Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

Mechanics III: Dynamics

Chapters 3 and 5 of Morin cover dynamics, energy, and momentum. Alternatively, see chapters 2
and 3 of Kleppner and Kolenkow, or chapters 4 and 6 of Wang and Ricardo, volume 1. For fun, see
chapters I-9 through I-14 of the Feynman lectures. There is a total of 82 points.

1 Blocks, Pulleys, and Ramps

Idea 1
To solve dynamics problems with constraints, it’s easiest to first write the constraint in
terms of coordinates (e.g. “conservation of string” for pulleys, or stationarity of the CM for
an isolated system), then differentiate to get constraints on the velocity and acceleration.

Questions of this type are generally straightforward, as long as you write down the correct
equations. The trickiest part is often solving the equations, which can get messy.

Example 1: Morin 3.30

Find the acceleration of the masses in the Atwood’s machine shown below.

Neglect friction, and treat all pulleys are massless.

Solution
Let x and x′ be the amounts by which the left and right mass have moved down, and number
the pulleys 1 through 4 from left to right, and the strings 1 through 3 from left to right.
Pulley 4 is stationary, so conservation of string 3 means that pulley 3 moves up by x′ /2. Next,
conservation of string 2 means that pulley 2 moves up by x′ /4. Finally, conservation of string
1 implies that pulley 1 moves up by x′ /8, so our final conservation of string constraint is

x′
x=−
8
which upon applying the derivative twice gives

a′
a=− .
8

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Now consider the tensions Ti in the strings. We know that

2T1 2T3
a=g− , a′ = g − .
m m
Since pulley 3 is massless, the forces on it must balance, so T2 = 2T3 . Similarly T1 = 2T2 ,
so T1 = 4T3 . We hence have a system of three equations in three unknowns (T1 , a, and a′ ),
which can be solved straightforwardly to give
56 7
a′ = g, a=− g.
65 65
By the way, this arrangement of pulleys is called a Spanish burton. If there are n pulleys
chained at the left (n = 3 in the above diagram), the mechanical advantage is 2n , the highest
of any possible pulley system. However, in practice such a huge mechanical advantage is
rarely useful, since friction would be substantial and the range of motion is small. Instead,
people who use pulleys in real life, like sailors, climbers, or auto mechanics, tend to use
simpler setups like the block and tackle or chain hoist.

[2] Problem 1 (Morin 3.2). Consider the double Atwood’s machine shown below.

Assuming all pulleys are massless, and neglecting friction, find the acceleration of the mass m1 .

[2] Problem 2 (KK 2.15). Consider the system of massless pulleys shown below.

The coefficient of friction between the masses and the horizontal surfaces is µ. Show that the tension
in the rope is
(µ + 1)g
T = .
2/M3 + 1/2M1 + 1/2M2
[2] Problem 3 (KK 2.20). Consider the machine shown below, which we encountered in M2.

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Show that the acceleration of M1 when the external force F is zero is

M 2 M3 g
a=− .
M1 M2 + M1 M3 + 2M2 M3 + M32
[3] Problem 4. A block of mass m is held motionless on a frictionless plane of mass M and angle of
inclination θ. The plane rests on a frictionless horizontal table.
(a) When the block is released, what is the horizontal acceleration of the plane?

(b) Assume the block starts a distance d above the table. Using results from part (a), what is the
horizontal velocity of the block just before it reaches the floor?

(c) Find the speed of the block after it reaches the floor by applying energy and momentum
conservation to the entire process.

(d) Your results for parts (b) and (c) should not match. What’s going on?

2 Momentum
Idea 2
The momentum of a system is
X
P= mi vi = M vCM .
i

In particular, the total external force on the system is M aCM , and if there are no external
forces, the center of mass moves at constant velocity.

Example 2

A massless rope passes over a frictionless pulley. A monkey hangs on one side, while a bunch
of bananas with exactly the same weight hangs from the other side. When the monkey tries
to climb up the rope, what happens?

Solution
Remarkably, the answer doesn’t depend on how the monkey climbs, whether slowly or
quickly, or symmetrically or not! The total vertical force on the monkey is T − mg, so the
acceleration of the center of mass of the monkey is T /m − g. But since the tension is uniform
through a massless rope, the acceleration of the bananas is also T /m − g. Therefore, the
monkey and bananas rise at the same rate, and meet each other at the pulley.

