp, but free of puddles of water.
3.12.2 Formwork
Wood forms should only be used where the project is small and relatively unimportant, or steel forms are unsuitable,
such as for short-radius curves. Forms should be provided with adequate devices for secure setting so that they can
also withstand, without visible spring or settlement, the impact and vibration of the compacting and finishing
equipment. When checked for straightness, forms should not vary by more than:
3 mm in 3 m from the true plane surface on the top
6 mm in 3 m along the face of the form
Forms should contain provisions for locking the ends of abutting form sections together tightly. Flexible or curved
forms are recommended when the curve has a radius of 30 m or less.
Keyway strips, shown in Figure 99, must be soundly attached to the faces of the forms to ensure that keyways
between form sections form a smooth horizontal plane. All forms must be cleaned and oiled before use.
be delayed to ensure that pavement edges are not damaged. Forms should be carefully removed to avoid damage
to the pavement, and especially the top edge of the pavement, and any projecting tie bars at longitudinal joints. The
specified curing procedure should be initiated on the exposed vertical edge of the slab immediately following removal
of the form.
Removal of Forms
Forms should remain in place for at
least eight hours from the time of
concreting, or until the concrete is
ready for saw cutting of joints. If the
air temperature drops below 10 C
during this time, the removal of forms
may need to be delayed to ensure
that pavement edges are not
damaged.
Figure 100. Setting of Forms
The stringline should be supported by finely adjustable connectors attached to steel stakes. The connectors should
be free of play. The stakes are typically spaced 8 metres apart, and closer on vertical and horizontal curves. The
staking system normally includes hand winches at appropriate intervals to tighten the line, and prevent sagging and
deflection.
The stakes should be positioned, the connectors set, and wires securely fixed and tensioned on the connectors
sufficiently in advance of the paver to permit checking and inspection. The stringline should be checked periodically
during the day to ensure that the tension is appropriate and has not changed with temperature.
The consistence of the concrete mix has a major impact on the final surface finish and riding quality of the
pavement. Consistence is measured using a slump test, or Vebe test when the slump of the concrete is less than 35
mm. With hand paving, concrete consistence is usually measured by means of a slump test. These tests are
discussed in Chapter 3: Section 5.1.8.
A concrete road pavement has a very large surface area in relation to its volume. The surface is subject to
temperature and wind effects immediately after placing. To limit these effects, and to permit the early finishing and
curing of the concrete, the mix proportions should be such that the stiffest possible consistency is produced,
providing it is compatible with the paving plant.
Continuous pouring is essential for a consistent finish. Therefore, it is important that the concreting operations can
achieve constant production.
The following aspects need to be considered to achieve continuity of mixing and paving:
The batch plant capacity is capable of supplying the paver continuously, and receiving the required materials
to ensure this is achieved.
The hourly concrete demand is based on rate of progress and related volume calculations.
Aggregate heaps are contained to avoid segregation and mixing of different aggregate sizes and types.
Aggregate moisture content is consistent, and wet delivered aggregate allowed to dry out for at least 12
hours before use.
Mass batching is preferred. If volume batching is used, container masses and related volumes should be
checked daily.
The moisture content of the fine aggregate, is to be checked daily.
Cement to be used in a first in first out basis.
Concrete batch sizes do not exceed manufacturer specifications. Mixing times should be at least 1 minute, or
greater depending on tests for uniformity of mix.
The size and number of haulage vehicles is sufficient to suit the batch plant capacity, haul distances and site
issues such as tie bars, shutters, reinforcing and dowel bars. Side tipping is often required to avoid driving over
reinforcing steel and dowel bar cages.
If trucks are not typical agitator trucks, tipping trucks should have watertight bodies, high tipping angles and
large fillets in internal corners. Provision should be made for covering the concrete to prevent drying out of the
concrete in transit.
With truck mixers or truck agitators, the time between mixing and discharge does not exceed 60
minutes, or less depending on temperature.
Where concrete is transported in non-agitating equipment, discharge is completed within 45 minutes after
mixing, which can reduce to 30 minutes with high environmental and mixing temperatures.
No water may be added to the mix during transport.
Concrete should not be placed haphazardly, and shoved or vibrated into its final position. Where necessary, hand
spreading is done with shovels and not rakes. Workers are not allowed to walk in the freshly placed concrete with
boots coated with earth or other foreign substances.
Placing is continuous between planned construction joints, without the use of intermediate header boards. An
interval of more than thirty minutes between placing of any two consecutive loads of concrete may require stopping
paving operations, and making a construction joint in the concrete already placed.
Precautions are taken when placing concrete, to ensure that the fixed side forms and preset reinforcement and
dowels are not damaged or disturbed, and that the concrete does not segregate.
In fixed form construction, placing starts from the corners and the lowest level of the area being paved. Each load of
concrete is placed into the face of previously placed concrete.
