UNIT 4

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON LANGUAGES

BEHAVIOURISM
Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that
our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.
Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviours which are changed as the symptoms of learning.
According to the behaviourist approach focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic
behaviour – the publicly observable responses. The behaviourism is primarily associated with Pavlov
(classical conditioning) in Russia and J.B Watson. Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913
publication of John B. Watson's classic paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It."
John B. Watson is the important contributor to classical behaviorism. He studied the behaviour of
animals. Watson’s approach was influenced by Ivan Pavlov who concerned in Classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is the process of reflex learning. Classical conditioning is a technique frequently
used in behavioral training. The classical conditioning process works by developing an association
between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Watson’s approach emphasized in
the role of stimuli in producing conditioned responses. For this reason, Watson may describe it as an S-
R(Stimulus- Response) called ”reflexes”. behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of
experience. Any person, regardless of their background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given
the right conditioning.
While, B.F Skinner in United States (operant conditioning).Learning only occurs when there are
changes in behaviour and observable as an evidence of changing. Feeling and mental process are not
accepted in Skinner’s human behavior’s theory; however, he still accepted the existence of mind.
Behaviourists consider learning a language as a set of mechanical habits which are formed
through a process of imitation and repetition. Humans learn a language through repeating the same form
and text until it becomes a habit. Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around. So, it
was proposed that learners would repeat words they heard and tried to use it in their conversation until it
became a regular basis in life. Behaviourists therefore think that learning a language especially second
language (L2) should be learnt through extensive drill and practice.
The principle of behaviorism
➢ The major principle of behaviourist theory is the analysis of human behaviour in observable
stimulus-response interaction as the association between them.
The characteristic of behaviorism

• Behaviourist viewed that m o t i v a t i o n f r o m o utside is important rather than within

the individual.

• Mental processes and observable behaviour is scientifically unproductive.

• The scientific study of mankind should be restricted as much as possible to directly
observable quantities.
• One’s surroundings were the main stimulus that established behaviour
• Desired behaviour can be conditioned through created situations
• Positive reinforcement shows by giving reward to increase the response.
• Negative reinforcement shows by giving punishment caused to decrease response.
 • Human behaviour is developed by previous situations and reinforcements. Behaviour
enlarges in areas that are positively reinforced, therefore, we should be controlling, creating
events that reinforce desired behaviour.
• Behaviour could be changed by providing reinforcement based upon the response

The strength of behaviorism

• Teacher occupies the central role in the class

• Teacher determines the environment and frames curriculum
• Objective based evaluation
• Evaluation focuses on end product
• Reading, review, and analysis are the prominent activities
• Focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal.
•

Weakness of behaviorism

• The learners may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response
does not occur, so the learner cannot respond

• It disregards the activities of the mind

• Passive role of the student

• Process of learning is ignored

• Formative evaluation is ignored

• It fails to see that learning can take place without reinforcement.

Application of behaviorism in ELT classroom

Behaviourism offers a particular perspective on how learning occurs and how teaching impacts
that process. Learning is a persisting change in performance or performance potential that results from
experience and interaction with the world. The importance of measurable and observable performance
and the impact of the environment comprise foundational principles of the behaviourist approach to
learning.
Some things to remember when incorporating behaviourist principles into teaching:
1. Write observable and measurable behavioural learning outcomes
2. Specify the desired performances in advance (the learning outcomes serve this purpose) and verify
learning with appropriate assessments
3. Emphasize performance, and practice in an authentic context
4. Use instructional strategies to shape desired skills
5. Reinforce accomplishments with appropriate feedback
6. Behaviourism can be applied through the teaching method such as Audiolingual method, Total
PhysicalResponse, Silent way.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is basically a theory based on observation and scientific study about how pupil
learn. It says that pupil construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to
reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe
discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge.
To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know. Constructivism generates their
own rules and mental models. John Dewey, Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky are the major constructivists.
Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that cognition (learning)
is the result of "mental construction." In other words, students learn by fitting new information together
with what they already know. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an
idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes.
Dewey believed that learning take place through ‘hands-on’ approach. His philosophy of
pragmatist believe that reality must be experienced; students must interact with their environment in order
to adapt and learn.
Vygotsky believed that learning take place in social situations; interaction between learner and
learning environment.
Jean Piaget, who focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between
their experiences and their ideas. Piaget’s cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of
mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience. He believed that
children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what
they already know and what they discover in their environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly.

