BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Introduction
Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three basic types of learning theory:
behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist.This section provides a brief introduction to each
type of learning theory. The theories are treated in four parts: a short historical introduction, a discussion of
the view of knowledge presupposed by the theory, an account of how the theory treats learning andstudent
motivation, and, finally, an overview of some of the instructional methods promoted by the theory.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Compare and contrast various approaches to learning and describe how they are manifested in
the classroom;
b. Apply behavior analysis in teaching child and adolescent learners across curriculum areas;
c. Make connections, using knowledge on current research, literature, between behavioral
learning theories and developmentally appropriate teaching approaches suited to learners’
gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences.

Lesson Proper

What is Learning?
Before we dive into understanding the relevant science behind the learning process, let’s ground
ourselves in a definition of learning that is drawn from research.
Learning is defined as follows:
1. an active - process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, andconversations in order to
build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build
knowledge as they explore the world around them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse and
engagewith others, and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings.
2. builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching, building on, and changingexisting understanding,
where “one’s knowledge base is a scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”
(Alexander, 1996, p. 89).
3. occurs in a complex social environment - and thus should not be limited to being examined or perceived
as something that happens on an individual level. Instead, it is necessary to think of learning as a social
activity involving people,the things they use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and
the actions they take (Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledgeis built by members in
the activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006)
4. is situated in an authentic context -provides learners with the opportunity to engage with specific ideas
and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).
5. requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained when learning complex ideas,
because considerable mental effort and persistence are necessary.

The conditions for inputs to learning are clear, but the process is incomplete without making sense of
what outputs constitute learning has taken place. At the core, learning is a process that results in a change in
knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. Understanding what it takes to get that knowledge in and out
(or promote behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize learning.
 Figure A: Group of Students learning their lesson Image Credit: scholarship-position.com

Approaches to Learning

1.BEHAVIORAL THEORY
Every teacher knows that they will usually have a student in class who is difficult to manage and
work with. Their behavior is usually hard to control, and it can be extra work to get them to pay attention
and stop distracting others.
Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses on how students
learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment and says that
innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. A common example of behaviorism is
positive reinforcement. A student gets a small treat if they get 100% on their spelling test. In the future,
students work hard and study for their test in order to get the reward. Behaviorism is key for educators
because it impacts how students react and behave in the classroom and suggests that teachers can directly
influence how their students behave. It also helps teachers understand that a student’s home environment
and lifestyle can be impacting their behavior, helping them see it objectively and work to assist with
improvement.
History of behaviorism.
Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology in the 19th century, which relied
heavily on first-person accounts. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner rejected introspective methods as being
subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists wanted to focus on observable, quantifiable events and
behaviors. They said that science should take into account only observable indicators. They helped bring
psychology into higher relevance by showing that it could be accurately measured and understood, and it
wasn’t just based off opinions.
Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they were raised
and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining factor for how they acted, not
their parents or their genetics.
Pavlov’s Dogs is a popular behaviorism experiment. A group of dogs would hear a bell ring and
then they would be given food. After enough time, when the bell would ring the dogs would salivate,
expecting the food before they even saw it. This isexactly what behaviorism argues—that the things we
experience, and our environment are the drivers of how we act.
The stimulus-response sequence is a key element of understanding behaviorism.A stimulus is given,
for example a bell rings, and the response is what happens next, a dog salivates, or a pellet of food is given.
Behavioral learning theory argues that even complex actions can be broken down into the stimulus-
response.
Behaviorism learning theory.
In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate and help
students. Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response to the right stimulus. Students
are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are giving them the information as an element of
stimulus-response.Teachers use behaviorism to show students how they should react and respond to certain
stimuli. This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what behavior a teacher is
looking for.
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement,
students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For example, if
are supposed to get a sticker everytime they get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving that positive
reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected to a rewardfor
them.
Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory.
Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive
reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior.
Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement can
be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score is much more
likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a good test score. The student
who receives no praiseis experiencing negative reinforcement—their brain tells them that though they got
a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of the test becomes unimportant to them. Conversely
students who receive positive reinforcement see a direct correlation to continuing excellence, completely
based on that response to a positive stimulus.

Behaviorism and social learning theory.