On steep grades, the direction of paving is always up the slope and slots of keyed joints on the downhill side, so that
the concrete flows into the cavity. The water content of the concrete mix is reduced to make the concrete stiffer, to
prevent it from flowing downhill during compaction. This may require greater compactive effort and finishing to
prevent bulging on the downhill side. Steep grades also impose a greater requirement for good skid resistance,
especially when the surface is wet. Deep tining or an alternative texture may be appropriate.
Concrete should not be placed during rainy weather and waterproof covers for the protection of the surface of the
plastic concrete should be available at all times. In addition, with slipform paving, acceptable emergency protection
for the slab edges should be provided. When rain appears imminent, paving operations should cease and the
necessary steps for complete protection of the plastic concrete commenced.
All reasonable precautions should be taken to ensure that the temperature of the pavement concrete does not fall
below 5 C during the first 48 hours after placing. When prevailing temperatures are low, or when cold weather is
forecast, concreting operations should cease. Alternatively, the
pavement should be protected with covers that ensure a
minimum pavement temperature above 5 C for the 48 hours.
Temperatures for Concrete
Hot, dry, windy weather causes cracking in the pavement and/or Pavement Construction
impairs the quality of fresh or hardened concrete, and requires All reasonable precautions should be taken to
precautions. Such precautions include placing concrete during ensure that the temperature of the pavement
the coolest part of the day and keeping mixing water and concrete does not fall below 5 C during the
aggregates cool. Paving operations should cease when the first 48 hours after placing. When prevailing
concrete temperature, as discharged at the paving site, exceeds temperatures are low, or when cold weather
32 C, as finishing will become difficult. is forecast, concreting operations should
cease.
When concrete is placed adjacent to an existing pavement, the
equipment supported on the existing pavement should be Paving operations should cease when the
equipped with protective pads and offset not less than 300 mm concrete temperature, as discharged at the
from the edge of the pavement, to avoid breaking or cracking paving site, exceeds 32 C, as finishing will
the pavement edge. become difficult.
3.12.5 Compaction
The purpose of compacting concrete is to ensure the maximum density is obtained, and that complete contact
between the concrete and reinforcing steel, dowels, tie bars, and side forms is achieved. The entire volume of the
pavement should be compacted in as effective a manner as possible. Particular attention should be given to edges
and joints. The rate of forward progress of the plant should not exceed that at which full compaction of the concrete
can be achieved. All vibration should be stopped when the paver is stopped. Over-
vibration, resulting in segregation, surface laitance, or leakage, should not be
allowed. However, with a well-designed mix, segregation due to over vibration is
unlikely. Laitance
Laitance is a milky
A vibrating beam or truss strikes off the concrete in addition to compacting it, as deposit on the surface of
illustrated in Figure 54 in Section 2.9.3. The vibrating beam is lifted onto the spread new cement or concrete,
concrete and, as the concrete is vibrated, the underside of the beam or truss comes usually caused by too
to rest on the side forms. With a double-beam unit or truss, a small roll of concrete much water.
should be maintained in front of both beams as the vibrator is pulled along. Usually,
at least two passes are required. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 54 and Figure 56 in Section 2.9.
A poker vibrator is used in areas adjacent to edges and corners, to supplement compacting by hand tamper or
vibrating beam. However, where the thickness of concrete exceeds 150 mm, a poker vibrator should be applied over
the whole area and depth of the concrete, including along the faces of all forms. See Figure 54 for an example of a
poker vibrator.
Compacting and striking off should be completed before any excess water bleeds to the surface.
With a paver, the concrete is extruded between the bottom of the profile pan or conforming plate and the side forms
and subbase. The mass of the paver provides pressure on the conforming plate, while immersion vibrators ensure
adequate compaction is achieved, and the concrete is liquefied enough to flow through the paving process. Setting
of the vibrators includes the spacing of the vibrators, the vertical alignment of the vibrators and their frequency. The
frequency needs to be set to prevent the occurrence of vibrator trails in the pavement. See Figure 60 for a picture of
vibrator trails, and Section 2.9.7.3 for a discussion on vibrators.
3.12.6 Steel
Concrete pavements use steel for dowel bars, tie bars and reinforcing. The process control for these components is
discussed below.
Dowels can be placed in assemblies at joint locations in advance of paving operations, or can be installed
mechanically with both fixed form and slipform pavers.
Dowel alignment in both planes must be maintained by a suitable supporting frame left permanently in place, as
illustrated in Figure 103. Failure to meet this requirement may result in joints locking up, thus inducing cracking
within the slab at or near the ends of the dowels. Misalignment should not exceed 1 mm, measured from the one
end of the dowel bar to the other.
Dowel assemblies should be simple and offer no restraint to longitudinal movement at the joint. The locations of
dowel assemblies should be suitably marked prior to concreting, to ensure accurate cutting of the contraction joint
over the dowel. Where doweled contraction joints are skewed, the assemblies require careful preparation to ensure
that the dowels remain parallel to the pavement centre line, to ensure freedom of the longitudinal movement at the
joint.
Where dowels are inserted mechanically, the set-up of the paver should be checked to ensure that the dowels can be
placed by the machine to the required level of accuracy. Covermeters can be used to check the alignment of
mechanically inserted dowels. See Section 2.9.4 and Figure 55 for dowel bar inserters.