Principles of constructivism
1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning
out of it.
2. Pupil learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning.
3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical actions,
hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient;
we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands.
4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning
5.Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with
other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including
the pupil before us or next to us at the exhibit
6.Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal
land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: the idea that learning is active and social. We
cannot divorce our learning from our lives.
 7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having
some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on.
8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit
ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them.
9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps
learning, it is essential for learning. These ideas of motivation as described here is broadly
conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used.
Advantages of constructivism
• Contextual learning
• Collaborative learning
• Authentic activities than information
• Fostering reflective practices
• Enable content and context construction
• Interaction means establishment and maintenance of language
• Students come to class with an established worldview formed by years of prior experience and
learning
• Students have active role
Limitations
• Difficult to create detailed lesson plan with so much variations
• It consumes more time
• It requires highly competent teachers
• Realizing the ZPD of learners is difficult in crowded classroom

3 Broad concepts of Constructivism

1. Psychological Constructivism
2. Social Constructivism
3. Radical Constructivism

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

Social constructivism was developed by Vygotsky. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget
that it was possible to separate learning from its social context. Social constructivism is a theory
that holds that people interact with their culture and society to form their social worlds. Through
social bargaining and the assessment of the development of individual understanding, knowledge
develops. In essence, every interaction between two or more individuals offers the chance to learn
something new or to broaden already existing information. This is an example of the intellectual
exchange that occurs when people interact.
According to Vygotsky:
• Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and,
later on, on the individual level; first, between pupil (interpsychological) and then inside the
child
(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation
of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.
• Vygotsky (1934) emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development and in
how we perceive the world, and claimed that they provide frameworks through which we
experience, communicate, and understand reality.
• He demonstrated the importance of language in learning by demonstrating that in infants,
communication is a pre-requisite to the child’s acquisition of concepts and language. But, he
suggests that pupil learn with meaning and personal significance in mind, not just through
attention to the facts:
• Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of language are essentially
social phenomena. Knowledge is not simply constructed, it is co-constructed.
THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky believed that learning takes place within the Zone of Proximal Development. In this, students
can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot
understand on their own. This model has two developmental levels:
• The level of actual development – point the learner has already reached & can problem-solve
independently.
• The level of potential development (ZDP) – point the learner is capable of reaching under the
guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers.
• The ZDP is the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that are still
in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in collaboration
with others.
 To ensure development in the ZDP, the assistance/guidance received must have certain features:
• Intersubjectivity – the process whereby two participants who begin a task with different
understandings arrive at a shared understanding. This creates a common ground for
communication as each partner adjusts to the perspective of the other.
• Scaffolding – adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s
current level of performance. This captures the form of teaching interaction that occurs as
individuals work on tasks such as puzzles and academic assignments.
• Guided participation – a broader concept than scaffolding that refers to shared endeavours
between expert and less expert participants
Social constructivist strategies
Reciprocal teaching
The reciprocal teaching technique is developed by Annemarie Sulliavan Palinscar and Ann L
Brown in 1980s. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes the form of a dialogue between
teachers and students regarding segments of text for the purpose of constructing the meaning of text.
Reciprocal teaching is a reading technique which is thought to promote students' reading comprehension.

A reciprocal approach provides students with four specific reading strategies that are actively and consciously used to
support comprehension: Questioning, Clarifying, Summarizing, and Predicting.

Peer-Teaching
Is a process of teaching and learning between two or more students in a group where one of the
student act as a tutor for the other group mates. By letting students of similar but differing abilities work
in groups, they can help each other: often a lot more effectively than a teacher would be able to. The
teacher’s main interventions can be with the more advanced students who do not have anyone more
knowledgeable to help, but who are best able to communicate with the teacher because of a smaller
knowledge gap.
Practically, this suggests multi-aged classrooms, and a high level of vertical integration of the
subject matter. Consider, for example, which topics from algebra, geometry and calculus might be
appropriate for students from middle to high school to be working on together at the same time in the
same room.
Scaffolding
Another, more typical, approach to this problem would be to provide all the extensive
scaffolding– all the information including explicit demonstrations of ways of thought – that students need
to get started, and then gradually take the scaffolding away so that they have to apply it all on their own.
Collaborative learning
• Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more pupil learn or attempt to learn something
together.
• Unlike individual learning, pupil engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another's
resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring
one another's work, etc.).
• collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where
members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetric roles.Put differently,
collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a
common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to each other.
• These include both face-to-face conversations and computer discussions (online forums, chat rooms,
etc.).
• Methods for examining collaborative learning processes include conversation analysis and statistical
discourse analysis
• collaborative learning is commonly illustrated when groups of students work together to search for
understanding, meaning, or solutions or to create an artifact or product of their learning.
• collaborative learning redefines traditional student-teacher relationship in the classroom which results
in controversy over whether this paradigm is more beneficial than harmful.
• Collaborative learning activities can include collaborative writing, group projects, joint problem
solving, debates, study teams, and other activities. The approach is closely related to cooperative
learning.
Benefits:
• Enhances Problem-solving Skills.

• Inspires Critical Thinking.

• Improves Social Interactions and Supports Diversity.
• Aid the Development of Self-management Skills.
• Development of Oral Communication Skills.
• Fosters the Development of Interpersonal Relationships.
Disadvantages

• Certain individuals do not feel comfortable participating in a group setting, even

at a distance (i.e., shyness, fear of criticism). This awkwardness may keep some
individuals from benefiting from the instruction.

• Quiet pupil may not feel comfortable expressing themselves and their ideas with
a group.

• Sometimes a student feels not as smart as the other students and allows them to
do all the work.

• Collaborative learning generally grants the students more control over the flow of
information.

• Working in a group is that members of the group don't always cooperate well.