The behavioral learning theory and the social learning theory stem from similar ideas. The social
learning theory agrees with the behavioral learning theory about outside influences on behavior. However,
the social learning theory goes a step further and suggests that internal psychological processes are also an
influence on behavior. Students or individuals may see things being done, but the social learning theory
says that internal thoughts impact what behavior response comes out.
Behaviorism doesn’t study or feature internal thought processes as an element of actions. Social
learning argues that behavior is much more complicated than the simple stimulus and response of
behaviorism. It suggests that students learn through observation, and then they consciously decide to
imitate behavior. There are underlying emotions like peer pressure and a desire to fit in that impact
behavior.

Behaviorist teaching strategies.

Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in many ways,
including:
a. Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
b. Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response, gradually
getting harder with questions to help students.
c. Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give
them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.
d. Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material
and giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.
e. Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can
 be in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more.

Behaviorism criticisms.
While behaviorism is a great option for many teachers, there are some criticisms of this theory.
Behaviorism is best for certain learning outcomes, like foreign languages and math, but aren’t as effective
for analytical and comprehensive learning.
Other critics of behavioral learning say that the theory doesn’t encompass enough of human learning
and behavior, and that it’s not fully developed. Other theories have come forward that take behaviorism
further, implying that there are many additional factors to consider when evaluating behavior.

2.SOCIAL COGNITIVE
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
Albert Bandura disagreed with Skinner’s strict behaviorist approach to learning and development
because he felt that thinking and reasoning are important components of learning. He presented a social-
cognitive theory that emphasizes that the environment and cognitive factors influence behavior. In social-
cognitive theory, the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play
apart in learning and development.

Reciprocal Determinism
In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines behavior, Bandura (1990)
proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context
all interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously. Cognitive
processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and
personality characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished.
Finally, the context in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes
rewarding/punishing stimuli.

Figure C. Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism: Our behavior, cognitive processes, and situational context all
influence each other.

Observational Learning
Bandura’s key contribution to learning theory was the idea that much learning is vicarious. We
learn by observing someone else’s behavior and its consequences, which Bandura called observational
learning. Just as we learn individual behaviors, we learn new behavior patterns when we see them
performed by other people or models. Drawing on the behaviorists’ ideas about reinforcement, Bandura
suggested that whether we choose to imitate a model’s behavior depends on whether we see the model
reinforced or punished. Through observational learning, we come to learn what behaviors are
acceptable and rewarded in our culture, and we also learn to inhibit deviant or socially unacceptable
behaviors by seeing what behaviors are punished.
 We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in observational learning. For
example, personal factors determine which behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate,
and those environmental events in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors.
One person may experience receiving attention as reinforcing, and that person may be more inclined to
imitate behaviors suchas boasting when a model has been reinforced. For others, boasting may be
viewed negatively, despite the attention that might result—or receiving heightened attention may be
perceived as being scrutinized. In either case, the person may be less likely to imitate those behaviors
even though the reasons for not doing so would be different.
Like Tolman, whose experiments with rats suggested a cognitive component to learning,
psychologist Albert Bandura’s ideas about learning were different from those of strict behaviorists.
Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviorism called social learning theory, which
took cognitive processes into account. According to Bandura, pure behaviorism could not explain why
learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must
also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation. In
imitation, a person simply copies what the model does. Observational learning is much more complex.
According to Lefrançois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur:
1. You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out by your boss for
coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won’t be late.
2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the
model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning to surf, Julian might watch how his
father pops up successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other
hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get burned on a stove.
3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.

Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic. A live model
demonstrates a behavior in person, as when Ben stood up on his surfboard so that Julian could see
how he did it. A verbal instructional model does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or
describes the behavior, as when a soccer coach tells his young players to kick the ball with the side
of the foot, not with the toe. A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who
demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources.
3.INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES
Information Processing is how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use, and remember
information. Unlike Piaget’s theory, this approach proposes that cognitive development is ongoing and
gradual, not organized into distinct stages. The areas of basic cognitive changes generally occur in five
areas:
  Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process by which one focuses on one
stimulus while tuning out another), as well as divided attention (the ability to pay attention to
two or more stimuli at the same time).
 Memory. Improvements are seen in working memory and long-term memory.
 Processing Speed. With maturation, children think more quickly. Processing speed improves
sharply between age five and middle adolescence, levels off around age 15, and does not appear
to change between late adolescence and adulthood.
 Organization of Thinking. As children mature, they plan more, they approach problems with
strategy, and are flexible in using different strategies in different situations.
 Metacognition. Older children can think about thinking itself. This often involves monitoring one’s
own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Metacognition provides the ability to plan
ahead, see the future consequences of an action, and provide alternative explanations of events.

