AERO-THERMODYNAMIC

CALCULATIONS ON THE FD3

MODEL GAS TURBINE

December 2020, Erling Wiig

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 1

 INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to establish the theoretical equation set needed to calculate the velocity,
temperature and pressure of the air passing through the FD3 model gas turbine. To compare
with measured results, the real-world losses involved in each step in the calculations will be
identified.
The text follows the airflow through the engine, from the inlet to the exhaust. Basic
thermodynamic equations are used to describe the Brayton cycle where fuel and air is
pressurized, burned, passed through the turbine, and exhausted.
The results in this paper can be used to calculate other similar designs, or to optimize shape of
intended designs. An Excel sheet is developed to automatw input based on the same approach.
The properties are calculated for the positions 0 through 7, as illustrated below:
3

2
4 5 6 7

0
1

CONCLUSIONS
The following results are found:
Ambient Inlet Impeller Diffusor Combustion NGV Turbine Nozzle

V0 = 0 m/s V1 = 116 m/s V2 = 173 m/s V3 = 27 m/s V4 = 37 m/s V5 = 261 m/s V6 = 156 m/s V7 = 209 m/s

T0 = 15 ºC T1 = 8 ºC T2 = 34 ºC T3 = 45 ºC T4 = 663 ºC T5 = 645 ºC T6 = 630 ºC T7 = 625 ºC

P0 = 1 atm P1 = 0,92 atm P2 = 1,26 atm P3 = 1,41 atm P4 = 1,33 atm P5 = 1,23 atm P6 = 1,15 atm P7 = 1 atm

Note: States 2 and 5 has significant swirl velocity components, the absolute (total) value is given
here.

The thrust of the turbine is calculated to 17,8 N without the nozzle and 24,0 N with.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 2

INLET
Here the increase in airspeed and associated temperature drop in the inlet to the compressor
face will be calculated.
The function of the inlet is to allow the engine to suck ambient static air in a laminar fashion to
the compressor face. Without the inlet eddies will form when air is sucked radially around a
sharp edge. This turbulence will at best increase inlet losses, but probably also result in flow
separation that stalls the compressor.
The inlet “trumpet” has an outer diameter of 62 mm and an inner throat diameter of 33,5 mm.
However, the inlet throat diameter of the impeller is 33 mm, which is used here. It sucks 0,115
kg/s (assumed initially from Schreckling, will be calculated shortly) of ambient air into the
compressor at maximum revolutions.

The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 0 (ambient, some
distance away from the inlet throat) to state 1 (compressor face).

0
Known: To be calculated
V0 V0 = 0 m/s V1
V1 1
T0 T1 T0 = 15 ºC = 288 K T1
P1
P0 = 1 atm P1
P0
ṁ = 0,115 kg/s ṁ

Inlet velocity, temperature and pressure

The inlet velocity at the compressor face V1 can be found by known inlet area A1 and mass flow
ṁ. However, as density is dependent of velocity and temperature, iterations are needed. As a
starting point, inlet density ρ1 is assumed equal to standard atmosphere:
ṁ
ṁ = ρ1· V1 · A1 = ρ1 · V1 · π · r12 → V1 =
ρ1 ·π·r12
Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 3
 0,115 kg/s
V1 = = 109,8 m/s
1,225 kg/m3 · π · 0,0165m2
The stagnation temperature (aka total temperature; sum of static and dynamic temperature) is
constant from state 0 to state 1 as no energy is supplied to the inlet stream, T00 = T01. The
energy due to velocity increase comes at the expense of a equal loss in energy from
temperature and pressure.

T0 = T01 = 288 K, as air is initially at rest

P0 = P01 = 101,325 kPa = 1 atm, as air is initially at rest
First iteration…
Inlet temperature:
V12 V12
T01 = T1 + → T1 = T01 −
2·cp 2·cp

109,8 m/s 2
T1 = 288 K − = 288 K − 6K = 282,0 K
2 · 1005 J/kgK
Inlet pressure:
γ
P01 T P01 101,325 kPa
P1
= ( T01 )
γ−1
→ P1 = γ = 288 K 3,5
= 94,13 kPa
1 T01 γ−1 ( )
( ) 282 K
T1

Inlet density:
P1 94,13 kPa
ρ1 = = = 1,16 kg/m3
R·T1 287 J/kgK·282 K

Updated inlet velocity after first iteration:

ṁ 0,115 kg/s
V1 = 2
= = 116,3 m/s
ρ1 · π · r 1,16 kg/m3 · π · 0,0165 m2
This is somewhat higher than the initial velocity estimate. A second iteration is needed.
Inlet temperature:

V12 115,9m/s2
T1 = T01 − = 288 K − = 288 K − 6,7 K = 281,4 K
2 · cp 2 · 1005 J/kgK
Inlet pressure:
P01 101,33 kPa
P1 = γ = 288 K 3,5
= 93,37 kPa (0,92 atm)
T ( )
( 01 )γ−1 281 K
T1

Inlet density:
P1 93,37 kPa
ρ1 = = = 1,16 kg/m3
R·T1 287 J/kgK·281 K

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 4

Updated inlet velocity after second iteration:
𝑚̇ 0,115 kg/s
V1 = = = 116,3 m/s
ρ1· π·r2 1,15 kg/m3 ·π·0,0165 m2

There is hardly any change from first to second iteration (hidden in the decimals), so the answer
is converged. A typical value of the inlet velocity is 150 m/s, so the answer is reasonable.
The inlet velocity is V1 = 116 m/s with a temperature T1 = 8 °C and a pressure P1 = 0,92 atm.
Note: This is for the static running case. In a RC plane flying at 50 m/s, the pressure drop in the
intake is approximately ΔP=1/2·ρ·Δv2 = 1/2·1,225 kg/m3 · (110 m/s2-50 m/s2) = 6,7 kPa = 0,07
atm.
Mass flow check, for inlet:
ṁ = ρ1 · V1 · A1
ṁ = 1,16 kg/m3 · 116,3 m/s · π · (0,0165 m)2
ṁ = 0,115 kg/s Ok!
Mass flow through impeller
The mass flow through an impeller can be estimated by the following Need reference to this
general equation: formula. May mix up with
leading edge pre-swirl
π2
ṁ = · [d1 · tan β1 + d0 · tan β0 ] · (d12 − d02 ) · φs · ρ0 · n angle β0=0°…
180
β1 and β0 = blade inlet angle at d1 and d0 respectively
φs = inlet velocity loss factor, typically 0,88-0,94. Assume 0,9 here.
ρ0 = air density at ambient pressure d1

d0 and d1 = inlet diameters, for FD3: 0 and 33 mm. d0

n = max rotational velocity [rpm], for FD3: 75.000 rpm

Inserting values for the FD3 Impeller:

π2
ṁ = · [0,033m · tan 34° + 0 · tan 34° ] · (0,0332 − 02 ) · 0,9 · 1,225 kg/m3 · 75000
180
ṁ = 0,110 kg/s
Correction needs to be done from impeller inlet condition others than ambient; these have
already been calculated:

