Mukesh Report TH
Mukesh Report TH
Mukesh Report TH
Project Report-I I
On
Submitted by
Group No : 20
Mr. Mukesh Chaudhari (B190070828)
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a single person cannot carry out a humble brief that any project work with
success. Nevertheless, we have made attempt to this report to express our deepest graduate
to all those who have contribute to make this project either directly or indirectly.
We whole heartedly thanks to our guide “ Prof. A.D. Zope ” for their valuable
ideas to inspiration, guidance and co-operation in the completion of project as without his
guidance, it would have been difficult to overcome the problems faced during analysis
and enhancement of thermos-acoustic refrigerator.
We are in debited to them for their guidance , Inspiration and encouragement that
they have rendered through the various phases in the completion of the project. We are
also express our gratefulness to all faculty members, college and group members and well
wishes whenever it due.
ABSTRACT
Thermoacoustics is a field that combines thermodynamics, fluid dynamics and
acoustics. In thermoacoustics it is possible to construct thermodynamic engines, prime
movers and heat pumps which respectively use heat to create work, and use work to create
or move heat.
There are two types of thermoacoustic devices, travelling wave and standing wave.
The first use a standard travelling acoustic wave and the second use a resonator in which the
acoustic waves interfere causing a standing wave.
A few suggestions for future work are also included in this report. Also given a larger
impetus thermoacoustic refrigeration could well prove to be the most attractive alternative
to traditional cooling.
LIST OF FIGURES:
LIST OF TABLES:
9 Expenditure 43
INDEX
Contents
1.Introduction ................................................................................................................ 11
3.2 Summary................................................................................................................ 24
References ...................................................................................................................... 57
Publications .................................................................................................................... 59
Nomenclature:
p pressure (N m-2)
T temperature (K)
f frequency (Hz)
ρ density (kg m-3)
λ wavelength (m)
f Rott’s function
εs Thermal Effusivity
Subscripts
m mean
a amplitude
1 local ampliude
s solid (plate)
n normalized
r, res resonator
Other Symbols
~ Complex Conjugate
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The customer’s needs in this market segment are efficiency, long life span and
warranty, capacity, acceptable price, nice design and color, quietness, respected brand,
safety and environmental friendliness. Thermo acoustic refrigerator has the most
important features built in our products to satisfy these consumer needs. We will
especially be good at offering environmental friendly, well-designed and long lasting
products.
Justification
Environmental Concerns:
Traditional refrigeration systems often use hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are potent greenhouse gases contributing to global
warming and ozone layer depletion. By contrast, thermoacoustic refrigeration does not
use these harmful substances, potentially reducing the environmental impact.
Energy Efficiency:
Thermoacoustic refrigeration has the potential to be more energy-efficient compared to
conventional systems. The technology leverages the acoustic energy and could convert
electrical energy into refrigeration more efficiently under certain conditions.
Cost-Effectiveness:
In the long term, thermoacoustic refrigeration systems could be more cost-effective due
to lower maintenance costs and the absence of expensive refrigerants. Additionally, as the
technology matures, the initial costs could decrease, making it a competitive alternative.
The source of acoustic energy is called ‘acoustic driver’ which can be a loudspeaker.
The acoustic driver emits sound waves in a long hollow tube filled with gas at high
pressure. This long hollow tube is called ‘resonance tube’ or simply ‘resonator’. The
frequency of the driver and the length of the resonator are chosen so as to get a standing
pressure wave in the resonator. A solid porous material like a stack of solid plates is
kept in the path of sound waves in the resonator.
Due to thermoacoustic effect heat starts to flow from one end of stack to the other. One
end starts to heat up while other starts to cool down. By controlling temperature of hot
side of stack (by removing heat by means of a heat exchanger), the cold end of stack
can be made to cool down to lower and lower temperatures. A refrigeration load can
then be applied at the cold end by means of a heat exchanger.