Figure I. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored
in long-term memory.
The three-box is just one model of memory. Others, such as Baddeley and Hitch(1974), have
proposed a model where short-term memory itself has different forms. In this model, storing memories
in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding information. The type
of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of information received. There are
memories in visual-spatial form,as well as memories of spoken or written material, and they are stored
in three short- term systems: a visual-spatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop.
According to Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow
of information to and from the three short-term systems.

Sensory Memory
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory
memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage,
essentially long enough for the brain to register and start processing the information. Sensory memory
can hold visual information for about halfof a second and auditory information for a few seconds.
Unlike other cognitive processes, it seems that sensory memory does not change from infancy (Siegler,
1998).However, without the ability to encode the information, it fades from sensory memory quickly
(Papalia et al., 2008). As children and adolescence become more capable of encoding, they can take
more advantage of the information available to them in the sensory memory.
We are constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even
most of it. Moreover, most of it has no impact on our lives. For example,what was your professor
wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed appropriately, it does not matter
what she was wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we
do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information
will move into our short-term memory system.
Short-Term (Working) Memory
Short-term memory (STM), also called working memory, is a temporary storage system that
processes incoming sensory memory. Short-term memory is the bridge between information taken in
through sensory memory and the more permanent storage of information in long-term memory.
Information that is not moved along from short- term memory to long-term memory will be forgotten.
Short-term memory is also calledworking memory because this is the system where the “work” of
memory happens. If you are retrieving information from your long-term memory, you are moving it
into your working memory, where you can think about that information.
Short-term memory can only hold information for a short period of time, without rehearsal. For
a typical adolescent or adult, storage lasts about 20-30 seconds. Older children and adults use mental
strategies to aid their memory performance. For instance, simple rote rehearsal may be used to commit
information to memory. Young children often do not rehearse unless reminded to do so, and when they
do rehearse, they often fail to use clustering rehearsal. In clustering rehearsal, the person rehearses
previous material while adding in additional information. If a list of words is read out loud to you, you
are likely to rehearse each word as you hear it along with any previous words you were given. Young
children will repeat each word they hear, but often fail to repeat the prior words in the list. In Schneider,
Kron-Sperl, and Hünnerkopf (2009) longitudinal study of 102 kindergarten children, the majority of
children used no strategy to remember information, a finding that was consistent with previous research.
As a result, their memory performance was reduced when compared to their abilities as they aged and
started to use more effective memory strategies
STM and Learning
Individuals differ in their memory abilities, and these differences predict academic
performance (Prebler, Krajewski, & Hasselhorn, 2013). Children with learning disabilities in math and
reading often have difficulties with working memory (Alloway, 2009). They may struggle with
following the directions of an assignment. When a task calls for multiple steps, children with poor
working memory may miss steps because they may lose track of where they are in the task. Adults
working with such children may need to communicate using more familiar vocabulary, using shorter
sentences, repeating task instructions more frequently, and breaking more complex tasks into smaller,
more manageable steps. Some studies have also shown that more intensive training of working memory
strategies, such as chunking, aid in improving the capacity of working memory in children with poor
working memory (Alloway, Bibile, & Lau, 2013).

Long-term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term
memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no real limits. It encompasses all the things you can
remember what happened more than just a few minutes ago to all ofthe things that you can remember
what happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in
your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive.
Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit (Figure L). Understanding
the different types is important because a person’s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders
can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. Explicit
memories, also called declarative memories, are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For
example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your
explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory
are used interchangeably.)
Implicit memories, also called non-declarative memories, are memories that are not part of our
 consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-
declarative memory.

Figure L. There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic memory.
Implicit memory includes procedural memory and things learned through conditioning.

Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do things.
It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth,how to drive a car, how to swim
the crawl (freestyle) stroke.
Explicit or declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally
experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic memory.
Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. An example would be the
question, “what does argumentative mean?” Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words,
concepts, and language- based knowledge and facts.
Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced. The concept of
episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972).Since then, Tulving and others
have looked at the scientific evidence and reformulated the theory. Currently, scientists believe that
episodic memory is memory about happenings in particular places at particular times, what, where,
and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling
of familiarity (Hassabis & Maguire, 2007).