P0 T1
ṁcorr = ṁ · ·√
P1 T0

1 atm 281 K
ṁcorr = 0,110 kg/s · ·√
0,92 atm 288 K

ṁcorr = 0,118 kg/s

The calculated mass flow of the compressor is 0,118 kg/s, confirming the design specification.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 5

IMPELLER
The function of the impeller (centrifugal compressor) is to convert mechanical energy supplied
from the turbine into pressure – as near isentropically as possible. The overall efficiency of the
turbine increases with the pressure ratio. However, the limit of the pressure is determined by the
limiting temperature of the material in the turbine and the capabilities of the compressor.
Here the increase in airspeed, pressure and temperature passing the centrifugal compressor
will be calculated. Also, the torque needed to turn the compressor and its consumed power will
be found.
The FD3/64 impeller is a radial single stage, single entry, shrouded variant with 11 backward-
swept semi-inducer blades. There are no intake guide vanes and hence no pre-swirl of the
airflow.

d1 = 33 mm β2 = 45 °
d2 = 66 mm

β1 = 34 °

b2 = 7,5 mm
b1 = 13,0 mm

The following geometrical properties applies to the FD3 impeller:

Inlet diameter, d1 = 33 mm
Outlet diameter, d2 = 66 mm
Inlet width, b1 = 13 mm
Outlet width, b2 = 7,5 mm
Inlet blade angle, β1 = 34 º
Outlet blade angle, β2 = 45 º
The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 1 (compressor
inlet) to state 2 (compressor outlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated in the figure below:

Known: To be calculated:

V1 = 116 m/s V2
V1 1 W
T1 = 8 ºC = 281 K T2
T1
P1 P1 = 0,92 atm P2
Shaft torque and power
V2
T2
P2

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 6

Impeller airspeed definitions
The gas velocity in compressors and turbines can have three components: radial, tangential,
and axial.
Tangential Radial
Radial
Tangential

Axial
ω
Axial

Radial

Here, the compressor entry airspeed is assumed purely axial, with no swirl (as there are no inlet
guide vanes). The compressor exit airspeed is assumed without any axial component, only
tangential and radial.
The following notations for airspeed components will be used for the compressor, diffuser,
nozzle and turbine:
u1 and u2 for the tangential impeller body velocities at inlet and outlet [m/s]
w1 and w2 for the air velocities relative to the blades at inlet and outlet [m/s]
V1 and V2 for the absolute air velocities, vector sum of u and w. [m/s] 𝑉 ⃗ = 𝑢⃗ +𝑤
⃗⃗
As u and w are airspeed components they are written in small letters, while V is the total
airspeed written in capital letter.

As will be shown shortly, the tangential airspeed component Vt2 is significantly less than the
impeller body tangential speed u2.

The tangential rotational speeds of the impeller body are: u2

Inlet: u1 = 2·π·r1·N = 2·π·0,0165 m·1243 1/s = 128,9 m/s

ω
Outlet: u2 = 2·π·r2·N = 2·π·0,033 m·1243 1/s = 257,7 m/s
u1

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 7

Slip Factor, σ
The tangential airspeed component of V2t is less than u2 mainly due to vane outlet angle β2 but
also due to a phenomenon called slip. Due to its inertia, the air trapped between the impeller
vanes is reluctant to move around with the impeller body. This creates a higher pressure on the
leading face than on the trailing face of the vanes. It also creates eddies in the impeller channel.
The result is that the escaping air does not leave the impeller parallel to its β2 blade exit angle,
but at a slightly less angle β2’. The resulting tangential airspeed component V2t is therefore
somewhat less than the ideal value of the rotating impeller body geometry. The slip factor σ is
defined as the ratio of tangential airspeed versus tangential impeller speed at the outlet.

V2 V2r
w2 w2
β2
β2’
u2 V2t
+ - + -
+ - +
+
- V2t
+ -
- σ=
+ -
+ - +
-
u2
+ - +
ω + - -

The greater the number of blades (z), the smaller airspeed loss. However, the greater number
of blades, the higher frictional loss and blockage of the air passage. The chosen solution is a
compromise.
Two common formulae for calculating slip will be used here, both takes geometric blade angle
into account:
Stodola:
π ∙ sin β2 π ∙ sin 45 °
σ=1− =1− = 0,798
z 11
Weisner:

√sin β2 √sin 45 °
σ=1− 0,7
=1− = 0,843
z 110,7
DOES NOT MAKE SENSE?! Tangent velocity due to blade angle alone is 0,707*U2. Then slip
in addition, with a typical value of 5-10% loss! 0,707 * 0,9 = 0,64. 0,707 * 0,95 = 0,67 – guess σ
is in this range.
A value of 0,64 will be used for slip factor σ throughout this paper.
Now the airspeed components at the impeller outlet can be calculated. The tangential
component can be found from the slip factor:
V2t = σ · u2 = 0,64 · 257,7 m/s = 164,9 m/s
The radial velocity component can be found from the mass flow formula:
ṁ
ṁ = ρ2 · V2r · A2 → V2r = ρ2 ·A2

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 8

 P 1,30·101,325 kPa
Pv = RT → ρ2 = RT = 287 J/kgK·317,2K = 1,45 kg/m3 Do not know
pressure at this time.
0,115 kg/s
V2r = = 51,2 m/s
1,45 kg/m3 · 0,00155 m2
The absolute airspeed can be found by Pythagoras: V2 V2r

V2 = √V2r2 + V2t2 = √51,2 m/s2 + 164,9 m/s2 = 172,7 m/s

V2t
The impeller outlet air velocity is V2 = 173 m/s
The results compare nicely to Schrecklings 170 m/s.

Shaft moment
The Euler turbine equation (aka moment of momentum theorem) states that the torque of a
compressor rotor T equals the rate of change of moment of momentum in the fluid as it passes
through the impeller. Only the change in tangential velocity contributes to torque:
V2t

V1t
T = ṁ · r2 · V2t - ṁ · r1 · V1t
r2
ṁ r1

If the inlet airflow is purely axial (Vt1 = 0) as here, the inlet momentum is also zero. The moment
equation then becomes:

T = ṁ · r2 · V2t
T = 0,115 kg/s · 0,033 m · 164,9 m/s = 0,63 Nm
The required moment to turn the impeller at full rpm is 0,63 Nm.

Shaft Power
Shaft power P needed to run the impeller at maximum revolutions ω is related to the shaft
moment simply by:
P = T·ω
Where
P = Power [Nm/s=J/s=W]
T = Torque/Moment [Nm]
ω is the rotational speed [rad/s]
2·π·N
ω = 60 , where N is rotational speed [rotations per minute, rpm]
For FD3/64 Nmax = 75000 rpm
P = 0,63 Nm · 2 π · 75000 / 60 = 4948 W
This is the ideal (lossless) energy consumption.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 9

The power input factor Ψ represents an increase in the theoretical work input to the centrifugal
compressor to overcome windage (drag between rotating compressor and surrounding still air),
which is degraded into thermal energy. A typical figure for Ψ is 1,04 and will be used here. The
power input factor does not account bearing friction in the rotor assembly. The real-world energy
consumption of the compressor is then:
P = P0 · Ψ = 4948 W · 1,04 = 5146 W
The compressor consumes 5.1 kW at max rpms, including windage.

