LACM March13
LACM March13
LACM March13
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Remark: 1) If ~ y ∈ R3 are linearly indepen-
x, ~
dent, then Span(~ x, ~y ) represents a plane in R3,
which is determined by the points:(0, 0, 0),
(x1, x2, x3) and (y1, y2, y3).
3) If ~
x, ~y and ~ z are linearly independent in R3,
Span(~ x, ~ z ) form the whose space R3.
y, ~
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Def (basis). The vectors ~v1, ~v2, · · · , ~vn form a
basis for a vector space V if and only if
(i) ~v1, ~v2, · · · , ~vn are linearly independent;
(ii) ~v1, ~v2, · · · , ~vn span V , or every element ~v ∈
V can be written as a linear combination of
~v1, ~v2, · · · , ~vn, i.e. ∃ α1, · · · , αn such that
~v = α1~v1 + · · · + αn~vn.
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Def. (Dimension). Let V be a vector space.
If V has a basis consisting of n vectors, we
say that V has dimension n. The subspace
{~0} of V is said to have dimension 0. V is
said to be finite-dimensional if there is a finite
set of vectors that span V ; otherwise, infinite
dimensional.
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3.3 Linear transformations in R3
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Ordinary linear operators: a stretching or shrink-
ing by a factor, projections, reflections and ro-
tations.
Example 1: L(~ x) = 3~
x; L(~ 1~
x) = 2 x;
Example 2: L(~ x ∈ R2, a projection
x) = x1~e1, ~
onto the x1 axis.
Example 3: in R2 L(~ x) = (x1, −x2)T , a reflec-
tion about the x1 axis.
Example 4:L : R2 → R2, L(~ x) = (x1 cos θ −
x2 sin θ, x1 sin θ +x2 cos θ)T . Rotation by an an-
gle θ in the counterclockwise.
L(~x) = (x2, −x1)T is a rotation by π/2 in the
clockwise direction.
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Def. A linear transformation is called one-to-
one, if and only if L(~v1) = L(~v2) implies ~v1 =
~v2;
A linear transformation is said to map V onto
W if and only if L(V ) = W
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Def. L : V → W . The kernel of L, denoted by
Ker(L), is defined by Ker(L) = {~v ∈ V |L(~v ) =
~
0w }.
Theorem. L : V → W is a transformation.
Ker(L) is a subspace of V , L(S) is a subspace
of W .
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3.4 Inner product space and orthogonality
Def. Let ~
x and ~y be vectors in R3 or R2. The
inner product of ~
x and ~
y is defined as
(
x1y1 + x2y2 + x3y3, in R3
(~
x, ~ xT ~
y) = ~ y=
x1y1 + x2y2, in R2.
With this product, R3 or R2 forms an inner
product space.
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Def. The angle between ~ x and ~ y , ∠(~
x, ~
y ), is
defined the angle between the line segments.
Theorem. If ~ x and ~
y are two nonzero vectors in
either R2 and R3, and θ = ∠(~ x, ~
y ) is the angle
between them, then (~ x, ~
y ) = k~
xk · k~y k · cos θ.
If the unit vector ~u = ~ x/k~
xk and ~v = ~ y /k~yk
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Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. If ~ x and ~
y are vec-
tors in R2 or R3, then |(~
x, ~
y )| ≤ k~
xkk~
y k.
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Def.(scalar and vector projections). For any
nonzero vectors ~ y in R2 or R3, the scalar
x and ~
projection of ~
x onto ~
y is
(~
x, ~
y) xT ~
~ y
α= = .
k~yk k~yk
The vector projection of ~
x onto ~
y is
~
y (~
x, ~
y)
p
~ = α~
u=α = ~
y.
k~
yk k~yk
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Def. (orthogonal subspaces). Two subspaces
X and Y of R3 are said to be orthogonal if
(~
x, ~ xT ~
y) = ~ y = 0 for every ~x ∈ X and every
~
y ∈ Y , which is denoted by X ⊥ Y .
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Def. Let Y be s subspace of R3. The set of
all vectors in R3 that are orthogonal to every
vector in Y will be denoted Y ⊥,
Y ⊥ = {~
x ∈ R3|(~
x, ~ xT ~
y) = ~ y = 0, ∀~
y ∈ Y }.
The set Y ⊥ is called the orthogonal comple-
ment of Y .
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Def. If U and V are subspaces of a vector space
W and each w ~ ∈ W can be written uniquely as
a sum ~ u + ~v , where ~
u ∈ U and ~v ∈ V , then we
say that W is a direct sun of U and V , and we
L
write W = U V .
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