(ii) Tiebars
Tiebars are used in longitudinal joints. They are designed to hold a joint tightly closed, whilst permitting a small
amount of warping or hinging at the joint. They must, therefore, be firmly anchored in the concrete. For this
reason, tie bars are relatively thin and deformed to provide the necessary anchorage.
In the case of multiple lane paving, tiebars are either placed on cages, or stabbed into the fresh concrete with an
automatic inserter. In longitudinal joints between paved lanes, the tiebars are inserted into the edge of the
pavement. These are either bent tiebars or one half of a two-piece tiebar.
(iii) Reinforcement
If the slab is reinforced, the steel may be supported on stools at the proper location (see Figure 104), and the
concrete compacted from the surface. Alternatively, the concrete layer below the mesh should be struck off, the
reinforcement placed and tied, and the top course spread.
Steel reinforcement should be pre-positioned on the prepared subbase on chairs/stools, or other suitable supports,
sufficiently in advance of paving, to permit inspection and checking of the reinforcement. The minimum cover of
50 mm should be applied, and steel should be placed one-third of the slab thickness from the surface. As with any
concrete, all steel reinforcement used in concrete paving must be free of rust, oil and grease, to ensure a good bond
with the concrete.
Light reinforcement in the form of sheets should be handled with care, so that they remain reasonably flat and free
from distortions. Bars should be free from kinks or bends that may prevent them from being properly assembled or
installed.
3.12.7 Joints
Transverse expansion joints are constructed perpendicular to the centre line of the pavement and extend the full
width of the pavement.
Sawing of joints is tricky as concrete has to achieve a certain strength to enable sawing of the joints. At the same
time, the longer the period between casting and saw cutting, the greater the possible moisture loss from the
concrete, and the higher the risk of shrinkage cracks occurring before the joints are cut. A trial section greatly
assists in deciding on the cutting time. The trial must use the same materials and conditions similar to those
anticipated for the actual construction. Two-stage saw cutting can also be used. An
initial narrow cut induces a crack at the planned joint location, which later widens
when the concrete hardens. Joints must be correctly positioned above dowels and tie
Joints
bars.
Joints must be correctly
Longitudinal joints are provided either in the form of construction joints or weakened positioned above
plane joints in multiple lane paving. All longitudinal joints are tied together using dowels and tie bars.
deformed tie bars, either set on the subbase in assemblies for multiple-lane paving, or mechanically inserted into the
plastic concrete. Tie-bars are located at mid slab depth in construction joints, or at mid-depth of the reduced section
in contraction joints. Where placed in assemblies, or at construction joints, tie-bars should be secured to the extent
that they do not deflect during paving operations.
Longitudinal joints and transverse joints must be sealed. See Section 3.12.11 for details.
These types of joints are only necessary for the longitudinal joint, i.e., for shoulders next to slow lanes, or slow lanes
next to fast lanes. Transverse joints between asphalt and concrete pavements only require a straight vertical joint,
as these joints can be sealed.
3.12.8 Finishing
Finishing includes both initial finishing, involving screeding the concrete to the required cross section profile, as well
as final finishing, involving floating the pavement.
Achieving a satisfactory surface on the concrete pavement, requires controlled finishing techniques. To assist in the
proper application of these techniques, the concrete mix should be such that there are just sufficient fines (cement
and sand) to allow a mortar to be worked to the surface with vibration. Too much fine material makes finishing
easier, but probably leads to surface bleeding, as well as being more expensive than a well-proportioned mix. Too
much water in the mix creates delays in finishing, as well as producing a weak surface layer that exhibits poor
resistance to wear and abrasion.
Screeding ensures that the concrete achieves its final surface tolerances, while final finishing begins when the sheen
has left the surface. In the case of air-entrained concrete, there may be little bleed water and no visible sheen, and
it may be possible to finish this type of concrete after a short delay. Finishing should not be attempted in any area
where there is free surface water. Working the surface too soon creates a weak surface and produces laitance.
Working the surface too late, however, requires considerably more finishing effort and may cause crumbling of the
concrete surface.
Neither cement nor water should be used to influence surface conditions and the ease of finishing, as this produces
surfaces with reduced abrasion and wear resistance.
refinished. Monitoring of the pavement surface is carried out simply using suitable lengths of light extruded metal
sections or timber, placed carefully on the pavement surface both longitudinally and transversely. They must not
disturb the concrete surface. These checks are carried out at the same time as a regular visual inspection by
supervisors. Special attention should be given to ensure that the refinished surface across joints formed in the
plastic concrete meet the requirements for smoothness. Surface corrections should continue until the entire surface
is found to be free from observable departures, and the slab conforms to the required grade and cross section.
The importance of checking the pavement surface and correcting any irregularities at this stage of the paving
operations cannot be over-emphasized. The relative difficulty and cost of surface correction in the hardened concrete
is much higher.