Impeller pressure ratio

The power needed to run the impeller was found by Euler turbine equation
PImpeller: P = T · ω = ṁ · r2 · V2t · ω
u = ω · r → ω = u / r:
PImpeller = ṁ · r2 · V2t · u2 / r2 = ṁ · V2t · u2

Since V2t = σ · u2, the equations can also be written as

PImpeller = ṁ · σ · u22

Including the losses described by the power input factor

PImpeller = Ψ · ṁ · σ · u22

This energy is absorbed in the airstream as an increase in stagnation temperature:

E = ṁ · cp · (T03 − T01 )

Setting the two equal gives:

Ψ·σ·u22
Ψ · ṁ · σ · u22 = ṁ · cp · (T03 − T01 ) → T03 = T01 +
cp

As no energy is supplied in the diffuser, the stagnation temperature is constant; T03 = T02:
1,04·0,64·257,7 m/s2
T03 = T02 = 288 K + 1005 J/kgK
= 288 K + 44,0 K = 332,0 K

The stagnation temperatures can be used to find the increase in stagnation pressure:
γ
P02 T γ−1
P01
= (T02 )
01

P02 332 K 3,5

=( ) = 1,64
P01 288 K
As P01 is 1 atm, P02 = P03 = 1,64 atm.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 10

The static temperature T2 can then be found:
V2 V2
T02 = T03 = T2 + 2·c2 → T2 = T02 − 2·c2
p p

172,7 m/s 2
T2 = 332 K − = 332 K − 14,8 K = 317,2 K ≈ 44 °C
2 · 1005 J/kgK
Finally, the impeller outlet pressure P2 can be found:
γ γ
P2 T γ−1 T γ−1
P02
= (T 2 ) → P2 = P02 · (T 2 )
02 02

317 K 3,5
P2 = 1,64 atm · ( ) = 1,39 atm
332 K
These are the ideal values for temperature and pressure, not accounting for the isentropic
efficiency of the impeller. Due to real world inefficiencies there are losses that leads to an
irreversible compression process. These losses result in the pressure being gained with a higher
temperature.
A centrifugal compressor typically has an isentropic efficiency range between 0,7 and 0,85. With
no additional argument available, a middle value of 0,78 will be used here. 0,7?
In order to find P2 we can combine two isentropic relations:
γ
P02 T03 − T01 γ−1 332 K − 288 K 3,5
= (1 + 𝜂𝑐 · ) = (1 + 0,78 · ) = 1,1193,5
P01 T01 288 K
and
γ
P2 T γ−1 320 K 3,5
= ( 2) =( )
P02 T02 335 K

This neat trick allows us to calculate P2: P2 =1,26 atm

2’
Temperature T [K]

309
303
2
P2 P02 P2 320 K 3,5
= · = (1,119 · ) = 1,26
P01 P01 P02 335 K
P1= 1,0 atm
As P01 = 1 atm, P2 = 1,26 atm 281
1

The associated temperature is found by the isentropic relationship Entropy S [J/K]

γ−1 γ−1
T2′ P γ P γ
T1
= ( P2′ ) → T2 = T1 · ( P2′ )
1 1

1,26 0,286
T2′ = 281 K · ( ) = 307,4 K ≈ 34 °C
0,92

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 11

 Mass flow check, impeller outlet:
The pressure at the impeller outlet P2 is 1,26
atm while the temperature T2 is 34 °C ṁ = ρ2 · V2r · A2
P 1,26 · 101,325kPa
Pv = RT → ρ = = = 1,45 kg/m3
RT 287J/kgK · 307,4 K

ṁ = 1,45 kg/m3 · 51,2 m/s · 0,00155 m2

ṁ = 0,115 kg/s ok!

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 12

DIFFUSOR
The purpose of the diffusor is to decelerate the speed of the incoming compressed air,
converting gas velocity into added pressure before entering the combustion chamber. If the
velocity of the air entering the combustion chamber is low, the construction of the combustion
chamber is simplified and helps an efficient combustion. The increase in pressure across the
diffusor is accompanied by further increase in temperature. Typically, the pressure increase in
the diffusor equals that of the centrifugal compressor in a well-balanced system. The diffusor will
also stop the radial swirl of the airflow and turn the airflow in an axial direction.
Here, the velocity, temperature and pressure of the airflow after the diffusor will be determined.
The FD3 diffusor is a simple design with 18 straight and constant thickness stator vanes.

2
γ
d5
d2

Diffusor

ω Vaneless space
Impeller

The diffusor has the following geometric properties:

Impeller width at inlet, b1 = 13 mm
Impeller width at outlet, b2 = 7,5 mm
Impeller outer diameter, d2 = 66 mm
Inner diameter of diffuser channel, d3 = 94 mm
Outer diameter of diffuser channel, d4 = 107 mm
Inner diameter of diffusor blades, d5 = 75 mm
Diffusor blade angle, γ = 24°

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 13

The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 2 (compressor
outlet) to state 3 (diffusor outlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated in the figure below:
3

2
Known: To be calculated:
V2 = 173 m/s V3
V2r = 51,2 m/s T3
V2t = 169,4 m/s P3

V2 T2 = 34 ºC = 307 K Diffusor blade angle

T2
P2 P2 = 1,26 atm

V3
T3
P3
Diffusor inlet area (at d2), beginning of vaneless space at impeller exit:
A2 = π · d2 · b2
A2 = π · 0,066 m · 0,0075 m = 0,00155 m2
Diffusor outlet area (at d3 - d4), channel leading into the combustion chamber:
A3 = π/4 · (d42 - d32)
A3 = π/4 · (0,107m2 - 0,094m2) = 0,00205 m2

The static pressure rise in the whole compressor is partly due to the impeller and partly due to
the diffuser. However, the stagnation (total) pressure rise is entirely due to the impeller. The
stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature is constant in the diffuser as no energy is
supplied or extracted.
The dynamic part of the air pressure is given by the term 1/2·ρ·V2. If the airflow is brought to a
complete standstill in the diffuser from 173 m/s, this would equate to a static pressure increase
of:
ΔPDiffuser = 1/2 ·ρ·ΔV2 = 1/2 ·1,5 kg/m3 ·173 m/s2 = 22 kPa ≈ 0,22 atm.
It is assumed an average density of 20% higher than ambient through the diffuser, contrary to
Schrecklings 10% (The incoming density is calculated to be 17% above density and will
increase further passing the diffuser). However, the diffuser has an efficiency less than ideal,
and the airflow is not brought to a complete stop, so the final pressure increase would be
expected to be somewhat less than this initial ballpark number.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 14

Diffuser outlet velocity
The cross-section area of the passage increases form A2 to A3, accompanied by a velocity
decrease from V2 to V3. These are the radial velocity components perpendicular to the control
volume, there is a significant amount of additional swirl component in state 2.
A3 V A
= V2r → V3r = A2 · V2r
A2 3r 3