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Now here’s a question for you: compared to climbing up a rope fixed to the ceiling, climbing
up to the pulley takes twice as much work, because the bananas are raised too. But in both
cases, isn’t the monkey applying the same force through the same distance? Where does the
extra work come from? (The answer involves the ideas at the end of this problem set.)

Example 3: KK 3.14 / INPhO 2014.5

Two men, each with mass m, stand on a railway flatcar of mass M initially at rest. They
jump off one end of the flatcar with velocity u relative to the car. The car rolls in the opposite
direction without friction. Find the final velocities of the flatcar if they jump off at the same
time, and if they jump off one at a time. Generalize to the case of N ≫ 1 men, with a total
mass of mtot .

Solution
In the first case, by conservation of momentum, we have

M v + 2m(v − u) = 0

where v is the final velocity of the flatcar, so

2mu
v= .
M + 2m
In the second case, by a similar argument, we find that after the first man jumps,
mu
v1 = .
M + 2m
Now transform to the frame moving with the flatcar. When the second man jumps, he
imparts a further velocity v2 = mu/(M + m) to the flatcar by another similar argument. The
final velocity of the flatcar relative to the ground is then
 
1 1
v = v1 + v2 = mu + .
M + 2m M + m
It might be a bit disturbing that the final speeds and hence energies of the flatcar are
different, even though the men are doing the same thing (i.e. expending the same amount of
energy in their legs to jump) in both cases.

The reason for the difference is that in the second case, the second man to jump ends up
with less energy, since the velocity he gets from jumping is partially cancelled by the existing
velocity v1 . So the extra energy that goes into the flatcar corresponds to less kinetic energy
in the men after jumping, which would ultimately have ended up as heat after they slid to a
stop. Accounting properly for the kinetic energy of everything in the system solves a lot of
paradoxes involving energy, as we’ll see below.

In the case of many men, by similar reasoning we have

mtot
v= u
M + mtot

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in the first case, while in the second case the answer is the sum
N
X mtot u 1
v= .
N M + (i/N )mtot
i=1

This can be converted into an integral, by letting x = i/N , in which case ∆x = 1/N and
Z 1  
X mtot u mtot u M + mtot
v= ∆x ≈ dx = log u.
M + xmtot 0 M + xmtot M
i

Note that this is essentially the rocket equation, which we’ll derive in a different way in M6.

[2] Problem 5 (KK 4.11). A flexible chain of mass M and length ℓ is suspended vertically with its
lowest end touching a scale. The chain is released and falls onto the scale. Find the reading on the
scale when a length of chain x has fallen.
[3] Problem 6. Some qualitative questions about momentum.
(a) A box containing a vacuum is placed on a frictionless surface. The box is punctured on its
right side. How does it move immediately afterward?
(b) You are riding forward on a sled across frictionless ice. Snow falls vertically (in the frame of
the ice) on the sled. Which of the following makes the sled go the fastest or the slowest?
1. You sweep the snow off the sled, directly to the left and right in your frame.
2. You sweep the snow off the sled, directly to the left and right in the ice frame.
3. You do nothing.
(c) An hourglass is made by dividing a cylinder into two identical halves, separated by a small
orifice. Initially, the top half is full of sand and the bottom half is empty. The hourglass is
placed on a scale, and then the orifice is opened. The total weight of the hourglass and sand
is W . How does the scale reading compare to W shortly after the sand starts falling, shortly
after it finishing falling, and in between? (For concreteness, assume the surfaces of the sand
in the top and bottom halves are always horizontal, and that the sand passes through the

01^‚
orifice at a constant rate.)
[3] Problem 7. USAPhO 2018, problem A1.
[3] Problem 8 (Kalda). A block is on a ramp with angle α and coefficient of friction µ > tan α. The
ramp is rapidly driven back and forth so that its velocity vector u is parallel to both the slope and
the horizontal and has constant modulus v.

The direction of u reverses abruptly after each time interval τ , where gτ ≪ v. Find the average
velocity w of the block. (Hint: as mentioned in M1, it’s best to work in the frame of the ramp,
because it causes the friction, even though this introduces fictitious forces.)