Figure 1.2 : Relationship between the phase of the wave, the pressure and the actual
arrangement of the molecules
Months/
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Activity
A
Activities:
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction:
In his 1686 work Principia , Newton included a mechanical interpretation of
sound as being pressure pulses transmitted through neighboring fluid particles. Newton
though this expansion sand compression sharpened without affecting the temperature,
while in fact they do produces light variations in temperature as found by LaPlace. This
was observed by 19th-century glass blowers who not iced that as the glass was heated up
sound was produced (Garrett). This made people wonder if a change temperature could
produce sound, could sound produce a change in temperature?
In 1975, Merkli and Thomann were able to observe sound producing a temperature
difference (Symko,646). Rotter searched these effects and developed the mathematics
describing oscillations in a tube with a temperature gradient(Swift, Unifying Perspective
2380).These results confirmed the connection between sound and heat. In1983, Wheatley
developed a thermo acoustic refrigerator ,which produced a temperature difference of 100oC
when pumped withs found at 500Hz at a level above 185 d B in pressurized helium
gas(Symko,648). Five years later, Hofler invented as tending-wave thermo acoustic
refrigerator, confirming the validity and accuracy of Rott’s approach to acoustics in small
channels (Swift, A Brief Description1).The Space Thermo acoustic Refrigerator(STAR) was
the first electrically-driven thermo acoustic chiller designed to operate outside a laboratory
.It was launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-42) on January 22, 1992.
Developed and tested at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, CA, it has the
ability to move five watts overheated exhibited a peak Carnot efficiency of 20% across the
stack (Penn State).
In 1995, the Shipboard Electronics Thermo acoustic Chiller was used to cool
electronics on board the Use coma Spruance-classed story Erin the Atlantic Fleet. While
at sea ,it produced a maximum cooling power of 419 watts and at the lowest temperature
which could be achieved using water as the heat exchanging fluid ,it produced 294 watts
of useful cooling .It exhibited a peak Carnot efficiency of 17%.
1. Temp gradient( T/ x)
The temperature gradient is measured as
∆T/ x = P / ρξCp
Where p is the acoustic pressure,
ξ is the displacement
amplitude, ρ is the density
and
Cp is the specific heat/unit
mass.
too small the gas will be unable to pass through the stack plates and moreover transfer of
heat to plates will be difficult. So the stack of plates should be kept at proper distances
apart. Moreover the acoustic pressure determines the temperature gradient setup. So, a
resonator is a must in a thermo acoustic refrigerator.
The study of thermoacoustic oscillations has a rich and interesting history. Bryon
Higgins (1777) made the first observations of thermoacoustic oscillations. A organ pipe
open at both ends started to emit sound when it was heated at certain locations along its
length. Sondhauss (1850) made experimental investigations of heat generated sound
when blowing a hot glass bulb at the end of a cold glass tube. Rijke (1859) found that
strong sound oscillations can be generated in an open ended hollow tube by keeping a
heated wiremesh screen at a quarter length distance from open end. The experimental
configurations for study of thermoacoustic oscillations are shown in Figure 2.1.
2.2 Methodology :
The methodology involved in the development of a thermo acoustic refrigerator
involved certain steps which ultimately led to a design which is easy to manufacture and
highly engineered. The design methodology path used is as follows:
Chapter 3
DESIGN OF SYSTEM
The simplified expressions for cooling power and acoustic power in terms of normalized
parameters are respectively given by,
Choose the working gas and stack material. From the calculated values of thermal
penetration depth, find plate spacing of the stack. The optimized plate spacing is equal to
twice the thermal penetration depth [1]. Assuming porosity, find plate thickness.
Step 2: Define stack COP as COP=Qcn/Wn. The stack COP becomes a function of only two
variables viz. Lsn and xsn. For different values of xns, the values of COP are plotted with
Lsn and optimal COP in each case is found out.
Step 3: Choose an optimum COP from the set and corresponding Lsn and xsn. From the
values of required cooling power Q and expression of normalized cooling power, calculate
stack cross section area.
Step 4: Calculate the resonator length so as to obtain a standing wave phasing between
oscillatory pressure and velocity. The length-frequency relation is given by,
Step 5: Determine the lengths of cold and hot side heat exchangers using the values of
displacement amplitudes and the cold and hot exchanger locations respectively. The optimal
length equals twice the displacement amplitude. The porosity of heat exchangers should be
equal to that of stack to prevent any discontinuity in gas flow passage.