0,00155 m2
V3r = · 51,2 m/s = 38,9 m/s
0,00205 m2
The swirl component can be calculated by conservation of flow momentum. As the air moves
radially outwards to a higher diameter, the swirl component is reduced accordingly. Here the
mean diameter between 107 mm and 94 mm = 100,5 mm is used for the diffuser outlet.
V3t = V2t · d2 / d3 = 164,9 m/s · 66/100,5 = 108,3 m/s
Finally, the total velocity can be found by Pythagoras:

V3 = √V3r2 + V3t2 = √38,9 m/s2 + 108,3 m/s2 = 115,1 m/s

This airflow is then turned 90 degrees in an axial direction exiting the diffuser.
The diffuser outlet velocity V3 is 115 m/s
However, there is a discontinuity in cross section area at state 3. This is no aerodynamic duct,
and the airflow separates into vortices. The new cross section area is the area between the
outer casing and the axle tube:
A3-2 = Combustion chamber inlet area
A3-2 = π/4 · (0,107 m2 - 0,018 m2) = 0,00874 m2
The area increase will give an increase in the average velocity:

A3 0,00205 m2
V3−2 = · V3 = · 115 m/s = 27,0 m/s
A3−2 0,00874 m2
Maximum airspeed should be about 30 m/s in the combustion chamber in order not to
extinguish the flame or blow it aft of the turbine wheel. There is a significant airflow shielding by
the chamber design at the fuel outlets further aids combustion in the primary zone of the
combustion chamber.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 15

Diffuser outlet pressure
Diffuser loss is related to the cone angle of the passage. For FD3, the expansion “corridor”
between the stator blades is measured to be 15 degrees, hence the efficiency of the diffuser is ηd
= 0,8 from the figure below. The figure is for a pure conical diffuser shape, so the actual efficiency
less due to wall friction from the blades, the square channel and the 90-degree bend of airflow,
so a number of 0,7 is used for isentropic efficiency – consistent with Schreckling.

Knowing the isentropic efficiency and the velocity reduction, the added pressure in the diffuser
can be calculated:
ΔPDiffuser = ηd·1/2 ·ρ·ΔV2
ΔPDiffuser = 0,7·1/2 ·1,5 kg/m3 ·(173 m/s2 - 27 m/s2 ) = 15,3 kPa = 0,15 atm.
The diffusor outlet pressure P3 is 1,26 + 0,15 atm = 1,41 atm.

The diffuser outlet pressure can also be calculated in the following way: The overall pressure
ratio of the compressor (consisting of impeller and diffuser) is given by the ideal expression:
γ γ
P03 u2 · V2t γ−1 σ · u22 γ−1
= [1 + ] = [1 + ]
P01 cp · T01 cp · T01
Where:
u2 = Tangential impeller body velocity [m/s]
V2t = Tangential air velocity [m/s]
σ = Slip factor, calculated to be 0,64
cp = Specific heat of air entering compressor, 1005 J/kgK for T = 300 K
T01 = Compressor inlet stagnation temperature = 288 K
γ = heat capacity ratio. For dry air γ = 1,4 at atmospheric pressure

3,5
P03 0,64 · 257,7 m/s2
= (1 + ) = 1,62
P01 1005 J/kgK · 288 K

Alternatively, the pressure ratio can be calculated from the stagnation temperatures:
γ
P03 T γ−1 332 K 3,5
P01
= (T03 ) = (288 K) = 1,64 → ok!
01

Again, these are ideal values for temperature and pressure. The real pressure ratio, also taking
isentropic efficiency and windage into account is somewhat lower.
Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 16
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor (impeller and diffuser) as a whole is about 0,7.
γ
P03 Ψ·σ·u 2 γ−1
P01
= [1 + ηT · c ·T 2 ]
p 01

ηT = Isentropic efficiency of compressor system

Ψ = Power input factor, assumed to be 1,04
3,5
P03 1,04 · 0,64 · 257,7 m/s2
= (1 + 0,7 · ) = 1,43
P01 1005 J/kgK · 288 K

As P01 is 1 atm, P03 equals 1,43 atm

The static pressure is found by subtracting the dynamic part from the total stagnation pressure.

P03 = P3 + ½ · ρ · V32 → P3 = P03 − ½ · ρ · V32

P3 = 1,43 · 101,325 kPa − ½ · 1,62 kg/m3 · 27,0 m2 /𝑠

= 144,6 kPa − 0,59 kPa = 144,0 kPa = 1,42 atm
There is a good consistency between the pressure calculations, the average being 1,42 atm.
1,41 is brought forward in the calculations, for now to comply with Schreckling.

Diffuser outlet temperature

The temperature increase associated to the pressure increase is found by the isentropic
relationship:
γ−1 γ−1
T3 P γ P γ P3 = 1,41 atm
= ( 3) → T3 = T1 · ( 3 ) 3’
Temperature T [K]

T1 P1 P1 318
3 P2 = 1,26 atm
1,41 0,286
T3 = 281 K · ( ) = 317,5 K ≈ 45 °C 310
0,92 2 2’ P1 = 1,0 atm

288 0
The diffusor outlet temperature T3 is 45 °C.
Entropy S [J/K]

The isentropic efficiency is already accounted for in this calculation.

The temperature increase from inlet to the diffusor is:

ΔT = T3’ – T0 = 45 °C – 15 °C = 32 °C.
This is consistent with Schrecklings “about 30 degrees”.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 17

 Diffusor blade angle
The diffuser blades stop the swirl component. Here, the optimum blade angle, with zero
incidence at its leading edge, will be calculated. Before passing through the channels of the
diffuser blades, the airflow pass through the intermediate vaneless space.

V2t’ γ V2r’
V2r
V2t

D = 107 mm
D = 66 mm

D = 75 mm

D = 94 mm
<

The (tangential) swirl airspeed component V2t is inversely proportional with diameter, to
conserve angular momentum. The radial airspeed component V2r is inversely proportional to the
flow area, in other words inversely proportional with diameter squared?
V2t = 164,9 m/s at 66 mm diameter
V2t’ = 164,9 m/s * 66/75 = 145,1 m/s at 75 mm diameter
V2r = 51,2 m/s at 66 mm diameter
V2r’ = 51,2 m/s * (66/75)2 = 39,6 m/s at 75 mm diameter
The angle γ for the diffuser vane for zero incidence should be:
V2r′ 39,6 m/s
V2r
tan γ = =
V2t′ 145,1 m/s
γ
γ = 15,3° - does not make sense!
V2t

To account for blade thickness, a further two degrees shall be added [Schreckling].
The optimum angle of the diffuser blades is calculated to be xx°.

50 Mass flow check, for diffuser outlet:

Radial position [mm]

V P Diffuser ṁ = ρ3 · V3r · A3
38 e
Vaneless Space P3 1,41 · 101,325 kPa
33 ρ3 = = = 1,56 kg/m3
R · T3 287 J/kgK · 318 K
Impeller
ṁ = 1,56 kg/m3 · 36,0 m/s · 0,00205 m2
16
ṁ = 0,115 kg/s - ok
Pressure and velocity

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 18

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Here, the increase in temperature and airspeed passing the combustion chamber will be
calculated.
The purpose of the combustion chamber is to raise the temperature of the passing airflow by
fuel combustion. This entails a significant expansion that accelerates the gas out the exhaust
nozzle, driving the turbine on its way.
The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 3 (combustion
chamber inlet) to state 4 (combustion chamber outlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated
in the figure below.