• The time spent talking about irrelevant topics is unbelievable

• As with any group activity, some members may contribute while others do not. At
a distance this may pose even a greater problem than if all students were in the
same room.

• Problems may result if group members cannot agree or will not compromise. This
can prove to be a huge problem

Cooperative learning
• Co-operative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities into
academic and social learning experiences.
• It has been described as "structuring positive interdependence."
• Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals.
• Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively
can capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating
one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.).
• Furthermore, the teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning
• Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds.
• Cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher
order thinking tasks. Cooperative learning has also been linked to increased levels of student
satisfaction.
 • Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in the
classroom:
Positive interdependence
Individual and group accountability
Promoting interaction (face to face)
Teaching the students the required interpersonal and small group skills
Group process
Differences between collaborative & cooperative learning
• collaborative learning requires the mutual engagement of all participants and a
coordinated effort to solve the problem whereas cooperative learning requires
individuals to take responsibility for a specific section and then coordinate their
respective parts together.
• Cooperative learning is typically used for children because it is used to understand the
foundations of knowledge while collaborative learning applies to college and
university students because it is used to teach non-foundations of learning.
• Another believed difference is that cooperative learning is a philosophy of interaction
where collaborative learning is a structure of interaction.

Situational learning
• Situated learning theory was developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger and owes much to the
work of John Dewey and Lev Vygotsky who believed learners were more likely to learn by
actively participating in their learning as opposed to listening to lecturers.
• Situated learning theory states that every idea and human action is a generalization, adapted to
the ongoing environment; it is founded on the belief that what people learn, see, and do is
situated in their role as a member of a community (Lave and Wenger)
• Situated learning "takes as its focus the relationship between learning and the social situation in
which it occurs".
• The ability of students to apply information to "real world" tasks is the main objective of the
Situated Learning Theory.
• Situated learning is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living where
learning occurs in a pro-social but informal setting. This notion suggests that learning takes place
through social relationships, within a cultural milieu, and by connecting prior knowledge to new
contexts.
• The situated model of learning states that learning should not be viewed as mere transmission of
knowledge but as a distinctly embedded and active process. They argue that this type of learning
is stimulated by specific contexts (where learning is socially-situated) and within authentic social
and physical environments. Knowledge is not an object and memory is not a location;
knowledgeis socially-constructed.
• Knowledge is thus located in the actions of pupil and groups of pupils; it evolves naturally as a
result of individuals participating in and negotiating their way through new situations
 • Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed, expressed and reified in the actions of
pupil, and pupil interacting
• Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes
• Mediation artifacts: cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a
community and how pupil engage with each other, as well as any tools they use, and the specific
cultural context
• As situations shape individual cognition, individual thinking and action shape the situation; the
reciprocal influence constitutes an alternative conception of systemic causality to the more
commonly assumed linear object causality.

Educational implications
(Situated Learning)

• Gives students the chance to engage with real-life, problem-solving contexts

• Previous knowledge helps to participate in authentic contexts
• Requires that the students be part of a team or a community that works together to complete
the task or problem successfully.
• Teacher can be scaffold the students by giving information and skills in class discussions that
have guided the students to solve problems and create solutions

Anchored Instruction
Anchored Instruction is a technology centered learning approach, which falls under the social
constructionism paradigm. The connection made between the content and the authentic context is referred
to as "anchoring".It is a form of situated learning that emphasizes problem-solving within an integrated
learning context, which can be examined from multiple perspectives.
"In other words, the learning is contextualized to provide students with realistic roles that serve to
enhance the learning process". In education it means problem based and case based learning.
During teaching, activities are designed or tied around an "anchor", such as an adventure or story,
with a problem at the end, that needs to be resolved. These models typically embed all the information
needed for the problem to be solved, such data and hints. Anchored instruction is akin to Problem-based
learning (P.B.L.) with the exception of its open-endedness.
Is an approach attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or
anchoring instruction around an interesting topic.
The learning environment is designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that helps
the students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and
critical thinking.
Principles for designing anchored instruction
The seven principles outlined, are used to govern the design of anchored instruction
1. Generative Learning Format - An appropriate anchor should be selected for the instruction. This is
usually a story that leads to a problem, which is of interest to the students. The end of the story needs to
be generated by the learner, which is the solution to the problem. This method provides Intrinsic
motivation, through Active learning, because the students take ownership of the problem.
2. Video-Based Presentation Format - This format allows learner to understand the complex and
intertwined problems better than a text or audio format. It solidifies what is taught in textbooks and other
 literature through a dynamic, visual and spatial representation. The video medium gives life to the
characters and depicts an authentic storyline. This format appeals to students who may have difficulty
reading, or understanding written text and allows them to develop pattern recognition skills
3. Narrative Format - The video is narrated to give an account for the characters, the event, and
subsequent events. The problem occurs naturally which give the students the impression they are
resolving a real problem and not responding to a lecture on a video. The narrative format also makes it
easier to embed information into the story.