Based on the design algorithm given by Herman et.al., Tijani et.al. designed and constructed
a loudspeaker driven thermoacoustic refrigerator. The effect of blockage ratio on
performance of refrigerator was studied experimentally by varying the plate spacing . It was
observed that maximum heat flux occurs when plate spacing was twice the thermal
penetration depth. By using binary mixtures of inert gases , the effect of Prandtl number was
studied. A 30-70 mixture of Xe-He with a Prandtl Number of 0.2 gave optimum results. A
technique to optimize the loudspeaker to drive a given refrigerator was given by the authors.
The lowest temperature reported was -65oC. The operating parameters and stack dimensions
are given below in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Tijani’s operating parameters and stack dimensions
Besides these, several other refrigerators were developed by various research groups.
Details of some notable refrigerators are given in Table 3.4.
𝑐 355991.37
Sound Wavelength ( λ ) = = = 1480.21mm
𝑓 240.5
Since there is no information on the buffer in the literature so far, we designed it base
on Tijani’s design with some modifications.
The end cap is a part to make sure that the resonator is closed so that the pressure will
be maintained and there should not be pressure losses. The end cap was also designed
to deliver gases from here. And last but not least, the end cap also functions as an open
end to the resonator.
2. Then we state the available operating frequency (f) in here we choose f = 240.5Hz
3. Tijani’s mentioned that to avoid nonlinear effect, M, Mach number
has to be limited to M ≈ 0.1.
𝑃𝑜
𝑀=𝜌 2
𝑚𝑎
Where: Po = Dynamic Pressure
Pm= Average Pressure
With M = 0.1, the Drive Ratio should be less than 0.03, D ≤ 0.03. Then we choose D =
0.02
D = P a / Pm
The Average Pressure, Pm should be as large as possible. Due to difficulties in
fabrication we choose Pm = 10bar. Then we can decide the dynamic pressure, Po. So we
get Po = 0.2bar
4. The mean temperature, Tm is set to be Tm = 300 K and then calculate the Normalized
temperature difference, ∆Tm by this equation below,
∆Tm
∆Tmn = Tm
Where:
∆Tmn = Normalized temperature difference
∆Tm = Temperature gradient
Tm = mean temperature
Operating Parameters
Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF A STANDING WAVE TAR
4.1 Introduction:
A standing wave TAR can be divided into two major sub-systems – the heat pumping
assembly and the driver assembly. The heat pumping system consists of the stack, the
two heat exchangers and the resonator. The driver assembly consists of a magnet-voice
coil based electro-dynamic motor and a pusher cone suitably constructed for
thermoacoustic refrigeration.
This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part describes a theoretical model of a
loudspeaker driven straight gas column. This can be thought of a TAR assembly void
of the stack and the heat exchangers. The resonance frequency and dynamic pressure
generated in the gas column can be predicted using this analysis. Due to observed non-
linear effects in straight resonators, it is concluded that a resonator with non-uniform
cross section be used. The second part of this chapter describes the design of this new
resonator using an available software, DeltaEC. Finally, in the third part, an iterative
method is developed to predict the thermodynamic performance of a TAR
configuration.
(4.1)
where, p1(x) and u1(x) are the oscillatory pressure and velocity at location ‘x’. The
transfer function giving the acoustic impedance at location ‘x’ in terms of acoustic
impedance at any other location ‘x`’ is given by [3] :
(4.2)
(4.3)
Here, ‘k’ is the wave number and ‘fv’ is the complex Rott’s viscosity function denoting
the loss of acoustic power at the walls of the channel. A rigidly sealed end at x=L would
result in a location of infinite acoustic impedance. In this case, the acoustic impedance
at the driver piston would be:
(4.4)
This complex acoustic load resonates when its imaginary part is zero. The relation
between the channel length, the frequency and the sound speed for fundamental
resonance mode is:
(4.5)
As can be seen from eqn (4.4), the acoustic impedance of a given geometry depends on
the density of the working medium. Thus, it can be varied by changing the mean
pressure, mean temperature or the medium itself. However in practice, it is not feasible
to vary the mean temperature of the working medium.
length L4 in specified order. The larger diameter of the conical buffer is D4. The
acoustic driver is located at the beginning of the larger diameter tube at x=0. A similar
geometry was also used by Tijani et.al in their standing wave TAR.