Q̇
3 4

Known: To be calculated
V3 = 27,0 m/s V4
T3 = 45 ºC = 318 K T4
P3 = 1,41 atm P4

The combustion chamber outlet area is:

A4 = π/4 · (0,099 m2 - 0,042 m2) = 0,00630 m2

Temperature increase due to Fuel addition

The following data for fuel and fuel flow is given for the FD3 (Jet A1 assumed):
Energy content of Jet A1: 43 MJ/kg (values for Diesel and Petrol are very similar)
Density of Jet A1: 0,8 kg/l Schreckling uses density of 0,85. 160
ml/min is stated in first edition, 200 in later
Fuel consumption at full power: 160 ml/min book and 160 in last. Graph 5.7 indicates
160 ml/min = 2,67 ml/s = 0,00213 kg/s = 2,13 g/s 2,5 ml/s = 150 ml/min. 160 assumed here

The theoretical energy of the fuel added to the air in the combustion chamber equals:
QFuel-theoretical = 43 MJ/kg * 0,00213 kg/s = 91,6 kW
Typical combustion inefficiency is between 7 and 9%. This brings the actual energy transferred
to the air from the fuel down to 40 MJ/kg as described by Schreckling. However, combustion
losses for micro turbines seems somewhat higher, especially for the original FD3 vaporizer. A
value of 15 % will be assumed here:
QFuel = 91,6 kW * 0,85 = 77,9 kW

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 19

The energy transferred to the air results in a temperature increase across the chamber:
𝑄
Q = ṁ · ΔT · cp → ΔT =
ṁ·cp

77,9 kW
ΔT = 0,117 kg/s·1077 J/kgK = 617,9 K

The air temperature at the end of the combustion chamber T4 is 318 + 618 = 936 K = 663 °C.
Note: Mass flow has increased by 0,002 kg/s due to fuel addition. cp for 1000 K is 1149 kJ/kgK
and 1005 for ambient temperature - an average of 1077 is used here. This calculation assumes
a full mix of the secondary and tertiary air after initial combustion in the primary zone.

Velocity increase due to temperature increase

Using the conservation off mass principle, from state 3 to 4:
ṁ = ρ · A · V = constant, i.e. ρ3 · A3 · V3 = ρ4 · A4 · V4
Ideal gas law:
P P3 P4
ρ= , ρ3 = , ρ4 =
R·T R·T3 R·T4

Combining ideal gas law and mass conservation principle:

P3 P
· A3 · V3 = R·T4 · A4 · V4
R·T3 4

Initial assumptions:
P3 = P4 (no pressure loss in the combustion chamber)
R is constant
The added mass of the fuel to the airflow is neglected. This is very little (0,002 kg/s)
compared to the airflow (0,115 kg/s), only about 2%.
Then the equation simplifies as:
V3 V4 T4 A3
· A3−2= · A4 → V4 =
T3
·
A4
· V3
T3 T4

936 K 0,00874 m2
V4 = · · 27,0 m/s = 110,3 m/s
318 K 0,00630 m2

The pressure drop across the combustion chamber is typically between 2 and 8 %, a value of 6
% will be assumed here (i.e. the combustion chamber outlet pressure is 1,41 atm *0,94 = 1,33
atm):
P4 = P3·0,94
V3 V T A
· A3−2 = 0,94 · T4 · A4 → 4
V4 = 0,96·T · A3 · V3
T3 4 3 4

936 K 0,00874 m2
V4 = · · 27,0 m/s = 117,3 m/s
0,94·318 K 0,00630 m2

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 20

The air velocity at the end of the combustion chamber V4 is 117 m/s. The pressure is assumed
to be 1,33 atm.

Mass flow check, combustion chamber outlet:

ṁ = ρ4 · V4 · A4
P 1,33 · 101,325 kPa
Pv = RT → ρ = = = 0,50 kg/m3
RT 287 J/kgK · 936 K

ṁ = 0,50 kg/m3 · 117,3 m/s · 0,00630 m2

ṁ = 0,369 kg/s Not ok! Velocity should be 37,1 m/s….

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 21

NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
The expansion part of the Brayton cycle consists of the nozzle guide vanes (NGV), turbine and
exhaust nozzle. The function is the exact opposite of the compressor (impeller and diffuser); to
convert enthalpy into mechanical work – as near isentropically as possible.
The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 4 (combustion
chamber outlet) to state 5 (turbine inlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated in the figure
below:

4 Known: To be calculated
5 V4 = 37 m/s V5
T4 = 936 K = 663 °C T5
P4 = 1,33 atm P5

The flow area passing the Turbine blades, A5, is:

Outer diameter of turbine wheel, do = 0,064 mm
Inner diameter of turbine blades, di = 0,042 mm
A5 = π/4 · (0,064 m2 – 0,042 m2) = 0,00183 m2
The NGV inlet density can be calculated as:
P4
ρ4 =
R · T4
1,33·101,325 kPa
ρ4 = = 0,50 kg/m3
287 J/kgK·936K

And the stagnation pressure:

1
P04 = P4 + · ρ · V42
2
P04 = 1,33 · 101,325 kPa + ½ · 0,50 kg/m3 · 37 m/s 2 = 134,7 kPa + 0,3 kPa
= 135,0 kPa ≈ 1,33 atm

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 22

And finally, the stagnation temperature:

V42 37 m/s 2
T04 = T4 + = 936 K + = 936 K + 0,6 K = 936,6 K
2 · cp 2 · 1142 J/kgK
As no work or heat is added nor extracted in the nozzle, the stagnation properties are
unchanged; T04 = T05 and P04 = P05. The increase in velocity comes at a loss in temperature and
pressure as amount of total energy in the control volume is constant.
The airspeed increases in the nozzle, due to the flow area reduction:
P4 P
· A4 · V4 = R·T5 · A5 · V5
R·T4 5

This is the airspeed perpendicular to the control volume, i.e. the axial component. Assume T4 =
T5 and P4 = P5 initially:

A4 · V4 = A5 · V5a
A 0,00630 m2
V5a = A4 · V4 = 0,00183 m2
· 37 m/s = 127,4 m/s
5

However, the nozzle guide vanes turn the airflow by 52 degrees into a swirl. The above is the
axial component, to satisfy mass flow through the cross section. The absolute airspeed is
higher.
Consider the triangle to the right, consisting of axial, Nozzle Guide Vanes
4 5
tangential and total airspeed components for state 5.

V5t V5
V5a V5a
cos 52° = V5
→ V5 = cos 52°

127,4 m/s α = 52 °
V5 = cos 52°
= 206,9 m/s
V5a
This is the just the starting point for iterations. V4 = 37 m/s
Changes in temperature and density will bring
the airspeed up from this initial assumption,
this will become evident as iterations are done.
In other words: the airflow is not supersonic!