4. Problem Complexity - The story or adventure used should have a high level of complexity to demand
the full attention and stimulate the curiosity of the learner. The problems or issues should require several
steps to be solved. This is based on the Anchored Interactive Learning Environment's premise; learners
must be trained to deal with complex problems that are more realistic.
5. Embedded Data Design - The story includes seamlessly embedded information that is needed to solve
the issues. It should also include a great deal of extraneous information. When formatted in this manner,
the learner would need to understand the question and determine what information is pertinent to
answering the question.
6. Opportunities for Transfer - Learners are able to transfer knowledge from one subject, example
Geometry, to the topics in the same subject. This increases deep learning and skill transfer.
7. Across the Curriculum - In addition to containing all the necessary information, to solve the issue, the
story may also introduce topics from other subjects, to provide a holistic learning approach.
Role of the learner
• Find the story through a realistic, narrative, storyline format
• Develop solutions
• Reporting their solutions
Role of the teacher
• Lecturer
• Explainer
• Formulator
• Provider
• Facilitator

Difference -The Situated Learning and Anchored Instruction

Because situated learning theorists contend that learning cannot occur outside of the context in which it
actually occurs, education must take place in an authentic setting. Furthermore, according to
contextual learning theorists, knowledge is transferred through participation in interactions and
dialogues with others.
The ability of students to apply information to "real world" tasks is the main objective of the Situated
Learning Theory.
 Instruction with Anchors
Using macrocontexts or complex issue spaces as anchors, students can explore them for extended
periods of time and from many angles to come up with workable solutions using the approach
known as anchored instruction. A film or an informational text are two examples of potential
anchors of instruction. What the anchor offer

Similarities
• Both emphasize a shared learning experience for the learners that allows for collaboration of both
the instructors and the students that guides students toward an understanding of the material.
• Both utilize more generative strategies because the learning objectives are not clearly defined to
the students by the instructor and students must come up with their own problems and solutions.
• Both the Situated Learning Theory and Anchored Instruction share the goal of students engaging
in higher-order thinking skills because the students need to use knowledge and skills in actual
contexts.

Educational implication
(Anchored Instruction)

• Anchored instruction is often considered to be a form of situated learning, which connects prior knowledge to
authentic situations
• Students use the context provided to apply their knowledge of a particular idea, which furthers develops their
understanding of a topic.
• The situations are realistic in order to assist students in making connections. In anchored instruction, the task
itself is considered the anchor, or the idea around which all understanding will revolve. This usually comes in
the form of a story with a problem that needs to be solved. Anchoring refers to the connection between the
story and the real-life situation.
• The students can use and explore different aspects of a story, and to analyze and evaluating the accuracy and
to develop solutions
Noam Chomsky (LAD)
Avram Noam Chomsky born -Dece.7,1928.
American linguist, philosopher ,cognitive scientist,structural linguist and father of modern linguistics
Ideology -Anarcho syndicalism and libertarian socialism
A pioneering linguist and a professor at MIT, put forth an idea called the Language Acquisition
Device or LAD. The LAD is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn
and understand language. Child’s mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce
language. It is a component of the nativist theory of language. This theory asserts that humans are born
with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language.
According to him every child is competent to use and perform in language
Chomsky’s linguistic theory is rooted in bio linguistics holding that the principles underlying the
structure of language are biologically determined in the human mind and hence genetically transmitted.
He treats language as learned behaviour. He argues that language is a unique evolutionary
development of the human species.Chomsky used it to explain just how amazingly children are able to
acquire language abilities as well as accounting for the innate understanding of grammar and syntax all
children possess.
Keep in mind that the LAD is a theoretical concept. There isn't a section of the brain with
'language acquisition device' printed on it and a big switch to turn on and learn a new language. Rather,
the LAD is used to explain what are most likely hundreds or thousands of underlying processes that
humans have in their brains that have evolved to make us particularly exceptional at learning and
understanding language.
The main argument in favour of the LAD is the argument from the poverty of the stimulus, which
argues that unless children have significant innate knowledge of grammar they would be unable to learn
language as quickly as they do, given that they never have access to negative evidence and rarely received
direct instruction in their first language.
Universal grammar (UG) in linguistics
A theory in linguistics commonly attributed to Noam Chomsky, that contends that grammar
learning is a natural part of the human brain regardless of language learned from birth.. The fundamental
premise of UG is that humans have a certain set of structural laws that are independent of sensory input.
In other words, children are already familiar with the principles of language from birth; they just need to
acquire the terminology. Chomsky offered a variety of proofs to back up his theory. He argued that there
are fundamental similarities among all human languages. Every language, for instance, has a notion that
functions like a noun and a verb and has the power to either make or break situations.
Chomsky also discovered that when children are learning to speak, they don't make the errors you
would expect. For instance, children seem to understand that all sentences should have the structure
'subject-verb-object', even before they are able to speak in full sentences. From his experiments, Dr.
Chomsky also noted that young children, well before reaching language fluency, would notice if adults
around them spoke in a grammatically incorrect manner. He also found that children attempt to apply
grammatical rules to words for which their language makes an exception. For example, in following the
English rules of grammar, a child might pluralize the word 'fish' as 'fishes' and 'deer' as 'deers', even
though our language makes exceptions for those words.
As they are exposed to more language stimuli during their psychological development, children
finally embrace precise syntactic standards that follow UG. In contrast to other "grammars," such
prescriptive, descriptive, and pedagogical "grammars," it is frequently referred to as "mental grammar."
The theory's proponents mainly emphasize and rely on the weak stimulus (POS) argument and the fact
that genuine human languages have some universal traits.