The geometry shown above is modeled in DeltaEC. For a set of user specified operating
parameters and geometry, DeltaEC integrates the thermoacoustic wave equation so that
the specified boundary conditions are satisfied. In the present DeltaEC model, the
operating parameters viz. the mean pressure and temperature, the dynamic pressure at
x=0, the operating frequency and the working gas are specified. All the geometric
parameters shown in the Figure 3.2, except L3, are also assumed. The rigid termination
at the extreme end of the buffer volume is a region of zero oscillatory velocity, hence a
location of infinite acoustic impedance. In order to enforce resonance at the chosen
operating frequency, the oscillatory pressure and velocity at x=0 are kept in phase. With
these input parameters, DeltaEC solves for the value of L3 and the oscillatory velocity
at x=0.
An equally viable alternative is of choosing L3 arbitrarily and solving for L4 with the
same boundary conditions. In a similar way, an iterative method may be formulated to
geometrically optimize the resonator for a given set of operating parameters and
boundary conditions
4.4.1 Geometry :
The geometry considered here is a typical Hofler style standing wave TAR. As shown in
Figure 3.3, it consists of a resonator of length L, with a source of acoustic waves (acoustic
driver) kept at x=0. The end of resonator (x=L) is rigidly closed. A parallel plate stack of
length Ls is kept inside the resonator at x=xs from the driver end. Hot and cold heat
exchangers of lengths Lh and Lc respectively are kept to left and right of the stack.
4.4.2 Assumptions:
Following assumptions are made while carrying out the transient state analysis of the
TAR :-
(4.6)
b) Heat flow in the stack and the resonator are longitudinal, lateral heat leaks
into the refrigerator are neglected
2. The model remains in framework of the Linear Theory with the Boundary Layer
Approximation [1].
3. Parallel plate geometry is considered for stack as well as for the heat exchangers.
Their porosities are assumed to be same and large enough not to disturb the
standing wave phasing.
4. Complete heat exchange limit [Brewster et.al] is taken while calculating the heat
transfer coefficients between the stack and the heat exchangers.
(4.7)
(4.8)
Due to porosity of stack, the oscillatory velocity inside the stack gets modified to:
(4.9)
According to Rott’s acoustic approximation [2], the time averaged heat flux at a certain
cross section inside the stack is given by:
(4.10)
where β is the thermal expansion coefficient of working gas and Γ is the ratio of actual
temperature gradient to the critical temperature gradient. The first term in RHS of eqn(4.10)
is the heat pumping due to thermoacoustic effect, while the second term denotes the heat flux
returning back through the stack due to conduction by solid as well as gas. For an ideal gas,
the thermal expansion coefficient is the inverse of its absolute temperature. Hence, a
simplified expression for heat flux can be written down as:
(4.11)
where, A(x) and B(x) are functions of the axial coordinate in the stack.
The heat transfer coefficients between the heat exchangers and ends of stack are calculated
using ‘complete heat exchange limit’ . The heat transfer coefficients at the cold and hot heat
exchangers are given by:
(4.12)
(4.13)
where Br is the porosity of stack (and heat exchangers) and u1 is the amplitude of oscillatory
velocity at the heat exchanger location.
The pressure oscillations in the resonator are adiabatic and hence, the principal mode of heat
transfer in the resonator (neglecting the thermoacoustic effect at the resonator walls) is heat
diffusion.
A typical control volume of the stack region is shown below in Figure 4.3. The temperature
variation of this control volume can be determined by the heat flowing in and out of it.
This one-dimensional unsteady state heat transport equation governs the temperature
distribution in the stack in transient regime.