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[4] Problem 9 (Morin 5.21). A sheet of mass M moves with speed V through a region of space that
contains particles of mass m and speed v. There are n of these particles per unit volume. The
sheet moves in the direction of its normal. Assume m ≪ M , and assume that the particles do not
interact with each other.
(a) If v ≪ V , what is the drag force per unit area on the sheet?
(b) If v ≫ V , what is the drag force per unit area on the sheet? Assume for simplicity that the
component of every particle’s velocity in the direction of the sheet’s motion is exactly ±v/2.
(c) Now suppose a cylinder of mass M , radius R, and length L moves through the same region
of space with speed V , and assume v = 0 and m ≪ M . The cylinder moves in a direction
perpendicular to its axis. What is the drag force on the cylinder?
Parts (a) and (b) are a toy model for the two regimes of drag, mentioned in M1. However, it
shouldn’t be taken too seriously, because as we’ll see in M7, the typical velocity that separates
the two types of behavior doesn’t have to be of order v. Instead, it depends on how strongly the
particles interact with each other.

3 Energy
Idea 3
The work done on a point particle is
Z
W = F · dx

and is equal to the change in kinetic energy, as you showed in P1.

Remark: Dot Products

The dot product of two vectors is defined in components as
v · w = vx wx + vy wy + vz wz
and is equal to |v| |w| cos θ where θ is the angle between them. For example, if A and B are
the sides of a triangle, the other side is C = A − B, and
C 2 = |A − B|2 = (A − B) · (A − B) = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos θ
which proves the law of cosines. (Or, if you accept the law of cosines, you could regard this
as a proof that the dot product depends on cos θ as claimed.)

Like the ordinary product, the dot product obeys the product rule. For example,
d
(v · w) = v̇ · w + v · ẇ.
dt
Using this, it’s easy to generalize the derivation of the work-kinetic energy theorem in P1 to
three dimensions; we have
1 1 dx dv
d(v 2 ) = d(v · v) = v · dv = · dv = · dx = a · dx
2 2 dt dt

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and this is equivalent to the desired theorem. As you can see, it’s all basically the same, since
the product and chain rule manipulations work the same way for vectors and scalars.

Example 4: IPhO 1996 1(b)

A skier starts from rest at point A and slowly slides down a hill with coefficient of friction µ,
without turning or braking, and stops at point B. At this point, his horizontal displacement
is s. What is the height difference h between points A and B?

Solution
Since the skier begins and ends at rest, the change in height is the total energy lost to friction,
Z
mgh = ffric ds

where the integral over ds goes over the skier’s path. Since the skier is always moving
slowly, the normal force is approximately mg cos θ. (More generally, there would be another
contribution to provide the centripetal acceleration.) But then
Z Z Z
ffric ds = µmg cos θ ds = µmg dx = µmgs

which gives an answer of h = µs. (If the skier’s path turned around, then this would still
hold as long as s denotes the total horizontal distance traveled.)

[3] Problem 10 (MPPP 16). On a windless day, a cyclist going “flat out” can ride uphill at a speed
of v1 = 12 km/h and downhill at v2 = 36 km/h on the same inclined road. We wish to find the
cyclist’s top speed on a flat road if their maximal effort is independent of the speed at which the
bike is traveling. Note that in this regime, the air drag force is quadratic in the speed.

(a) Solve the problem assuming that “maximal effort” refers to the force exerted on the pedals
by the rider, and that the rider never changes gears.

(b) Solve the problem assuming that “maximal effort” refers to the rider’s power.

[3] Problem 11. 01mƒ USAPhO 2016, problem B1.

[2] Problem 12. Alice steps on the gas pedal on her car. Bob, who is standing on the sidewalk, sees
Alice’s car accelerate from rest to 10 mph. Charlie, who is passing by in another car, sees Alice’s car
accelerate from 10 mph to 20 mph. Hence Charlie sees the kinetic energy of Alice’s car increase by
three times as much. How is this compatible with energy conservation, given that the same amount
of gas was burned in both frames?

[3] Problem 13 (KK 4.8). A block of mass M is attached to a spring of spring constant k. It is pulled
a distance L from its equilibrium position and released from rest. The block has a small coefficient
of friction µ with the ground. Find the number of cycles the mass oscillates before coming to rest.