Approaches in LAD

Linguistic approach
❖ It refers to the study of language acquisition
❖ It focuses on children’s innate language learning capacity
❖ Chomsky made a difference between competence and performance according to him while
competencies knowledge of language and performance is the actual use of language in
concrete situation
❖ Universal grammar is concerned with language acquisition combatants in that Ed tells what
someone should know to how combatants in a language
❖ It is important to know that the theory atoms to integrate grammar mind and language at
verymoment.
❖ Chomsky says that native speakers have grammatical combatants in their
native language`

Biological approach
It claims that the human capacity for language is best understood as biological phenomena and
that language development is a biological process
Social approach
It looks upon language as a social phenomenon it focuses on the social aspects of interaction as
the experience relevant to the language acquisition it reads the social cognitive abilities of the child has
the landing capacities
Cognitive approaches
It holds that language acquisition is a learning problem that the child source has any other learning
problem

CBLT (COMPETENCY BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING)

➢ Competency-based language teaching (CBLT) is an application of the principles of CBE
(competency based education) to a language setting.
➢ Developed by Richard and Roggers
➢ Emerged in USA in 1970
 ➢ According to Richards and Roggers CBLT is an application of the principles of competency based
education to language teaching
➢ In CBLT the focus is one of the outcomes of the outputs of learning.
➢ It can be described as defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable description of the
knowledge skills and behaviours of students should possess at the end of a course of study
➢ Its earliest applications were probably in adult survival-language programs for immigrants. By the
1990s, the approach had become so widely accepted in the U.S. that refugees wishing to receive
federal assistance were required to attend some kind of competency-based ESL program to learn
the skills necessary to function in society
➢ CBLT demands that language be connected to a social context rather than being taught in
isolation. CBLT requires learners to demonstrate that they can use the language to communicate
effectively.
Competencies
Competency refers to "critical work functions" or tasks in a defined setting. Successful completion
of each specific task involves a set of skills and knowledge which must be accurately applied.
In CBLT, a competency can be understood as the final task specified at the end of a learning
module.”The final task that each student is expected to do in order to have mastered the specified
competencies. Although students must practice in order to become competent, competencies are not
practice activities. Competencies are not activities done for the sake of giving a student a grade, nor are
they done only to allow a student to become better at a task.
❖ To use the language in authentic situations likely to be encountered outside the classroom.
For instance, a student might have to fill out an application form, provide a personal
medical history, or give directions on how to complete a specific task.
❖ Need more practical applications of language in context.
❖ Specific knowledge and skills that can be applied to novel and complex situations.
❖ The ability to understand emergency instructions is important outside of the classroom and
thatknowledge will be useful for years in the future.
❖ The knowledge and skills must have value beyond the classroom because if you teach the
principles and how to learn, that knowledge will be useful for a student’s whole lifetime.
❖ Competency-based courses are built around the skills necessary tocarry out specified
tasks.
❖
Role of the Teacher
❖ The role of the teacher changes from one of being an information-giver to that of a
facilitator .This does not mean that teachers no longer give information, but that they give
different types of information and deliver it in different ways.
❖ Provide the materials, the activities, and practice opportunities to students .The quality and
authenticity of these materials are central to the success of class.
❖ An effective planner that becomes a key component of the instructional process. Every
competency must be identified first. Each competency needs to be broken down into the
appropriate skills..
❖ Create activities related to the specific skills necessary to fulfil the competency
requirements.
❖ Authentically assess students and provide specific, directed, and personalized feedback.
❖ The next step is to create modules that give students the chance to acquire and use such
 abilities. In order for pupils to demonstrate competency, teachers must specify what they
must do and how effectively they must accomplish it.
Role of the Student
❖ The role of the student must also change. Students will no longer be able to rely only on
the teacher and the classroom to be the primary sources of information. Instead, students
become apprentices.Their role will be to integrate, produce, and extend knowledge.
❖ Students take an active part in their own learning and work toward being autonomous
learners.
❖ They learn to think critically and to adapt and transfer knowledge across a variety of
settings. Because expectations and standards are clear and precise, students have to be
committed to continuing to work on each competency, mastering it, and then progressing
to another.
❖ Successful classroom interaction depends on student participation.
❖ Students need to find ways to motivate themselves and find ways to apply information to
their own lives and to integrate it into the classroom.
❖ Students must be willing to challenge, to question, and to initiate in the CBLT classroom .
Activities, Materials, and Syllabus
Although teachers are free to develop the strategies and tactics most likely to work in a given
educational setting, the design of a CBLT syllabus is different from those of more traditional classes.
Rather than being organized around specific language topics, CBLT courses are developed around
competencies and the skills necessary for mastery.
Each day and each unit focus on the skills necessary to move students along the path toward
mastery. Syllabi must include performance activities that allow the student to practice the requisite skills.
This may require a shift in both thinking and organization. In many traditional classes, lessons
are likely to be organized by topics such as present tense, past tense, irregular past tense, future tense with
be going to, and so on. While these topics will still be taught, they will not drive the lesson nor will they
be the focus. Instead, if a specific competency requires a student to use the past tense, then teachers will
introduce that form and the vocabulary necessary for the specific task. The tense would be taught as an
integral part of the lesson, along with relevant vocabulary, register, pronunciation, and so on. This
suggests that, rather than being taught as a unit, the past tense may be introduced in multiple units
depending on need. This allows modules to build on each other and students to practice skills learned
earlier,
 Class materials must be oriented to doing rather than knowing. There should be few exercises that
require students to fill in the blank, circle the right answer, or specifically test only grammar. Rather, each
task should be developed around a real-world situation requiring the use of some or all of the components
of the specified competency. For example, if the competency is “giving personal information”, then tasks
must require students to use knowledge about self to produce such information. Students might practice
by creating a family tree, talking about favorite pastimes, or describing what they did over the weekend.
Notice that the student is required to do something with the language Each of these activities requires the
student to present knowledge about self.
The activities in the CBLT classroom must be oriented toward the ability to successfully
complete a real-world task. The most effective materials will be authentic sample texts related to a
specific competency (e.g., completed job applications; recordings of a complaint about a service). The
materials help provide students with the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours required to
meet the competency standards.
Assessments
Assessments can take one of two forms: formative or summative. Formative assessments are used
to determine how well a student is progressing along the path to competency. Formative assessments
must be frequent and specific. Because their goal is to assess progress and provide information about
strengths and weaknesses, they are rarely graded.
In CBLT, the majority of assessments will be formative. Summative assessments, on the other
hand, are designed to determine whether or not the student has mastered the competency. Therefore,
summative assessments are typically administered at the end of each module as the final test. A student
failing a summative assessment cannot move on to the next competency. Instead, the student must repeat
the unit until mastery is achieved. Summative assessments are performance-based and may include a
variety of measurement tools. Paper-and-pencil tests cannot be used to assess a competency except
perhaps unless one is assessing a writing competency. True-false, fill-in-the-blank, and multiple choice
tests are forever banished from the CBLT classroom as final competency assessments.
For a language class, having students draw a poster or chart describing the human body and
identifying the major systems (e.g., nervous system, digestive system) would not be a good real-world
assessment choice. Very few pupil in the world would be required to draw such a chart simply for the
purpose of drawing a chart. Having students describe a medical problem would be a better choice. Pupil
are often required in daily life to provide a description of pain, where it hurts, what makes it hurt, and so
on. It is clear that knowledge about the language (e.g., the parts of the human body, present tense) is
required to complete the specific competency .
CLL (Community Language Learning)
• Community language learning is a name of a method introduced and developed by Charles A
Curran; he is a psychology professor.
• It can be called as counselling learning which represents the psychological counselling learning
theory to teach foreign language
• It represents the use of counselling learning theory to teaching foreign language.
• CLL techniques are also described as humanistic techniques
If the concept of counselling and its application in community language learning are compared, it
represents an attempt to put the inside from Psychology to work in the teaching and learning of foreign
 language. The method emphasize on community learning as opposed to individual learning and some
other traditional teaching does.