Retrieval
So, you have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store some important
information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of storage when
you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
is known as retrieval.
You must be able to retrieve information from memory in order to do everything from knowing
how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to work, to knowing how to perform your job once you
get there.
There are three ways to retrieve information from long-term memory storage systems: recall,
recognition, and relearning.
Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you
can access information without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test. Recognition
happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after re-encountering it. It
involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on recognition
to help you choose the correct answer. The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it is just as it
sounds. It involves learning information that you previously learned. Whitney took Spanish in high
school, but after high school, she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish. Whitney is now 31,
and her company has offered her an opportunity to work in their Mexico City office. In order to prepare
herself, she enrolls in a Spanish course at the local community center. She is surprised at how quickly
she can pick up the language after not speakingit for 13 years; this is an example of relearning.
Organization of Thinking
During middle childhood and adolescence, young people can learn and remember more due to
improvements in the way they attend to and store information. As people learn more about the world,
they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving
information. One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new
information. In other words, their knowledge base, knowledge in particular areas that makes learning
new information easier, expands (Berger, 2014).
Cognitive control
As noted earlier, executive functions, such as attention, increases in working memory, and
cognitive flexibility, have been steadily improving since early childhood. Studies have found that
executive function is very competent in adolescence. However, self-regulation, or the ability to control
impulses, may still fail. A failure in self-regulation is especially true when there is high stress or high
demand on mental functions (Luciano & Collins, 2012). While high stress or demand may tax even an
adult’s self-regulatory abilities, neurological changes in the adolescent brain may make teens
particularly prone to riskier decision-making under these conditions.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning emerges in childhood and is a type of reasoning that is sometimes
characterized as “bottom-up- processing” in which specific observations, or specific comments from
those in authority, may be used to draw general conclusions. However, in inductive reasoning, the
veracity of the information that created the general conclusion does not guarantee the accuracy of that
conclusion. For instance, a child who has only observed thunder on summer days may conclude that it
only thunders in the summer. In contrast, deductive reasoning, sometimes called “top-down-
processing,” emerges in adolescence. This type of reasoning starts with some overarching principle
and based on this, propose specific conclusions. Deductive reasoning guarantees an accurate
conclusion if the premises on which it is based are accurate.

Figure M. Models of inductive and deductive reasoning

Intuitive versus Analytic Thinking

Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the Dual-Process Model, the
notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing information (Albert & Steinberg, 2011).
Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast (Kahneman, 2011), and it is more experiential and
emotional. In contrast, Analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational. While these systems
interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier and more commonly used in everyday
life. It is also more commonly used by children and teens than by adults (Klaczynski, 2001). The
 quickness of adolescent thought, along with the maturation of the limbic system, may make teens more
prone to emotional, intuitive thinking than adults.

Critical Thinking
According to Bruning et al. (2004), there is a debate in U.S. education as to whether schools
should teach students what to think or how to think. Critical thinking, or a detailed examination of
beliefs, courses of action, and evidence, involves teaching children how to think. The purpose of critical
thinking is to evaluate information in ways that help us make informed decisions. Critical thinking
involves better understanding a problem through gathering, evaluating, and selecting information, and
also by considering many possible solutions. Ennis (1987) identified several skills useful in critical
thinking. These include Analyzing arguments, clarifying information, judging the credibility of a
source, making value judgments, and deciding on an action. Metacognition is essential to critical
thinking because it allows us to reflect on the information as we make decisions.

Metacognition
As children mature through middle and late childhood and into adolescence, they have a better
understanding of how well they are performing a task and the level of difficulty of a task. As they
become more realistic about their abilities, they can adapt studying strategies to meet those needs.
Young children spend as much time on an unimportant aspect of a problem as they do on the main
point, while older children startto learn to prioritize and gauge what is significant and what is not. As
a result, they develop metacognition. Metacognition refers to the knowledge we have about our
thinking and our ability to use this awareness to regulate our cognitive processes (Bruning, Schraw,
Norby, & Ronning, 2004).

4. Cognitive Constructivist
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge, as well as enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual
framework to accommodate that information.

Background
Dissatisfaction with behaviorism’s strict focus on observable behavior led educational psychologists
such as Jean Piaget and William Perry to demand an approach to learning theory that paid more attention to
what went on “inside the learner’s head.” They developed a cognitive approach that focused on mental
processes rather than observable behavior. Common to most cognitivist approaches is the idea that knowledge
comprises symbolic mental representations, such as propositions and images, together with a mechanism that
operates on those representations. Knowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners
based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive.