The transient state equation is solved using Implicit Finite Different Method. To
solve the problem, the computational domain is divided into a one-dimensional grid. Stack
and the gas column inside the resonator are each divided into ‘n’ grid-points. In standing
wave TARs, the optimal length of heat exchangers is twice the oscillatory displacement
amplitude of gas at the heat exchanger location [1]. As this amplitude is quite small, the
heat exchangers are modeled as ‘lumped’ elements. The grid representation of the
computational domain is shown below in Figure 4.4.
For a general stack cell ‘i’, the heat balance is given by:
(4.15)
Here, the coefficients A and B, as well as the temperature gradients are evaluated at the
cell faces. Using central difference scheme to approximate the temperature gradient and
rearranging terms, eqn(3.17) simplifies to:
(4.17)
The finite difference equation for the cold heat exchanger (‘n+1’th cell) is:
(4.18)
Similarly, for an ‘i’th cell of hollow resonator, the discretised equation is given by:
(4.19)
The resultant system gives temperature of all the cells constituting the computational
domain at time step ‘k+1’ in terms of temperatures at previous time step ‘k’.
Eqns(4.17 – 4.19) represent a system of ‘2n’ linear equations in ‘2n’ unknowns. The
system can be written in a matrix form:
(4.20)
where ‘a’ is a 2n x 2n square matrix comprising of the coefficients of temperatures of
‘k+1’th time step (i.e LHS), ‘T’ is 2n x 1 column matrix representing temperatures of
PVG’s College of Engineering & Technology, Pune
B.E. Mechanical
33
Savitribai Phule Pune University
‘k+1’th time step and ‘b’ is again 2n x 1 column matrix with the terms on RHS of the
system of equations.
The Gauss inversion scheme is used to calculate temperatures of ‘k+1’th time step. The
temperatures of old time step ‘k‘, are then updated by the calculated values of new time
step. This procedure is iteratively repeated till the temperatures at two successive time
steps do not differ significantly.
The transient state temperature profiles, the cooldown curves and other theoretical
results of this analysis are presented in a later chapter.
In order to prevent the non-linear effects, the boundary layer Reynold’s Number should
be less than 500 [Swift paper]. In practice, the dynamic pressure in a standing wave
TAR is limited to about 2-3 % of the mean pressure.
In a loudspeaker driven standing wave TAR, the obtainable dynamic pressure in the
resonator depends on the mean pressure and the operating frequency. The dynamic
PVG’s College of Engineering & Technology, Pune
B.E. Mechanical
34
Savitribai Phule Pune University
pressure amplitude has a maximum value when the TAR is operated at resonance.
Similarly, at higher mean pressure, the dynamic pressure is also higher.
Other important thermodynamic properties of the working gas are its thermal
conductivity, specific heat capacity ratio and viscosity. It is advisable to use a gas with
lower thermal conductivity so that the loss of cooling power due to axial conduction in
the stack is low. But, lower thermal conductivity results in lower thermal penetration
depth which in turn is detrimental to the cooling power. Higher specific heat capacity
ratio results in higher temperature oscillations in the gas for same magnitude of dynamic
pressure. This helps to improve the heat pumping capacity of the TAR. The working gas
should have a low viscosity so as to minimize the loss of acoustic power in the viscous
penetration depth. In addition to all these, the working gas should be inert from the point
of view of safety of life, environment friendly, readily available and cheap.
Table 4.1 Operating Parameters, Working Gas and Stack Material Properties
The total length of the resonator was 0.558 m and which corresponds to a quarter
wavelength standing wave in Helium at 400 Hz.
4.6.3 Stack :
For ease of construction, spiral geometry was chosen for the stack. The Copper film
thickness of 0.18 mm was chosen because of its ready availability. The spacing between
layers of the stack was taken to be 0.3 mm. This spacing corresponds to 2.5 δk which
is close to its optimal value of 2 δk. The porosity of the stack was 0.53.The length of
the stack was chosen to be 100 mm and thickness of the roll to be 200 mm so as to fit
tightly into the larger diameter part of TAR resonator.
The fabrication of all the TAR components is described in detail in the following
chapter.