As before we need an iterative process to find the correct temperature, pressure and density:
New temperature:

V52
T05 = T04 = T5 + = 936 K
2 · cp

V52 207 m/s2

T5 = T05 − = 936 K − = 936 K − 18,8 K = 917,2 K
2 · cp 2 · 1142 J/kgK

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 23

New pressure:
P05 1,33 atm
P5 = γ = = 1,23 atm
T05 γ−1 936 K 3,94
(T ) (917 K)
5

New density:
P5 1,23 atm·101,325 kPa
ρ5 = = = 0,47 kg/m3
R·T5 287 J/kgK·917 K

Updated velocity, after first iteration:

ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V5a = = = 136,0 m/s
ρ5 · A5 0,47 kg/m3 · 0,00183 m2
V5a 136,0 m/s
V5 = = = 221,0 m/s
cos 52° cos 52°

This is somewhat lower than the initial velocity estimate. A second iteration is needed:
New temperature:

V52 221,0 m/s2

T5 = T05 − = 936 K − = 936 K − 21,4 K = 914,6 K
2 · cp 2 · 1142 J/kgK
New pressure:
P05 1,33 atm
P5 = γ = = 1,22 atm
T05 γ−1 936 K 3,94
(T ) ( )
915 K
5

New density:
P5 1,22 atm·101,325 kPa
ρ5 = = = 0,47 kg/m3
R·T5 287 J/kgK·95 K

Updated velocity, after second iteration:

ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V5a = = = 136,2 m/s
ρ5 · A5 0,47 kg/m3 · 0,00183 m2
V5a 136,2 m/s
V5 = = = 221,3 m/s
cos 52° cos 52 °

This is only a small change in velocity estimate. Solution is considered converged.

Note γ for hot combusted gas is 1,34 (exponent becoming 3,94) while cp is 1142 J/kgK for 1000
K.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 24

These are the ideal values. According to Schreckling, the isentropic efficiency is ηt = 0,7 for the
FD3 expansion part of the Brayton cycle (consisting of the turbine nozzle, turbine and exhaust
nozzle).
Assuming half the loss is in the nozzle guide vane and the other half is in the turbine
𝑇4 − 𝑇5′
𝜂= P4 = 1,33 atm
𝑇4 − 𝑇5

Temperature T [K]
4
936
T5′ = T4 − η · (T4 − T5 )
P5 = 1,21 atm
T5′ = 936 K − 0,85 · (936 K − 915 K) 5’
918
915 5
T5′ = 936 K − 17,9 K = 918,2 K ≈ 645 °C

Entropy S [J/K]
New pressure:
P05 1,33 atm
P5 = γ = = 1,23 atm
T05 γ−1 936 K 3,94
(T ) (918 K)
5′

New density:
P5 1,23 atm·101,325 kPa
ρ5 = = = 0,47 kg/m3
R·T5′ 287 J/kgK·918 K

Updated velocity:
ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V5a = = = 134,9 m/s
ρ5 · A5 0,47 kg/m3 · 0,00183 m2
V5a 134,9 m/s
V5 = = = 219,2 m/s
cos 52° cos 52 °

After passing the nozzle guide vanes, the temperature is 918 K = 645 °C, the absolute airspeed
is 219 m/s and the pressure is 1,23 atm.
Even with a low assumption of combustion losses, the airspeed will not match the expected 261
m/s. And then the temperature is way higher than expected. 261 m/s is brought forward in this
document for now. This has the assumed tangential velocity V5t = 207 m/s

Mass flow check, nozzle guide vanes:

ṁ = ρ5 · V5a · A5

ṁ = 0,47 kg/m3 · 134,9 m/s · 0,00183 m2

ṁ = 0,116 kg/s Ok!

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 25

TURBINE
The function of the turbine is to extract energy from the passing exhaust flow and transfer this
via the shaft to the compressor.
The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 5 (turbine inlet) to
state 6 (turbine outlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated in the figure below:

5 6
Known: To be calculated
V5 = 261 m/s V6
V5a = 161 m/s T6
V5t = 206 m/s P6
T5 = 918 K = 645 ºC Turbine power
P5 = 1,23 atm Turbine moment
A6 = A5 = 0,00183 m2

Airspeed through Turbine

The following geometric properties applies for Turbine disk and its blades:
um

ω
γ = 37 °

Um

Inner diameter, di = 0,042 m

Outer diameter, da = 0,064 m
Turbine blade angle, γ = 37 ° (from mean blade height and outwards to the tip)
Mean diameter, dm = ½ (di + da) = ½ · (0,064 m + 0,042 m) = 0,053 m
The mean peripheral blade speed um can be calculated as:
um = dm · π · nmax = 0,053 m · π · 1243 1/s = 207 m/s
Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 26
The following calculations will be carried out and vectors presented at mean blade position, ie a
“mean line analysis”. In a reaction turbine, the whirl component of the flow from the NGV equals
the blade speed. Expansion also takes place passing the rotor blade. Typically, half of the
pressure drop is in the NGV and half across the turbine. The FD3 turbine is of this type, contrary
to an impulse turbine where the entire pressure drop takes place in the NGV and the turbine
merely reverse the direction of the relative whirl. Whirl is not producing thrust and is not sought
after in this application of a turbine.
In the rotor, the air imparts its momentum on to the rotor that converts kinetic energy into power
output to drive the compressor. The theoretical pitch of the turbine blade is the distance it would
move air, effortless without any work being extracted to the compressor nor lost in rotor friction.
The axial velocity component of the air after passing the turbine (theoretical pitch):
V6a = 207 m/s · tan 37 ° = 156 m/s
This is equal to the stated exhaust airspeed by Schreckling without the exhaust nozzle.

Nozzle Guide Vanes Turbine Blades

4 5 6
V5t = 206 m/s
V5 = 261 m/s

52 °
V5a = 161 m/s

V6 = 156 m/s

Um = 207 m/s

The following quantities are valid for turbine blade leading edge (5) aka inlet and turbine blade
trailing edge (6), aka outlet. This is illustrated with a velocity vector diagram.
V5a
α1 = Angle of absolute velocity to turbine blade inlet
(This angle is equal to the NGV outlet angle) C5
α2 = Angle of absolute velocity to turbine blade outlet β1
β1 = Angle of Turbine blade inlet
Outlet
β2 = Angle of Turbine blade outlet V5t
triangles
V5 = Absolute inlet velocity
V6 = Absolute outlet velocity V5
β2
V5a = Axial component of absolute inlet velocity
Um
V5t = Tangential component of absolute inlet velocity Inlet
V6a = Axial component of absolute outlet velocity triangles α1 C6
V6t = Tangential component of absolute outlet velocity
C5 = Relative velocity of flow to moving turbine blade at inlet
C6 = Relative velocity of flow to moving turbine blade at outlet V6
V6t α2
Um = Tangential velocity of turbine blade at mean height V6a

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 27

Notes:
While values for β is of pure geometric nature, values of α are relative values to the local airflow.
α2 should be as close to 90° as possible to direct exhaust axially rather than in a swirl.
The angles β1 and β2 are geometric and can be found in the turbine drawings:

From the drawing of the cross section of the turbine blade at mean height it is apparent that the
trailing edge angle β2 is 37°. The leading-edge angle β1 is measured to 75° by the help of the
middle line of the blade profile (red line). Both angles are measured from the rotor plane.
Velocity components at turbine blade leading edge with known quantities filled in:
V5t
cos α1 = → V5t = V5 · cos α1 β1 = 70 °
V5
C5
V5t = 261 m/s · cos 38 ° = 205,7 m/s
V5t
V5a V V5 =261 m/s
sin β1 = → C5 = sin5a𝛽 Um = 207 m/s
C5 1

161 m/s
C5 = = 166,7 m/s α1 = 38 °
sin 75 °

V5a = 161 m/s

Velocity components at turbine blade trailing edge with known quantities filled in:
V6a V
tan β2 = U → Um + V6t = tan6aβ
m +V6t 2
β2 = 37 °
156 m/s
Um + V6t = = 207 m/s
tan 37 °
As Um = 207 m/s, V6t = 0 m/s and V6 = V6a = 156 m/s Um = 207 m/s C6
α2 = 90 °, i.e. no swirl in flow in exhaust flow

C6 = √V6a2 + (Um + V6t )2

V6
V6t α2
C6 = √156 m/s 2 + (207 m/s + 0 m/s)2 = 259 m/s
V6a = 156 m/s

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 28

Turbine power
In the ideal case for a thrust producing turbojet, the turbine work is equal to the compressor
work. This is not so for a turboprop or a power generating turbine, where additional energy is
extracted from the axle. The power developed by the turbine can be calculated by the Euler
turbine equation, as already done for the impeller:
Torque: T = ṁ · r · Vt
Power: P = M · ω u=ω·r → ω = u/ r
The tangential airspeed Vt and the rotational velocity u is measured at the same mean blade
radius rm. Combining the three equations gives:
PTurbine = ṁ · rm · Vtm · um / rm = ṁ · Vtm · um

PTurbine = 0,115 kg/s · 207 m/s · 207 m/s = 4928 W = 4,9 kW

Alternatively, which gives about the same result:

PTurbine = ṁ · (V5t + V6t ) · um

PTurbine = 0,115 kg/s · (206 m/s + 0 m/s) · 207m/s = 4904 kW = 4,9 kW
The power extracted from the airflow by the turbine is 4,9 kW
According to Schreckling an additional 10% of torque is needed to compensate for frictional
rotation losses. The compressor power is already calculated to be 5,1 kW, so an additional 0,51
kW is needed from the turbine to cover these losses. The needed net total being 5,61 kW.

Degree of reaction
It is stated that the FD3 is a reaction turbine, this can be verified. The degree of reaction can be
calculated by the following formula:
1 V6a
R= +2· · (tan β2 − tan α1 )
2 Um
1 156 m/s 1
R= +2· · (tan 37 ° − tan 38 °) = − 0,03 = 0,47
2 207 m/s 2
Alternatively:

C62 − C52 259 m/s 2 − 167 m/s2

R= = = 0.46
2 · Um · (V5T + V6T ) 2 · 207m/s · (207m/s + 0)

The degree of reaction is linked to the temperatures: P4

Temperature T [K]

T5 ′−T6′ T5′ −R·T4 4

R= T4 −T6′
→ T6′ = 1−R 936
P5
5’
918 K−0,46 ·936 K 918
5 P6 Equal for R = 0,5
T6′ = 1−0,46
= 902,7 K ≈ 630 °C 6’
902
6

Entropy S [J/K]
The temperature after passing the turbine T6 is 630 °C.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 29

The associated power extracted from the airflow by the Turbine:
Q = ṁ · cp · ΔT = ṁ · cp · (T05′ − T06′ )

V52 156 m/s2

T06′ = T6′ + = T6′ + = 903 K + 10,7 K = 913,7 K
2 · cp 2 · 1142 kJ/kgK
Q = 0,117 kg/s · 1142 J/kgK · (937 K - 914 K) = 3073 W ≈ 3,1 kW

Note: A value for cp is 1142 kJ/kgK for the assumed mean temperature of 1000 K.
Not consistent with the calculated power extracted from the turbine!

Pressure fall due to change of temperature

γ γ
P6 T6 γ−1 T6 γ−1
=( ) → P6 = P5 · ( )
P5 T5 T5

903 K 3,94
P6 = 1,23 atm · ( ) = 1,15 atm
918 K

The nozzle outlet pressure P6 = 1,15 atm

P4 = 1,33 atm
Temperature T [K]

4 P5 = 1,23 atm
936
5’
5 P6 = 1,15 atm
6’
918
903
6

Entropy S [J/K]

Mass flow check, for turbine outlet:

ṁ = ρ6 · V6 · A6
P6 1,15 atm · 101,325 kPa
ρ6 = = = 0,45 kg/m3
R · T6′ 287 J/kgK · 903 K

ṁ = 0,45 kg/m3 · 156 m/s · 0,00183 m2

ṁ = 0,125 kg/s Somewhat high!

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 30

Turbine Moment
It is the aerodynamic lift force from the n=17 moving
airfoil-shaped turbine blades that creates the axle turning F
moment, see figure to the right. M

The peripheral blade speed Um is equal to the

tangential inlet airspeed V5t from the NGV, so the relative
airspeed of the blade is V5a, see figure below to the right.

Note: both V5t and Um is 207 m/s, so the relative airspeed of the blades is 156 m/s at an angle of
incidence of α = 37°
Geometric data for the turbine blades:
Turbine blade length: (0,064 m – 0,042 m) / 2 = 11 mm F

Inner blade width (aerodynamic chord) = 7,8 mm

Outer blade width = 9,3 mm V5 = 261 m/s

Mean blade width = 8,6 mm

The temperature and density changes across the blade chord (from state 5 to 6):
P5 1,21 · 101325 Pa
ρ5 = = = 0,42 kg/m3
R · T5 287 J/kgK · 1015 K
P6 1,10 · 101325 Pa
ρ6 = = = 0,39 kg/m3
R · T6 287 J/kgK · 990 K
An average value of 0,41 will be used here.
The formula for lift force for each blade “wing” is given by:
1
F = · ρ · V 2 · CL · A
2

Where CL is the lift coefficient of the turbine blade “wing”, a value of 1,0 will be assumed here. A
is the blade area. V is the speed of the blade, again taken av mean blade radius. Making a
simplified calculation at mean radius will underpredict the lift force somewhat as lift force is
proportional to the square of speed.
1
F = 2 · 0,41 kg/m3 · 261 m/s 2 · 1,0 · 0,011 m · 0,0086 m = 1,32 N

1
M = F · r · n = 1,32 N · · 0,053 m · 17 = 0,60 Nm
2
The calculated needed moment to run the compressor was found to be 0,63 Nm
A good consistency between the turbine blade lift force and the axle moment is found.