View of Knowledge
While behaviorists maintain that knowledge is a passively absorbed behavioral repertoire, cognitive
constructivists argue instead that knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of
knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures. Knowledge comprises active systems of
intentional mental representations derived from past learning experiences. Each learner interprets experiences
and information in the light of their extant knowledge, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural
background, their personal history, and so forth. Learners use these factors to organize their experience and to
select and transform new information. Knowledge is therefore actively constructed by the learner rather than
passively absorbed; it is essentially dependent on the standpoint from which the learner approaches it.
View of Learning
Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery. The
role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent repetition, or to goad them into
learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments. Rather, the role of the teacher is to facilitate
discovery by providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new
knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new. Teachers must thus take into account the
knowledge that the learner currently possesses when deciding how to construct the curriculum and how to
present, sequence, and structure new material.
View of Motivation
Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by extrinsic factors such
as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves
significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures, successful learning requires a major personal
investment on the part of the learner (Perry, 1999, 54). Learners must face up to the limitations of their existing
knowledge and accept the need to modify or abandon existing beliefs. Without some kind of internal drive on
the part of the learner to do so, external rewards and punishments such as grades are unlikely to be sufficient.

Implications for Teaching

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information.Thus, while cognitivists allow for the use of “skill and drill” exercises in the
memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater importance on strategies that help students to
actively assimilate and accommodate new material.
For instance, asking students to explain new material in their own words can assist them in assimilating
it by forcing them to re-express the new ideas in their existing vocabulary. Likewise, providing students with
sets of questions to structure their reading makes it easier for them to relate it to previous material by
highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new material by providing a clear organizational structure.
Because learning is largely self-motivated in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists such as A. L. Brown and
J. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods which require students to monitor their own learning. For instance,
the use of ungraded tests and study questions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the
material. Other methods that have been suggested including the use of learning journals by students to monitor
progress, to highlight any recurring difficulties, and to analyze study habits.

5. Social Constructivist
According to the theory of social constructivism, social worlds develop out of individuals’ interactions
with their culture and society. Knowledge evolves through theprocess of social negotiation and evaluation of
the viability of individual understanding. Basically, every conversation or encounter between two or more
people presents an opportunity for new knowledge to be obtained, or present knowledge expanded. The
exchange of ideas that goes along with human contact is at play here.
In order to apply social constructivism theories in the education arena, teachers and school leaders need
to shift and reshape their perspectives. Both must move from being “people who teach” to being “facilitators
of learning.” A good constructivist teacher is one who questions students’ answers, without regard to whether
they are right or wrong, to make sure the student has a good grasp of the concept. Additionally, instructors
should have their students explain the answers they give and not allow students to use words or equations
without explanations. They should also encourage students to reflect on their answers.
Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result of social interaction and language
use, and is therefore a shared, rather than an individual, experience. Knowledge is additionally not a result of
observing the world, it results from many social processes and interactions. We therefore find that
constructivist learning attaches as much meaning to the process of learning as it does to the acquisition of new
knowledge. In other words, the journey is just as important as the destination.
The process of learning requires that the learner actively participate in creative activities and self-
organization. Teachers should allow their students to come up with their own questions, make their own
theories, and test them for viability. Moreover, those who practice constructivist theory find that imbalance
facilitates learning, in the sense that contradictions between the learner’s current understanding and
experiences create an imbalance, which leads the learner to inquire into his or her own beliefs and then try out
new ideas. Instructors should therefore encourage errors resulting from the learners’ ideas, instead of
minimizing or avoiding them.
Students should also be challenged by their instructors to perform open-ended investigations, working
to solve problems with realistic and meaningful contexts. This activity enables the learner to explore and come
up with either supporting or conflicting possibilities. Contradictions need to be investigated, clarified, and
discussed. Through the process of reflecting on the collected data, learning is given a push. A good example of
allowing reflection is through journal writing, which usually facilitates reflective thoughts.

CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism theory is based on the principle of active learning and is the result of the work of the
American psychologist Edward Thorndike. This work led to Thorndike’s Laws. According to these Laws,
learning is achieved when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a
response. The three main laws are the Law of Readiness, the Law of Exercise, and the Law of Effect. This
latest session in UTO Training’s ongoing series on Instructional Design will discuss these three laws in detail,
the five additional laws of Thorndike’s learning theory, the four key principles of the theory, and the three
“new” laws used in instructional designtoday.