Chapter 5
FABRICATION AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
5.1 Introduction:
This chapter describes the fabrication of the various TAR components. Several
aspects related to fabrication like the choice of materials, the machining processes
involved, etc. are addressed. The fabrication and assembly of the two sub-systems of a
TAR – the acoustic driver assembly and the refrigerating assembly is described in
separate sections. Fabrication details of the setup for dynamic pressure measurement
are also given. The chapter concludes with the description of experimental setup and
the allied instrumentation.
The resonator system comprises of the stack, the stack holder, the cold heat exchanger
(CHX), resonator tube and the buffer volume. The resonator system is designed in
DeltaEC so as to have quarter wave resonance in Air at 400 Hz.
5.3.1 Fabrication :
a) The Spiral Stack :
The stack is manufactured from a 0.18 mm thick Copper film. 0.3 mm thick Nylon
fishing lines are used as spacers. As discussed in the previous chapter, spiral geometry
is chosen for the stack, because of its ease in manufacturing. The distance between two
adjacent spacing lines is 3 to 5 mm throughout the stack cross section. This particular
spacing ensured that the two layers of the Copper film do not touch each other and the
gas passage channels are uniform. This has been realized through repeated attempts of
making the stack. The length of the stack is 100 mm and its diameter is 32 mm. The
stack manufacturing process is described as follows: A long wooden plank wide
enough to accommodate the width of Copper film is taken and equidistant slits at 5 mm
from each other are made on both its edges. The Copper film is then held tightly on the
plank. Nylon fishing line is wound over the Copper film. This can be visualized better
from Figure 4.10. After each turn, the fishing line passes through the next slit which is
as 5 mm from the previous one. This ensures a winding pitch of 5 mm and hence, a
spacing of 5 mm between two consecutive fishing lines. The fishing lines are then glued
to the Copper film. This can be either done by means of an adhesive tape or an adhesive
like insulating varnish. It is found that the use of adhesive tape increases the thickness
of the Copper film layer and hence, use of insulating varnish is advisable. The fishing
lines are then cut along the edges of the Copper film. Thus, the stack is ready for rolling.
Rolling is carefully done so as not to disturb the spacing lines.
Figure 5.3 The PVC plank with slits on its edges. The Copper film and Nylon fishing
lines can also be seen.
d) Resonator Tube :
The resonator tube is the hollow component of the resonator system. It is placed
between the cold HX and the buffer volume. To ensure low thermal conductivity, high
strength and light weight, the resonator tube was machined out of a Steel rod. The
resonator tube consists of a conical taper followed by a straight hollow tube. The conical
taper provides the reduction of diameter from 210 mm at the cold HX side to the 70 mm
diameter tube. The total length of the resonator tube is 295 mm. In future the resonator
tube a tapped hole for connection of dynamic pressure transducer. The schematic of the
resonator tube is shown in Figure 5.5.
e) Buffer Volume :
The buffer volume is a large open conical volume which simulates the ‘open end’
of the quarter wavelength resonator. It is made of a SS 304 sheet of 2 mm thickness. The
sheet is cut in the required shape and then turned into a truncated cone on a rolling
machine. The cone is then welded using welding technique along its slant length. The
larger end of the truncated cone is closed by welding a circular cut SS 304 sheet.
The total height of the buffer volume is 200 mm, the larger and smaller diameters are
respectively 70 mm. The cone can be Welded to the resonator tube with the help of this
f) Amplifier :
An amplifier was used to boost the sound output from speakers, as the thermoacoustic
effect without it is too negligible to notice. It is connected to speaker at one end and to
frequency generator in an android phone at other end. The Amplifier is shown below in
Figure 5.7.
g) Frequency Generator:
An android app called frequency sound generator was used to generate signal to be
fed to amplifier. It is a free alternative to frequency generating chips and has capability
to generate waveforms of different types such as sinusoidal, triangular and square. It
can be tuned finely from 0.1 Hz to 1000 Hz.
5.3.2 Assembly :
Prior to assembly of the components, it is ensured that the stack fits tightly in the stack
holder. The cold HX is then held between the stack holder and the resonator tube. The
stack holder and the resonator tube is then Welded. Utmost care is taken while welding
these two components.