3.12.9 Texturing
After placing, compaction, finishing and the completion of any wet-formed joints, and before the commencement of
curing, the surface of the concrete should be provided with a surface texture. This operation should commence
before the concrete is in a condition that the surface could be torn and coarse aggregate particles unduly loosened.
With mechanized paving, texturing may be carried out by means of a machine spanning the concrete slab and
guided in both level and direction by side forms, by the paver guide wires in the case of slipform construction, or by
suitable manually operated equipment.
For manual paving operations, or where lane-at-a-time paving is employed, hand drawn brooms provide a suitable
means of surface texturing. For municipal type works, hand drawn brooms are usually preferred.
When a burlap drag is used (see Section 2.9.6 and Figure 59), the first pass should commence as soon as
construction operations permit and before the water sheen has disappeared from the surface. This should be
followed by as many passes as required to produce the desired texture depth. There should be no delays between
passes. The drag should be damp during use and should be maintained clean and free from encrusted mortar.
Additional burlap drags should be kept on site for ready use to eliminate delays due to dirty and worn drags. The
burlap should be wetted each morning, and maintained in a moist condition throughout the day. At the end of the
day's pour, the burlap drag should be cleaned, or discarded and replaced if cleaning is unfeasible.
Directly after completing the burlap finish, the surface of the pavement is grooved with a metal tining device (see
Section 2.9.6 and Figure 58). The depth of the grooves produced should be monitored to ensure a depth of 2 to 4
mm. Where tining is done manually, the tining device is operated against a straightedge to ensure straight grooves.
Where noise is of concern, an exposed aggregate concrete surface has been shown to produce a quieter surface
than those described above. The texture is achieved using a smaller than normal coarse aggregate, i.e., 7 mm
rather than 14 mm, and applying a set-retarding agent to the surface. Following the prescribed period, the surface is
brushed with a mechanical rotary broom to remove the thin layer of mortar and expose the aggregate. The coarse
aggregate should have a polished stone value of at least 50 (see Chapter 3: 4.2.2.)
3.12.10 Curing
From the time concrete has been placed and compacted, and until it is a few days old, it must be protected against
damage from environmental factors. Such damage is primarily cracking caused by drying shrinkage, that is in turn
influenced by relative humidity, concrete and air temperatures, and wind velocity. There are a number of procedures
for minimizing plastic-shrinkage cracking that all involve reducing temperature and evaporation.
In addition, the concrete must be allowed to cure through proper hydration in the presence of moisture and a curing
compound or wet or impermeable covering. Curing compounds should be applied in accordance with the
manufacturers’ specifications. During spraying operations, the curing compound is agitated or stirred to keep
pigments in suspension. To avoid loss of spray, and a reduced application rate, the spray distributor must, at all
times, be protected by a suitable hood or screen and should be operated as close as practical to the pavement
surface. The curing membrane should remain intact for seven days after placing the concrete. Any damage to the
curing membrane should be made good by hand spraying of the affected areas.
Preformed sealants require strict control of saw width; worn blades or variations in blade thickness between different
blades can result in sealant failure.
As a general rule, joint faces must also be dry since the sealant has to bond with the concrete. Inspection of each
joint is essential prior to placing backup materials, priming or sealant installation. It is also wise to check the joint
width and temperature of the concrete against the assumptions made in the joint design.
Application of the sealant to fill the joint reservoir is a skilled operation and must be carried out by skilled and trained
operators.
Compression seals require a uniform joint width, with straight, smooth, spall-free joint faces, to permit proper
installation and provide uniform contact. The joint need not, however, be cleaned to the same extent as is required
with field-moulded sealants. It is important to install the seal at the specified depth, usually 3 to 6 mm below the
surface, to keep it out of contact with the tyres. The seal should be installed in as long a continuous piece as
possible.
Curing compounds and other materials should not contaminate joint faces. Where the original curing is broken by
construction operations before the joint edges and faces have fully cured, supplementary curing must be applied.
The specification currently used is SANS 1058, referred to in the Standard Specifications, which requires the following
for the blocks:
Minimum wet compressive strengths of:
25 MPa for paving blocks for light traffic conditions
35 MPa for heavy traffic conditions, with wheel loads higher than 30 kN
Minimum tensile splitting strength of:
2.2 MPa for light traffic conditions
2.8 MPa for heavy traffic conditions
The average and individual mass loss of blocks shall not exceed 12 g and 15 g respectively during the abrasion
resistance tests. This test is discussed in Chapter 3: 5.2.
The average and individual water absorption measured in the blocks shall not exceed 6.5% and 8.0%
respectively. This test is discussed in Chapter 3: 5.2.
Although the specifications require a minimum strength for the blocks, research has shown that compressive and
tensile strengths significantly higher than the minimum specified have little structural advantage to the block paving
layer.
3.13.1.3 Thickness
Block pavers of variable thickness are available, but the most common thickness used in heavily trafficked areas is
80 mm.
The specification also requires that the thickness of the block, as measured at any point along the perimeter, not
vary by more than 2%. This specification is necessary to ensure an acceptable riding quality of the paved layer.