CONDITIONING
1. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.
The most famous example of classical conditioning was Pavlov's experiment with dogs, who salivated
in response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog
learned to associate the sound with the presentation of the food.
John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations)
was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses was
simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or
consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences
of learning.
Classical Conditioning Examples

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in
an organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior/
response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not
been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet. This stage also involves another
stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a
person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response
untilit is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). This
stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus
(NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does
not produce a response untilit is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

2.Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning normally
attributed to B.F. Skinner, where the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated.
Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior
which is punished will occur less frequently.
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s
(1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely
to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner
introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be
repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. A Skinner box, also known as an
operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time
frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for
rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
a. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
b. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
c. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant
conditioning. In positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to
the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you 5 pesos each time you complete your homework
(i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the
behavior of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response. This is
known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is “rewarding”
to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and
then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be
switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the
box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again
and again.
In fact, Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on alight just before
the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because
they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on. These two learned responses are
known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it
follows.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like
a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.
Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.
There are many problems with using punishment, such as:
 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns whenpunishment
is no longer present.
 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope withproblems.
 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells youwhat to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

Schedules of Reinforcement
Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different
effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of
delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on:
1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).
Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e.,
people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio
reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous
reinforcement.
(A) Continuous Reinforcement
An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g.,every time
a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.
 Response rate is SLOW
 Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one
reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.
 Response rate is FAST
 Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response
has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes
(half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food
delivery is shut off.
 Response rate is MEDIUM
 Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or
fishing.
 Response rate is FAST
 Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An exampleis a self-employed person
being paid at unpredictable times.
 Response rate is FAST
 Extinction rate is SLOW

Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a set of therapies/techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner,
1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's
behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired
ones.
This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is
basically bribery. There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when
a reward strength a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a
behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.
Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping.
a. Token Economy
Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens
(secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers). Tokens can be in the
form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from
snacks to privileges or activities. For example,teachers use token economy at primary school by
giving young children stickers to reward good behavior. Token economy has been found to be very
effective in managing psychiatric patients. However, the patients can become over reliant on the
tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prison, hospital, etc.
 Staff implementing a token economy program have a lot of power. It is important that staff do
not favor or ignore certain individuals if the program is to work. Therefore, staff need to be trained to
give tokens fairly and consistently even when there are shift changes such as in prisons or in a
psychiatric hospital.
b. Behavior Shaping
A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping
through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be
used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way
as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time. To do this, the
conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism
moves a step closer to the desired behavior.
According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained
as a product of this type of successive approximation.
Educational Applications of Operant Conditioning
In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class
and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill
performance. A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g.,
compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest
response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at
frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until
eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.
For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class, they should
praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer iscorrect). Gradually the teacher will
only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be
praised.
Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished
through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them).
This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way
to behave.
Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important
to vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as
the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

While all students should have access to a high-quality education, some require individualized
teaching programs that suit their unique learning styles. Special education teachers are trained to apply
their knowledge of education, behavior, and human development to educate students who have learning,
mental, emotional, and physical disabilities. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a set of principles that form
the basis for a variety of behavioral interventions. Earning a Master’s in Applied Behavior Analysis can
equip special education teachers with the tools to facilitate a more impactful learning experience for
students with disabilities.

Special Educator Roles and Responsibilities

Special education teachers provide academic support services for students of allages, from preschool
to high school. They develop individualized education programs (IEPs) that detail customized instructional
approaches to accommodate the specific needs of each student.
Special education teachers also perform many of the same duties as general education teachers,
such as planning and coordinating assignments and activities fortheir students. However, special educators
often approach these tasks in different ways.
While general education teachers may have a uniform approach for addressing an entire class, special
education teachers must create assignments that are aligned witheach student’s academic abilities.
In addition to developing IEPs, special educators also assess the performance of their students and
keep track of their progress. They then update their students’ IEPs based on whether their students have met
certain goals. Special educators also communicate their observations with parents and caregivers so they can
keep track of their children’s progress.

GESTALT-INSIGHT LEARNING
Gestalt psychology introduced by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler in 1922. It is
revolt against Stimulus Response approach to learning. It pointed out two weakness in the theory of
conditioning.
a. Conditioning reduces complex human behavior to an accumulation of simple conditioned response.
b. Stimulus response theorists attribute learning to reduction of basic organic drives.