As they are made of brittle Delrin, local over-tightening can simply cause the
components to crack at the portion. After this, the buffer volume is welded to the other
end of the resonator tube. All the joints are sealed by means of neoprene rubber O-rings.
The TAR is now ready for operation. The TAR assembly along with the acoustic driver is
shown in Figure 5.10
The schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 5.11. The TAR is
powered by a variable frequency variable voltage power source. The input power, the
voltage and the current are measured by means of a digital AC power meter. The
magnitude of the dynamic pressure wave generated by the acoustic driver in the resonator
is measured using a dynamic pressure transducer. The transducer is placed inside the
resonator downstream of the stack. The small voltage signal from the pressure transducer
is amplified by a differential amplifier and fed to the digital oscilloscope. The dynamic
pressure is calculated from the voltage waveform observed on the digital oscilloscope.
For cold temperature measurement, a copper constant in (type-T) thermocouple is used.
The thermocouple is passed through a small hole drilled through the CHX block where it
is in direct contact with the cold gas inside the TAR.
5.5 Expenditure :
Sr. No Part Name Material Quantity Cost
1 Pipe SS 1 5000
2 Cone SS 1 4000
3 Speaker STD (8 Inch.) 1 2000
4 Heat Exchanger Copper 2 4500
(Modified)
5 Stack STD 1 3500
6 Frame MS 1 1000
7 Silicon STD 1 500
8 Nut Bolt M-6 MS 0.5kg 100
9 Wiring Copper 3M 300
10 Miscellaneous - - 3500
Total 25100
Chapter 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Introduction :
In Previous Chapter, design of the quarter wave resonator for the TAR and the half
wave resonators for dynamic pressure measurement has been discussed. Accordingly,
these resonators and other components of the TAR setup have been fabricated. Thereafter,
experimentation is carried out to determine the unknown driver parameters. The
experiments for measurement of dynamic pressure in hollow pipes and the cooldown
measurements of the stack are done.
Transient analysis is carried out for the developed TAR setup.
This chapter presents the theoretical results of the transient state analysis. The
theoretical predictions of the dynamic pressure, resonance frequency, etc. are compared
with the experimental measurements. The cooldown performance of the TAR setup is
also presented discussed.
The calculations are done at two different drive ratios (Dr = pmax/pmean)- 1.5 % and
3 % of the mean pressure. The drive ratios are kept small enough to ensure that there is
no turbulence in the refrigerator. At a drive ratio of 3 %, the value of boundary layer
Reynold’s Number , Rea at the center of stack is approximately equal to 50. As predicted
by the Linear Theory, the steady state cooling power obtained at the cold heat exchanger
is proportional to the square of drive ratio. This indicates that, at higher drive ratios the
cooling capacity of a TAR is more for a given cold end temperature. Hence, the cooling
load line for Dr = 3 % is much flat as compared to the cooling load line for Dr= 1.5%.
Figure 6.2 Transient temperature profiles at various instants of time from t=30 s to
t=120 s.
Figure 6.3 Transient temperature profiles at various instants of time from t=240 s to
t=960 s. In the initial stages (Figures 6.2 & 6.3), there is hardly any noticeable fall in
the resonator temperature because the heat diffusion process is much slower than the
thermoacoustic heat pumping.
Figure 6.4 Transient temperature profiles at various instants of time from t=2400s to
t=9600s.
Figure 6.4 shows temperature profiles from t=2400 s to t=9600 s. After about t=2400
s the temperature of hot side of stack returns to ambient temperature following the
boundary condition imposed at the ambient HX. This is because, the thermoacoustic
heat flow decreases with the passage of time and hence, the ambient HX has less heat
to transfer out. After approximately t=9600 s, a steep temperature gradient develops
across the stack. At this time, the effect of heat diffusion can also be seen in the
resonator. The entire resonator tube is below ambient temperature.
Figure 6.5 shows the temperature profiles from t=10800 s to t=21600 s. In this time
interval, the temperature distribution in the stack has almost reached a steady state.