Stretcher pattern
Herringbone pattern
Basket weave pattern
Stretcher Pattern
Herringbone Pattern
Paved areas with laying patterns other than the herringbone pattern are generally disturbed by traffic loading and
movement during the early stage of trafficking. This disturbance leads to irregular gaps between rows of pavers,
which in turn leads to a loss of jointing sand, resulting in excessive movements between blocks. An example is
shown in Figure 107. The excessive movements between individual blocks results in spalling of the contact points
between blocks. Another benefit of the herringbone laying pattern is that it can be laid around bends and corners
without interrupting the laying pattern.
Figure 107. Excessive Openings in an Area Paved with Type S-C Blocks
Varies types of edge restraint are used, including concrete drains, concrete kerbs and edge beams. The edge
restraints should have sufficient stability to withstand occasional vehicle impacts. They can also be used to separate
areas of different laying patterns, or as kicker blocks where steep grades are encountered.
The small gaps or joints, nominally 2 to 5 mm wide, between the block pavers are filled with a fine continuously
graded dry sand, The use of cement in the joint filling material is not recommended. Maintaining the jointing sand
protects the structural integrity of the paving layer. If sand is lost, it is essential to refill the joints, especially when
windy conditions and/or fast moving traffic are experienced.
The thickness of the bedding sand layer is between 25 to 30 mm in a loose condition. Most failures in block paving
occur because the bedding sand layer exceeds the recommended limits. Bedding sand thicker than 30 mm can result
in differential compaction under the blocks, leading to loss of interlock between the blocks.
The material should have a uniform moisture content of 4 to 8% when placed. Saturated material should not be
used.
4. TRIAL SECTIONS
A trial section is usually constructed to enable the assessment and verification of the proposed construction
procedures for the particular construction process. A trial section is recommended for all pavement layers
constructed with problem or sensitive materials. Trial sections should be constructed using the same materials,
plant, equipment and procedures as will be used in the permanent works.
Checklists for the more commonly constructed layers, which should be used as a basis for commencing and
evaluating trial sections are included in the relevant sections, and in printable format in the Appendix.
The trial section should only be started if there is confidence that the trial mix will be supplied and placed as
specified. Aborted trial mixes lead to a waste of time and money, especially when waiting for plant and equipment
repairs or replacement.
Check Confirm/Reject
(Y/N)
2. Aggregates
a. Is there sufficient stockpile area
b. Is the material recovered from each stockpile pile uniform
Stockpile (Size of Uniform Conformance to design
aggregate) Yes/No grading
Check Confirm/Reject
(Y/N)
9. Steel Wheel Rollers
a. Are edges of rollers in good condition
b. Is change of direction smooth (no backlash)
c. Is roller properly ballasted (Record mass and position)
Mass........................ t Position........................
d. Do wheel spray bars give a uniform cover on wheels
e. Are wheel-cleaning mats in good condition
f. Are scrapers in good condition and set
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
h. Is roller free of leaks
i. Do brakes work
j. Is reversing smooth
10. Pneumatic Rollers
a. Are tyres in good condition
i. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure. If so, is it working and is
pressure gauge working and visible to driver
ii. Are all tyre pressures uniform. Note tyre pressures ........................ kPa
b. Are rollers properly ballasted
(Record mass and position)
Roller 1: Mass .............................. t Position ............................
Roller 2: Mass .............................. t Position ............................
e. Are spray bars working uniformly
f. Are cleaning pads in good condition
g. Check for fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
h. Is roller free of leaks
11. Hand Tools, etc.
a. Straight edge: Is it clean and straight
b. Rakes and shovels: Are they clean and in good condition
c. Are thermometers available: No. …….......... Size .............
12. Haulage Vehicles
a. Are the basins clean
b. Do tailgates open and close properly
c. Are load covers fitted
d. Are vehicles free from fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks
e. Does tipping gear work
f. Registration numbers of vehicles
For an efficient first trial section, a reasonable length of road section should be sprayed, which should be determined
according to the volume of the aggregate in the chip spreader and/or trucks available awaiting discharge into the
spreader. The length sprayed must be such that it does not exceed the length that can immediately be covered with
the aggregate, to prevent the binder cooling, or starting to break before the application of the aggregate, or
acquiring a coating of dust that retards adhesion. This length is approximately 200 to 300 metres.
A checklist for trial sections of crushed stone layers is given in Table 13.
A checklist for trial sections of cementitious stabilized layers is given in Table 14.
Trial sections on concrete pavements, therefore, form a very important part of the proactive approach to quality
control. Any problems with mix sensitivity, constructability, uniformity of product properties and surface finish and
smoothness can be identified timeously and, thus, corrected prior to commencement of the permanent works. It is,
therefore, important that a high level of monitoring, including data recording and testing, is carried out by the
supervisory staff, especially during the trial. A successful trial is the reference against which the permanent work
should be compared and ultimately accepted.
There are various types of concrete pavements of which jointed unreinforced, jointed reinforced and continuously
reinforced pavements are the most commonly constructed in South Africa. See Chapter 2: 2.4 or Chapter 9: 12.2.2
for illustrations of the different pavement types.