Features
• Learner and teacher are agreeable to language learning
• Learner presents to the teacher a message, he or she wishes to deliver to another
• Teacher or knower listens and other learners over hear
• Teacher here States learners message in second language
• Learner repeats the second language message from to its address addressee .
• The learner replies and reflects upon the message exchanged during the language class

Drawbacks
• The procedure of CLL developed from the concept of counselling psychology can’t implement in
language classes
• Language teacher have to develop the principles of CLL by considering conditions and situations
where language learners are learning a foreign language
• The procedure may be developed in different ways depending on the culture proficiency level
and the classroom setting
• Some behaviours of a language teacher in teaching learning process is welcome in certain culture
but may not be proper in another culture
• Ways of teaching are also different among students of different levels due to different ways of
learning
• The suggested procedure may be easily implemented in language classes in Western countries.

STEPHEN KRASHEN’S THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Stephen D. Krashen is an American linguist, educational researcher and activist, who is Emeritus
Professor of Education at the University of Southern California. He moved from the linguistics department
to the faculty of the School of Education in 1994.

He is best known for his work in establishing a general theory of second language acquisition, as the
cofounder of the Natural Approach, and as the inventor of sheltered subject matter teaching.

He is the author of numerous books, including Three Arguments Against Whole Language and Why
They Are Wrong (1999), Every Person a Reader: An Alternative to the California Task Force Report on
Reading (1997), and Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual Education (1997), all available from
Heinemann.

Second language acquisition is a major area of discussion in the field of linguistics. In Krashen's
work, he makes an important distinction between language learning and language acquisition. In Krashen's
view, learning must be a deliberate process of building language skills through structured activities. Most
people who have studied a second language will be familiar with this approach. Krashen distinguishes
learning from acquisition on the basis that acquisition is an organic process that comes about through an
immersion environment.

“Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules and doesn't
require tedious drill.” -Stephen Krashen.
“Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -natural communication- in
which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but within the messages they are
conveying and understanding”-Stephen Krashen
Stephen Krashen is an expert in the field of linguistics, specialising in theory of language
acquisition and development
Stephen Krashen widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition has had
a large impact in all areas of second language Research and teaching since the 1980 s
This well-known theory, first presented by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s, is initially based on 5
hypotheses;

1. The acquisition- learning

❖ Is the most important of all the hypothesis in Krashen's theory and the mps widely known and
influentialamong linguistics and practioners.
❖ According to him there are two independent systems of second language performance- the acquired
system and the learned system.
❖ The acquired system or accusation is the product of your subconscious process very similar to the
process children under go when they acquire their first language it requires meaningful interaction
in the target language
❖ The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises of a
consciousprocess which results in conscious knowledge about the language
Eg-knowledge of grammar rules
2. The monitor hypothesis
• It explains the relationship between learning and acquisition and defines the influence of learning
in acquiring a language
• The monitoring function is be practical result of learned grammar
• According to crash in the acquisition system is the utterance initiator there while the learning
system performs the roles of the monitor or the editor.
• The monitor acts in a planning,editing,and correcting function.
• It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance
• Role of Monitor is minor , being used only to correct deviations from normal speech and to give
speach a more ‘polished appearance’.
3. Input hypothesis
• He attempts to explain how second language acquisition takes place
• The input hypothesis is only concerned with acquisition not learning .According to this
hypothesis the learner improved and progressed when she or he receives second language input that is one
step beyond her current stage of linguistic competence. Eg: when the learner is exposed to
comprehensible input it goes beyond the choice of words that involves presentation of context,
explanation, and rewording of unclear parts, the use of visual cues

4. Natural order hypothesis

• Is based on research findings which suggest that the acquisition of grammatical structure follows a
natural order which is predictable this order seems to be independent of the learners age, background,
conditions of exposure(grammar rules) etc
• He rejects grammatical sequence when the goal is language acquisition
 5. Affective filter hypothesis
• Effective variables play a facilitative role in second language acquisition
• this variable include- motivation ,self confidence and anxiety
• Krashen says that learners with high motivation, self confidence, a good self image and a low
level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition
• Low motivation low self esteem and anxiety can combined into rays the effective filter and form a
mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition
Educational Implications
1. As a second language the ideal is to create a situation where in language is used in order to fulfill
authentic purposes
2. Jessica language teacher it will always be a challenge to strike a balance between encouraging
accuracy and fluency in your students
3. Teacher should be aware that certain structures of language are easier to acquire than others and
therefore language structures should be taught in an order that is conducive to learning
4. Teachers should start by introducing language concepts that are relatively easy for learners to
acquire and then used scaffolding to introduce more difficult concepts
5. The teacher is able to create a more effective opportunity for language acquisition to expose them
outside.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

The mode in which the pupil process information or the ways in which the pupil are smart is
termed as intelligence. Gardner first outlined his theory in 1983, in his book Frames of Mind: The
Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where he suggested that all pupil have different kinds of "intelligences."

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of
the intelligence they will ever have.

Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a
ninth known as "existentialist intelligence.

The scope for multiple intelligence needs to be taken into account by the teacher while planning
instruction and assessment strategies. Students have to be given freedom to choose their own mode
of studying and recording learning.

1. Verbal linguistic intelligence(word smart)

Pupil with high verbal linguistic intelligence have well developed auditory skills.
They enjoy reading, Story telling, memorizing words , poems and dates . They have well
developed vocabulary and a good mastery over language. They usually spell words with
ease. Linguistically strong students respond well to teaching strategies like lecture, word
games, stories, debates, discussions and speech making. These students sometimes talk
aloud and listen to their own voice while solving problems. They may also use stories for
memorizing information. The teacher can read stories to children and let them read stories.
 Discuss authors, writing styles, character analysis based on different books. Visit libraries
and book stalls with children , encourage children to keep journals ,maintain diaries ,
summarize stories etc.

2. Logical mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart)

This area deals with logic, problem solving and reasoning. Students whose
mathematical intelligence "is high explore patterns and follow logical sequential directions.
They enjoy problem solving and test things out before accepting them. They prefer using
data base and spread sheets on the computers.Class room strategies for these students
include preparing charts, graphs and lists, sequencing patterns, finding relationships
outlining, problem solving, predicting, questioning, categorizing and making mathematical
calculations. Teacher can play games of logic with the students, inspire children to connect
numbers to life situations, visit computer labs, science museums and math fairs .

3. Visual spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)

Students who can visualize and form clear mental images about any concept are said
to possess a high degree of visual spatial intelligence. They can complete puzzles easily,
draw inferences from pictures. They can create visual representations of ideas , events etc.
Providing visual clues like pictures, postures, movies and mind maps helps these students to
learn concepts quickly. Colourful representations of words, symbols or letters can promote
better comprehension and retention in these children. Teacher should provide variety of
create materials and have them navigate mazes and puzzles. She can visit art museums with
the children and encourage them to record their experiences in the form of maps and
diagrams.