The cold HX reaches its minimum temperature after approximately t=10800 s. At this
point of time, the thermoacoustic heat pumping is counter balanced by the heat
diffusing from the hot to the cold end of the stack. Hence, there is no net heat pumping
from the cold to the hot end of the stack causing the cold HX temperature to stabilize.
The temperature profile at t=36000 s (10 hours) is shown in Figure 6.6. At this time, the average
temperature inside the resonator is about to 230 K. This is close to the 227 K which is the CHX
temperature at that time. Eventually, it is expected that the entire resonator would attain the
CHX temperature at steady state.
Figure 6.7 Variation of cold temperature with time (a) monoatomic gases (b) diatomic
gases.
Chapter 7
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
7.1 Conclusions :
In-depth theoretical investigations of Standing Wave TARs have been done in the
course of present work. Various theoretical TAR design models reported in literature have
been studied. A theoretical model has been developed to study the transient state of a
TAR. This model is based on the Linear Theory of Thermoacoustics. Using this model,
the transient temperature profiles and the cooldown characteristics of a given TAR
configuration have been predicted. The model has been further extended to a theoretical
study the cooldown characteristics of various working fluids.
The phenomenon of standing wave resonance has been well understood through
present study. A parametric study of dynamic pressure in a loudspeaker driven TAR has
been done both theoretically and experimentally. The charging pressure and operating
frequency are used as the independent parameters.
The design aspects of TAR- the choice of operating parameters, the geometric
dimensions, the choice of materials and the fabrication techniques have been explored. A
TAR driven by a commercially available moving coil loudspeaker has been designed and
constructed. It employs readily available metallic and delrin tubings for its construction.
As such, no sophisticated manufacturing techniques were required for fabrication.
Following are some of the important conclusions drawn from the present work:-
2) From the transient state analysis it is observed that, the cooldown time of resonator
is several times that of the stack. For faster cooldown, the resonator length should be
kept as low as possible.
3) The no-load temperature that a working gas can attain depends upon its volumetric
heat capacity. Gases with lesser volumetric heat capacity cool to lower temperatures.
4) A lighter gas has a higher cooldown rate because it has a higher oscillatory velocity
for a given dynamic pressure amplitude.
6) Resonance frequency plays a vital role in the operation of a TAR. It is found that
the dynamic pressure attains a maximum value when the operating frequency is close
to the resonance frequency. Away from resonance, the dynamic pressure is negligible
even at high input power.
8) Although easy to design and fabricate, straight resonators are not suitable for
Standing Wave TARs. This is because of the non-linear effects that are prevalent in
straight resonators driven at resonance frequency and high amplitudes. Periodic shock
waves have been observed in the experiments. These non-linear effects hamper the
amplitude as well as phasing of the standing wave.
9) In order to cool to low temperatures, high dynamic pressures are required. At low
dynamic pressures, the cooldown rate of a TAR is very slow and the cold end is highly
sensitive to external heat leaks.
In order to construct a powerful driver, magnetic materials with higher strength and
pole piece material with higher permeability are needed. Along with this, the arrangement
of the magnet and pole pieces is to be designed so as to maximize the field strength in the
magnetic flux gap. The length of the voice coil has to be minimized so as to decrease the
DC resistance and the weight. To decrease the weight, super-insulated CCA (Copper Clad
Aluminum) wires may be used, but at the expense of increased resistance. The two
opposing effects can be countered by proper optimization. The uniform suspension of
voice coil in the magnetic flux gap is also important in order to minimize the damping or
the mechanical resistance
4) Fabrication of Stack :
The stack is called ‘the heart’ of a TAR. Its proper design and fabrication is of utmost
importance. Though many design methodologies are available [1,7,18], these are based
on the ‘short stack’ assumption that the stack does not hamper the standing wave.
However, as observed in present work, an improper fabricated stack causes the
dynamic pressure to decrease tremendously. Hence, the fabrication aspects of the stack
need to be studied. The use of other geometries of stack is also viable. The stack can
be constructed using other materials like ceramic, kapton, etc.
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