Each specific pavement and product type has its own unique requirements for trial section procedures. It is very
important to ensure that the condition and settings of equipment, as well as construction procedures and techniques
utilised for the construction of the approved trial section, remain constant throughout construction of the permanent
works.
The following typical tests are required to monitor properties of the concrete materials, to ensure the concrete in the
pavement complies with the quality standards.
Aggregate grading: A grading analysis of the sand should be made on at least each 100 m3 of sand used. An
additional analysis should be carried out at any time that a change in the sand, or, in the workability of the mix is
apparent.
Moisture content of fine aggregate: The moisture content of fine aggregate should be determined at the
beginning, and halfway through each concreting shift, after showers or rain, or at other intervals as required.
Slump of concrete: Slump testing should be carried out on the same sample of concrete from which 7 and 28
day compressive strength specimens are manufactured, and at such times or intervals as required.
Air content: Air content testing should be performed on the same sample of concrete from which the
compressive strength specimens are manufactured, and at such times and intervals required.
Compressive strength of concrete: Two samples for compressive strength tests should be taken from at
least every 100 m3 of concrete placed. From each sample of concrete, a group of not less than six test cubes is
made for testing. Three of these cubes are to be tested at seven days and three at 28 days.
Flexural strength of concrete: The flexural strength of the concrete should be monitored regularly. Three
flexural strength specimens are to be made from each sample taken for testing, and tested at 28 days.
The selection of the contractor with the most appropriate construction plant and paving techniques, together with
the consistent application thereof, plays as important a role in the ultimate performance of the pavement as the
selection and utilisation of appropriate materials of uniform quality.
Check Confirm/Reject
(Y/N)
e. Are the inserted dowels, after compaction, within the allowable tolerances with regards
to alignment
parallel to the finished surface
to the centre line of the carriageway
to each other
10. Finishing, Texturing and Curing
a. Does the burlap drag conform to specification
b. Do the metal grooving tines conform to specifications
c. Are random spacings of tines set correctly
d. Is depth of texturing within specified tolerances
e. Are spray nozzles for curing compound clean
f. Are adequate protection measures available for spraying during windy conditions
g. Has the correct curing compound been supplied
h. Can the curing compound be continuously agitated during spraying
5. PRODUCTION RATES
To facilitate scheduling and an understanding of the rate at which construction can occur, Table 21 contains a list of
typical production rates. These rates are given purely for illustrative and estimated programming purposes. The
actual rates of production are obviously very dependent on numerous factors, such as:
Capacity of the relevant batching plants
Distance from source
Traffic accommodation constraints
Restricted access
BONFIM, V., 2008. Cold Milling of Asphalt Pavements. Sao Paulo, Brazil.
COLTO. 1998. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities. Committee
for Land and Transport Officials. Pretoria.
CMA. 2009. Concrete Block Paving. Book 1: Introduction; Book 2: Design aspects; Book 3: Specification and
installation; Book 4: Site management and laying. Concrete Manufacturers Association. Available for
downloaded from www.cma.org.za
C & CI. Perrie, B. and Rossmann, D. 2009. Concrete Road Construction. Cement & Concrete Institute. ISBN
978-0-9584779-2-5.
FHWA. 2005. Guidelines for Using Prime and Tack Coats. FHWA-CFL/TD-05-002. Federal Highway
Administration under the sponsorship of the US Department of Transportation.
NETTERBERG, F., Paige-Green, P., Mehring, K. and Von Solms, C.L. 1987. Prevention of Surface Carbonation of
Lime and Cement Stabilized Pavement Layers by Appropriate Curing Techniques. Proceedings Annual
Transportation Convention. Volume 4A.Pretoria.
OHS. 1993. Occupational Health & Safety Act No. 85 of 1993, As Amended.
SABITA. Manual 8. 2011. Guidelines for the Safe and Responsible Handling of Bituminous Products. 4th
Edition. ISBN 978-1-874968-51-1. Available for download by SABITA members at www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA. Manual 26. 2006. Interim Guidelines for Primes and Stone and Precoating Fluids. Available for
download by SABITA members at www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA Manual 27. 2008. Guideline for Thin Layer Hot Mix Asphalt Wearing Courses of Residential Streets. Sabita.
ISBN 978-1-874968-33-7. Available for a fee from www.sabita.co.za.
SABITA Manual 28. 2011. The Design and Construction of Slurry Seals. Sabita. ISBN 978-1-874968-42-9
Available for a fee from www.sabita.co.za.
SANRAL. 2006. Drainage Manual. 5th - Edition fully Revised. South African National Roads Agency Limited. ISBN
1-86844-328-0. Available for download www.nra.co.za.
SANS 1200. Standard Specification for Civil Engineering Construction. Series DM (Earthworks), MG
(Bituminous Surfacing Treatments), D (Earthworks), M (Roads). SABS
webstore www.sabs.co.za.