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 31

EXHAUST NOZZLE
The function of the exhaust nozzle is to increase the turbine thrust. The resulting force on the
nozzle acts against the movement of the air and decreases the thrust. It is the generated back
pressure to the combustion chamber that raises the engine overall pressure ratio. This is turn
increase the engine thrust.
The control volume (dotted, green) for the calculations is selected from state 6 (nozzle inlet) to
state 7 (nozzle outlet) in the ensuing calculations, as illustrated in the figure below:

6 7 Known: To be calculated
V6 = 156 m/s V7
T6 = 903 K = 630 ºC T7
P6 = 1,15 atm P7
A6 = 0,00183 m2

Flow area exiting exhaust cone (A7):

Nozzle Outer diameter at orifice = 61,5 mm
Inner cone diameter at nozzle orifice = 35 mm
Cross section area:
A6 = π/4 * (0,064 m2 – 0,042 m2) = 0,00183 m2
A7 = π/4 * (0,0615 m2 – 0,035 m2) = 0,00201 m2 -> ie bigger???
Assuming detached flow (not expanding along the inner cone…at least inside the
nozzle?)
A7 = π/4 * (0,0615 m2 – 0,042 m2) = 0,00158 m2

As no work or heat is added nor extracted in the nozzle, the stagnation properties are
unchanged; T07 = T06 and P07 = P06. The increase in velocity comes at a loss in temperature and
pressure as amount of total energy in the control volume is constant.
The airspeed increases in the nozzle, due to the flow area reduction:
P6 P
· A6 · V6 = R·T7 · A7 · V7
R·T6 7

Assume T6 = T7 and P6 = P7 initially:

A6 · V6 = A7 · V7
A 0,00183 m2
V7 = A6 · V6 = 0,00158 m2
· 156 m/s = 180,7 m/s
7

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 32

As before we need an iterative process to find the correct temperature, pressure and density:
New temperature:

V62 156 m/s 2

T07 = T06 = T6 + = 903 K + = 903 K + 10,7 K = 913,7 K
2 · cp 2 · 1131 kJ/kgK
1
P07 = P06 = P6 + · ρ · V62
2
P07 = 1,15 · 101,325 kPa + ½ · 0,45 kg/m3 · 156 m/s2 = 116,5 kPa + 5,5 kPa
= 122,0 kPa ≈ 1,20 atm

Note: A value for cp is 1131 kJ/kgK for the assumed mean temperature of 900 K.
V62 180,7 m/s2
T7 = T07 − = 914 K − = 914 K − 14,4 K = 899,6 K
2 · cp 2 · 1131 J/kgK
New pressure:
P07 1,20 atm
P7 = γ = = 1,13 atm
T07 γ−1 914 K 3,94
(T ) (900 K)
7

New density:
P7 1,13 atm·101,325 kPa
ρ7 = = = 0,44 kg/m3
R·T7 287 J/kgK·900 K

Updated velocity, after first iteration:

ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V7 = = = 167,1 m/s
ρ7 · A7 0,44 kg/m3 · 0,00158 m2

This is a little lower than the initial velocity estimate. A second iteration is needed:
New temperature:

V72 167,1 m/s2

T7 = T07 − = 903 K − = 903 K − 12,3 K = 890,7 K
2 · cp 2 · 1131 J/kgK
New pressure:
P07 1,20 atm
P7 = γ = = 1,11 atm
T07 γ−1 914 K 3,94
(T ) (891 K)
7

New density:
P7 1,11 atm·101,325 kPa
ρ7 = = = 0,44 kg/m3
R·T7 287 J/kgK·891 K

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 33

Updated velocity, after second iteration:
ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V7 = = = 169,0 m/s
ρ7 · A7 0,44 kg/m3 · 0,00158 m2
There is hardly any velocity change from first to second iteration and the answer is considered
converged.
These are the ideal values. Assuming half the loss is in the nozzle guide vane and the other half
is in the turbine
P4
𝑇4 − 𝑇7′
𝜂=

Temperature [K]
4 P5
𝑇4 − 𝑇7 936

5’ P6
T7′ = T4 − η · (T4 − T7 )
5 6’ P7
T7′ = 936 K − 0,85 · (936 K − 891 K) 928
6 7’
923
T7′ = 936 K − 38,3 K = 897,8 K ≈ 625 °C 7

New pressure:
Entropy [J/K]
P07 1,20 atm
P7 = γ = = 1,02 atm P3 = 1,41 atm
T07 γ−1 914 K 3,94
(T ) (898 K) Temperature T [K] 4’ P4 =1,33 atm
7′ 936

New density: P1= 1,0 atm

928
P7 1,02 atm·101,325 kPa 3’ 7’
ρ7 = = = 0,41 kg/m3 318
R·T7′ 287 J/kgK·877 K
281
Updated velocity: 1
ṁ 0,117 kg/s
V7 = = = 155,1 m/s Entropy S [J/K]
ρ7 · A7 0,41 kg/m3 · 0,00183 m2
The exhaust nozzle outlet temperature and velocity is T7 = 625 °C and V7 = 155 m/s. Pressure is
calculated to be ambient, P7 = 1 atm.

T6 can be found by ratio of temperatures:

T3’ / T0 = T4’ / T7’ Mass flow check, for exhaust nozzle outlet:
T7’ = T4’ * T1 / T3’ ṁ = ρ7 · V7 · A7
T7’ = 936 K * 288 K / 318 K ṁ = 0,44(0,35!) kg/m3 · 209 m/s · 0,00158 m2
T7’ = 848 K = 574 °C ṁ = 0,128 kg/s 12% too high
The calculated value of T7 is too low. A value of
615 °C = 888 K would give a T4 of 981 K. This
would give a combustion inefficiency of about
9%

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 34

ENERGIES
The net-work output for a jet propulsion cycle is zero. This can be verified by calculations. The
control volume for the calculations (dotted, green) is selected around the whole engine:

VAir
QFuel
QAir

Energy added from Fuel: QFuel = 77,9 kW

Energy to heating of air: Q Air = ṁ · cp · ΔT = 0,117 kg/s · 1051 J/kgK · 600 K = 73,8 kW

Frictional losses in the rotor: WFriction = 0,5 kW ?? or included in hot exhaust?

Kinetic energy rate in exhaust: KEAir = 1/2·ṁ·V72 = 1/2 · 0,117 kg/s · (209 m/s)2 = 2,5 kW
Heat loss from aft end ca 0,5-1 kW? (This is used to heat bypass air and produce extra thrust)
The control volume balance = 77,9 kW - 73,8 kW - 2,5 kW = 1,6 kW
The energies do not quite balance out.

THRUST
Static thrust without exhaust nozzle
The airspeed after the turbine without the exhaust nozzle is calculated to be 156 m/s.
Thrust can then be calculated as:
F = ṁ · (Vexhaust − Vinlet ) = ṁ · (V6 − V0 )
F = 0,115 kg/s · (156 m/s – 0 m/s) = 17,9 N
The static thrust of the FD3 turbojet without the exhaust nozzle is 17,9 N

Static trust with exhaust nozzle

The airspeed with the exhaust nozzle is calculated to be 209 m/s. The thrust is then:
F = ṁ · (V7 − V0 )
F = 0,115 kg/s · (209 m/s – 0 m/s) = 24,0 N
The static thrust of the FD3 turbojet with the exhaust nozzle is 24,0 N

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 35

 Velocity Temperature Pressure

P4 = 1,41 atm
4’ P3 = 1,33 atm
800

Isentropic P1 = 1,0 atm

600
Temperature T [°C]

7’

3’
50
3

2’ Isobaric
2

15
1

Entropy S [J/K]

Aero-Thermodynamic calculations on the FD3 model gas turbine 36