The Gestalt School made a strong attack on Thorndike’s theory of trial and error and asserted learning
was not stamping-in of correct responses through trials and errors. The behavioristic approach to learning was
also not acceptable to Gestaltists as they wanted to study behavior as a whole and learning in its totality.
It is primarily concerned with the nature of perception. According to it an individual perceives wholes
and not parts. Learning is viewed as a purposive, exploratory, imaginative and creative enterprise in which the
total situation is taken into account by the learners. Kohler and Koffka’s conducted many experiments on
chimpanzees and brought out a book “Mentality of Apes” in 1925 (which is the result of these experiments
conducted during 1913-17. These experiments show that learning was not the result of trial and error but of
insight and the ability to see relationship between various factors involved in a situation
The fullest and most systematic treatment of learning from the Gestalt view point isfound in Koffka’s
“Principles of Gestalt Psychology” 1935. He suggested that the laws of perception were equally applicable to
learning. A learning situation is a problem situation, and the learner has to see the problem as a whole and
find its solution by insight. The law of organization of perception as applicable to learning is the law of
Pragnaz and four laws of organization subordinate to it the laws of similarity, proximity, closure and good
continuation.

What is Insight Learning?

 It occurs with any reparations of trial.
 It aware the association of causes and effects.
 It occurs when information gathered.

Important Principles of Gestalt Theory

 Students should be encouraged to find out the relation of factors lead to aproblem.
 There are three stimuli in the learning process disturbances, gaps, and incongruities.
 Teaching strategies should rely on law of organization.

Problems of Learning
The Gestalt field theory has a number of problems of learning. Which are:
 Capacity. Learning depends upon natural capacity of the learner.
 Practice. Repetitions bring to light new relationships and consolidate trace system
 Motivation. Law of effect is recognized in motivation
 Understanding. The relationship between parts and wholes and means and ends are emphasized
  Transfer. Generalized principles, common patterns or relationships are transferred.
 Forgetting. Forgetting takes place because of changes in the traces. Traces may completely disappear,
or they may not be available at the particular time.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

Kolb (1984) theory of experiential learning discusses the key components of learning-by-doing, how
it works and the characteristics which contribute to meaningful practice. As a widely accepted theory,
educators can use incorporate the model to support teaching practice and learner experience. The model is
known for its holistic approach to student learning, which incorporates action/reflection and
experience/abstraction. (Kolb & Kolb, 2011). There are four key phases to the experiential learning
cycle: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active
experimentation (AE) (Figure 3) (Kolb & Kolb, 2011). There is no starting or endpoint to the cycle, ensuring
students can jump- in at any phase.

Figure 1: Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning

 Concrete experience (CE): This is the action phase. Students are encouraged to try-out the action and have
a new experience.
 Reflective observation (RO): This is the observation phase. Students are encouraged to intentionally
reflect on their experience from multiple perspectives and the factors involved (e.g. environment,
stakeholder, context, outcomes)
 Abstract conceptualization (AC): This is the integration phase. Students are encouraged to integrate
the experience (action and result) into existing knowledge schemas and with existing theory. As
a result, a new concept is formed and can be applied to future experience(s).
 Active experimentation (AE): This is the hypothesizing and trial phase. Students are encouraged
to hypothesize what will happen and try the action out by making decisions and solving problems.

Key Findings
Kolb and Kolb’s (2011) extensive work in the field of experiential learning have resulted in some
considerations that educators should review. They recommend that educators recognize that learning is
cyclical and while students learn about specific content and subject matter, reflection and learning about
the self and individual learning processes is just as important.
Remember that experiential learning takes work and time; it should be purposeful and
 beneficial to student learning. Educators should EL activities based on the appropriate and most
meaningful level of involvement for students (Kolb & Kolb, 2011, p. 58). Kolb and Kolb (2011) suggest
the following principles as a guideline:
 respect learning and their experience;
 begin learning with the learner’s experience of the subject matter;
 create and hold a hospitable space for learning;
 make space for conversational learning;
 make space for acting and reflecting;
 make space for feeling and thinking;
 make space for inside-out learning;
 make space for development of expertise; and
 make space for learners to take char of their own learning (2011, p. 61-62).

References:

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Kohler, W. (1924). The mentality of apes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York:

Appleton-Century.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38,168-
172.
Skinner, B. F. (1951). How to teach animals. Freeman.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. SimonandSchuster.com.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20,158–
177.