TRH3. 2007. Design and Construction of Surfacing Seals. Version 1.5. Published by the South African National
Roads Agency Ltd, May 2007 (available for download on SANRAL website www.nra.co.za)
VAN DER MERWE, D.H. 1964. The Prediction of Heave from the Plasticity Index and the Percentage Clay Fraction.
Transactions. SAICE, Volume 6.
WIRTGEN. 2004. Manual for the Application of Cold Milling Machines. Wirtgen GmbH. Windhagen,
Germany. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
WIRTGEN. 2006. Cold Milling Machines: Calculating the Working Performance. Wirtgen GmbH.
Windhagen, Germany. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
WIRTGEN. 2010. Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology. 3rd Edition. Wirtgen GmbH. Windhagen, Germany.
ISBN 3-936215-05-7. (Available for download at www.wirtgen.de)
Comments:
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STONE SEALS TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
Project: ________________________________ Contract No: ____________________________
Check Confirm/Reject (Y/N)
1. Pre-treatment done, waiting periods and QA complete
a. Crack sealing
b. Edge break repair
c. Surfacing patching
d. Base patching
e. Functional patching
f. Rut filling
g. Texture treatment
h. Fog spray
2. Road Surface
a. Road surface
b. Is surface to be sealed clean
c. Is edge line of spray properly demarcated
d. Vegetation at edges, fine cracks cleared
e. Surface clean: no dust, mud, droppings, oil, etc.
3. Spray lanes demarcated with fibre rope
a. Straight 15 m pinned
b. Curves 2-3 m pinned
c. Measured from centre line
d. Joint positions not under wheel tracks or yellow line (offset 200 mm)
e. Reinforced paper at transverse joints
4. Traffic accommodation and safety
a. Road signs in place
b. Cones, delineators, barricades positions and spacing
c. Flagmen
i.
ii.
iii.
d. Stop-go setup and communications/standby
e. Safety & protective clothing
f. Dust control (deviations)
g. Standby traffic light system
h. Double traffic on new seal (due to half-width construction)
5. Weather limitations applicable to binder and seal to be applied
a. Past 24 hours minimum temperature check
b. Weather forecast: temperature, rain and wind
c. Look up
d. Air temperature
e. Surface temperature (at different positions)
f. Aggregate temperature
g. Wind
h. Base moisture/existing surface wet?
6. Aggregate
a. Clean and uncontaminated
b. Pre-coating uniform
c. Pre-coating dry
7. Binder
a. Has correct binder type been delivered
b. Is there a manufacturers’ certificate
c. Are there any test results supplied
d. Date of dispatch of load ___________________?
e. Storage period complies with specification
f. Binder temperature ______________ C complies?
8. Distributor
a. Valid certificate Expiry Date ________________< 12 months old
b. Pump Serial No. _________ : Matches certificate
c. Spray Bar No. ___________ : Matches certificate
d. Dipstick No. _____________ : Matches certificate
e. Are their oil leaks
f. Are there binder leaks
g. Is spray bar height uniform and correct
h. Are nozzles of uniform type
STONE SEALS TRIAL SECTION CHECKLIST (2 of 2)
Check Confirm/Reject (Y/N)
8. i. Are nozzles correctly aligned
j. Are fishplates in place at ends
k. Is reinforced paper available
l. Has tray test been carried out
m. Is variation within 5%
9. Chip Spreader
a. Spreader width ______________m – correct
b. Do gates move freely when hopper is loaded
c. Does charging hopper move easily across spreader when loaded and on an
adverse camber
d. Are agitator prongs in good condition
e. Are planks available to allow wheels to travel on hot mix
f. Are 1 m² canvas sheets available
g. Is 15 or 20 kg spring balance available
h. Check for fuel and oil leaks. Is spreader free of leaks
i. Are rollers of distribution bins worn
j. Are conveyor belts in good condition
k. Are gates of the bins uniform and adjusted correctly
l. During “dry” run is chip application uniform
m. During “dry” run is chip application accurate
n. Is there a chip spreader on stand by
10. Steel Wheel Roller
a. Are edges of roller in good condition
b. Is change of direction smooth (no backlash)
c. Is roller properly ballasted (Record mass and position)
Roller 1: Mass........................ t Position........................
Roller 2: Mass........................ t Position........................
d. Do wheel spray bars give a uniform cover on wheels
e. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
f. Are scrapers in good condition and set
g. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks. Is roller free of leaks
h. Do brakes work
i. Is reversing smooth
11. Pneumatic Rollers
a. Are tyres in good condition
b. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure
c. If so, is it working and is pressure gauge working and visible to driver
d. Are all tyre pressures uniform
Note tyre pressures ……………………..kPa OK?
e. Is roller properly ballasted (record mass and position)
Roller 1: Mass.................................. t Position................................
Roller 2: Mass.................................. t Position................................
8. Trucks and Loader
a. Are there sufficient trucks for production rate
b. Are they in good condition; no oil leaks, etc.