4. Musical Intelligence (“music smart”)

The Students with high musical intelligence are highly sensitive to sound, tone and
music often sing to themselves. They may use songs and rhythms to learn and often listen to
music while studying or reading. Use of chants, sat good claps method and finger to
introduce snapping information can help for improving comprehension. Poetry and music
is a good method to introduce information for them. Soft back ground music in the class
works both as a stimulant and a relaxation for the students. Music can engage the students in
learning by appealing to both the rational and emotional parts of the brain. Students can be
provided with tape recorder and encourage to play musical instruments. children can be
given opportunities to make up their own songs and enjoy musical concerts.

5.Bodily kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)

Students whose bodily and kinaesthetic intelligence is high can use bodily sensation
to process knowledge. They need opportunity to move about and relax their limbs and act
out in the classroom. Methods of engaging students with bodily kinaesthetic intelligence
include use of manipulative, activities games, simulations, experimentations, dances and
other active tasks. Provide opportunities for physical activity , indoor and outdoor games
and take them to see sport events . Include theatre activities as a part of class room
interventions.
 6. Intra personal intelligence (self smart)

Students who preferred to be alone, those who look inward and are able to assess
their own strengths, weaknesses and inner feelings are high in intra personal intelligence.
They develop a sense of self confidence in the areas that they can take independently. They
are often self-motivators and work quietly. They maintain diaries and are self-reflective. A
non-threatening atmosphere needs to be created in the school. These students preferably
take individual activities and complete them earnestly. They need to be given freedom to
work in their own style. Encourage children to have hobbies, interests and talk about them.
Listen to children's feeling* and give them sensitive feedback. Encourage children to
maintain a scrap book for their ideas and experiences.

7. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)

Pupil with high interpersonal intelligence are empathetic to the moods and feelings
of others. They can co-operate in group work and communicate effectively. They enjoy
discussions, debates and group activities. Encourage children to work in groups , provide
group games for children to play , encourage them to form / join clubs and take up
organizational responsibilities . Assign co-ordinating roles to these children while
conducting seminars, debates etc.

8. Naturalistic intelligence((“nature smart”))

The naturalist enjoys being out of doors in the company of nature. He/ She has the
ability to spot and understand patterns in nature. He/ she is able to identify, classify and
categorize the flora and the fauna and likes to listen to natural sounds. They interact with
the trees, outdoor activities including field trips, study tours, nature walks, bird watching
and star glazing about them help these students to achieve better. Create naturalistic
atmosphere in the class room.

9. Existential intelligence : (cosmic smart)

Existential Intelligence is the ability to understand religious and spiritual ideals. They have a
strong understanding of things that are not visual to the eye but through faith and belief. They
question the meaning of life and seek the answers. They see art work with the meanings, they find
meditation and relaxation easy and rewarding and they see the beauty in nature and seek out
inspiring places. Those with this intelligence enjoy reading philosophical writings and find that
learning is done more easily by using real world experiences. Have students look at a topic from
different points of view. Let them summarize the information learned in a lesson .Have them read
lessons to teach their classmates. Make connection between what is being learned and the world
outside. Connect the classroom content with actual social issues.

The multiple intelligence theory provides scope for the use of numerous teaching learning
strategies that can increase student interest in learning. There are scopes for catering to the needsof
each child and each child has the opportunity to display proficiency in his or her own field.
Students get opportunity to develop their special abilities which will help them to be successful in their
life. There is a lot of variety in the class room and the class room learning becomes more interesting.
The theory promotes strategies for assessment including self and peer assessment which make
learning more meaningful. Students have the opportunity to work both individually
and in groups. Hence there is scope for both social interaction and self realization. Critics argue that the
use of the word intelligence in the place of traditional application ability and
aptitude is arbitrary. It under estimates the effects exerted on the various domains of intelligence by
processes like speed, exhibitive function working memory, self awareness and self regulation which are
already accepted as integral parts of general intelligence. There is little empirical evidence to support the
theory.

Educational Implications

❖ Individualized education has typically been reserved for the wealthy and others
who could afford to hire tutors to address individual students’ needs.

❖ Technology has now made it possible for more people to access a variety of
teachings and assessments depending on their needs. Pluralization, the idea that
topics and skills should be taught in more than one way, activates individual’s
multiple intelligences.

❖ Presenting a variety of activities and approaches to learning helps reach all

students and encourages them to be able to think about the subjects from various
perspectives, deepening their knowledge of that topic (Gardner, 2011b).

❖ A common misconception about the theory of multiple intelligences is that it is

synonymous with learning styles. Gardner states that learning styles refer to the
way an individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks and materials.

❖ Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight intelligences at
varying degrees of proficiency and an individual’s learning style is unrelated to the
areas in which they are the most intelligent.

❖ For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may not necessarily learn best
through writing and reading. Classifying students by their learning styles or
intelligences alone may limit their potential for learning.