9. Brooms
a. Are the rotary brooms in good condition
b. If required is the “Z” broom in good condition
c. Is there sufficient labour with hand brooms
Acceptance/Approval NAME SIGNATURE DATE
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
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PRIME CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
Comments:
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CRUSHED STONE BASE CHECKLIST FOR SITE Doc No:
Rev No:
OPERATIONS Date:
Comments:
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CHEMICAL STABILISATION CHECKLIST FOR Doc No:
Rev No:
SITE OPERATIONS Date:
Comments:
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IN SITU RECYCLING WITH BSM Doc No:
Rev No:
CHECKLIST Date:
Project: ________________________________ Contract No: ____________________________
Check Confirm/ Reject
(Y/N)
1. Recycler
a. Is recycler model appropriate for depth to be worked (Manufacturers limits)
b. Is recycler in good condition
c. Is the drum fitted appropriate for recycling
d. Are all picks in good condition and present
2. Tankers
a. Does tanker have the correct stabilising agent
b. Are there sufficient water tankers for production rate
c. Do bitumen tankers contain the correct grade of bitumen/emulsion
d. Are they fitted with dipsticks
e. Is binder at correct temperature (Temperature..............ºC )
f. Are supply pipes properly lagged
g. Are all pipes fully “bled”
3. Steel Wheel Rollers
a. Are edges of rollers in good condition
b. Is change of direction smooth (no backlash)
c. Are rollers properly ballasted
(Record mass and position)
d. Do rollers have variable amplitude/frequency settings
e. Settings used for trial:
Passes No. (_______________) Amplitude (_____________)
Passes No. (_______________) Frequency (_____________)
f. Are wheel cleaning mats in good condition
g. Are scrapers in good condition and set
h. Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic leaks
i. Do brakes work
j. Is reversing smooth
4. Pneumatic Rollers
a. Are tyres in good condition
b. Is there a variable pressure system for tyre pressure
c. If so, is it working and is pressure gauge working and visible to driver
d. Are all tyre pressures uniform
Note tyre pressures ……………………kPa
e. Is roller properly ballasted (record mass and position)
Mass…………………………t
Position………………………
5. Process
a. Is the number of cuts for the total width defined
b. Is the width of overlap for each longitudinal joint defined
c. Is the length of cut (i.e., when train should return for adjacent cut) defined
d. Is there sufficient volume of imported material for planned production
e. Is there sufficient bitumen/emulsion for planned production
f. Is there sufficient water for planned production
g. Is outer edge of 1st cut clearly demarcated
h. To ensure correct grading, is rotation speed of drum defined
RPM_____________
i. To ensure correct grading, is forward speed of recycler defined
m per minute _____________
j. Is moisture content of recycled material as per spec
mc ______________%
k. Is application of cement in front of train as per spec
kg/m2_________
l. Is grading of milled material similar to “design material”
m. Is depth of cut on both sides of drum uniform as per spec
n. Is final product completed within the allowable time period
_______________hours
Acceptance/Approval NAME SIGNATURE DATE
Client’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep ________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
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IN SITU RECYCLING WITH FOAMED BITUMEN CHECKLIST
Pre-Start Checklist Supervisor:
Date:
Machine ID:
Project: ________________________________ Contract No: ____________________________
Check Confirm/
Reject (Y/N)
1. Recycler (Start of shift)
a. Check the bitumen system heaters are operational
b. Check the temperature of the road surface (digital thermometer)
c. Check that the foam-water tank is full
d. Remove and clean the foam-water filter
e. Remove and clean the bitumen filter
f. Lift machine / lower drum / open chamber doors for visual inspection
Check: all foamed bitumen nozzles clear
all water injection nozzles clear
g. Check each expansion chamber for blockages using “pre-water” function
Switch # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nozzle # 1&3 2&4 5&7 6&8 9 & 11 10 & 12 13 & 15
Comments:
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BLOCK PAVING TRIAL CHECKLIST Doc No:
Rev No:
Date:
Confirm/Reject
Check
(Y/N)
1. Formation to receive paving
a. Levels
b. Area (particularly width)
c. Soft spots
d. Root growth requiring removal
e. Smoothness
f. Compaction
g. Services needing protection
2. Kerbing
a. Excavation
b. Levels
c. Alignment
3. Bedding sand
a. Right type
b. Grading
c. Pre-compaction prevented
d. Protection: Rain
Strong winds
e. Thickness before compaction
4. Laying
a. Main axis of laying
b. Laying pattern
c. Infill blocks
d. Primary compaction
e. Joint sand: Right type
Grading
f. Pre-compaction levels and smoothness
g. Secondary compaction
h. Damaged blocks
i. Finished levels
j. Joint widths
l. Tidy up site
Acceptance/Approval NAME SIGNATURE DATE
Client’s Rep
________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Contractor’s Rep
________________________ ________________________ ________________________
Comments:
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DOC No:
BACKFILL TO STRUCTURES CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Comments:
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DOC No:
GABIONS CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
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DOC No:
EARTHWORKS CUT CHECKLIST REV No :
DATE
Formation level
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DOC No:
DRAINAGE PIPES CHECKLIST REV No:
DATE:
Section: ________________________________
Chainage: ______________________________
Drawing: _______________________________
Levels checked