[3] Problem 14 (Morin 5.4). A massless string of length 2ℓ connects two hockey pucks that lie on
frictionless ice. A constant horizontal force F is applied to the midpoint of the string, perpendicular

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to it. The pucks eventually collide and stick together. How much kinetic energy is lost in the
collision?

Idea 4
If a problem can be solved using either momentum conservation or energy conservation alone,
it usually means one of the two isn’t actually conserved. In particular, many processes
are inherently inelastic and inevitably dissipate energy. For more about inherently inelastic
processes, see section 5.8 of Morin.

[2] Problem 15 (KK 4.20). Sand falls slowly at a constant rate dm/dt onto a horizontal belt driven
at constant speed v.

(a) Find the power P needed to drive the belt.

(b) Show that the rate of increase of the kinetic energy of the sand is only P/2.

(c) We can explain this discrepancy exactly. Argue that in the reference frame of the belt, the
rate of heat dissipation is P/2. Since temperature is the same in all frames, the rate of heat
dissipation is P/2 in the original frame as well, accounting for the missing energy.

Example 5: PPP 108

A fire hose of mass M and length L is coiled into a roll of radius R. The hose is sent rolling
√
along level ground, with its center of mass given initial speed v0 ≫ gR. The free end of
the hose is held fixed.

The hose unrolls and becomes straight. How long does this process take to complete?

Solution
First, we need to find what is conserved. The horizontal momentum is not conserved,
because there is an external horizontal force needed to keep the end of the hose in place.
On the other hand, the energy is conserved, even though this process looks inelastic. The
hose “sticks” to the floor as it unrolls, but this process dissipates no energy because the cir-
cular part of the hose rolls without slipping, so the bottom of this part always has zero velocity.

Once we figure out energy is conserved, the problem is straightforward. The assumption
√
v0 ≫ gR means we can neglect the change in gravitational potential energy as the hose

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unrolls. After the hose travels a distance x,

   
1 1 2 1 1
1+ M v0 = 1+ mv 2
2 2 2 2

where the 1/2 terms are from rotational kinetic energy. Since m(x) = M (1 − x/L), we have
v0
v(x) = p
1 − x/L

which gives a total time

Z L Z 1√
dx L 2L
T = = 1 − u du = .
0 v(x) v0 0 3v0

Evidently, the hose accelerates as it unrolls.

[4] Problem 16. Consider the following related problems; in all parts, neglect friction.

(a) A uniform rope of length ℓ lies stretched out flat on a table, with a tiny portion ℓ0 ≪ ℓ hanging
through a hole. The rope is released from rest, and all points on the rope begin to move with
the same speed. Since this motion is smooth, energy is conserved. Find the speed of the rope
when the end goes through the hole.

(b) ⋆ For practice, repeat part (a) by solving for x(t) explicitly. (Hint: this is best done using the
generalized coordinate techniques of M4.)

(c) Now suppose a flexible uniform chain of length ℓ is placed loosely coiled close to the hole.
Again, a tiny portion ℓ0 ≪ ℓ hangs through the hole, and the chain is released from rest. In
this case, the unraveling of the chain is an inherently inelastic process, because each link of
the chain sits still until it is suddenly jerked into motion. Find the speed of the chain when
the last link goes through the hole. (Hint: you should get a nonlinear differential equation,
which can be solved by guessing x(t) = Atn .)

[3] Problem 17 (PPP 95). A long slipway, inclined at an angle α to the horizontal, is fitted with
many identical rollers, consecutive ones being a distance d apart. The rollers have horizontal axles
and consist of rubber-covered solid steel cylinders each of mass m and radius r. A plank of mass
M , and length much greater than d, is released at the top of the slipway.

Find the terminal speed vmax of the plank. Ignore air drag and friction at the pivots of the rollers.

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4 Elastic Collisions
Idea 5
Any temporary interaction between two objects that conserves energy and momentum is a
perfectly elastic collision. In one dimension, such collisions are “trivial”: their outcome is
fully determined by energy and momentum conservation, because there are two final velocities
and two conservation laws. In two dimensions, there are four final velocity components and
three conservation laws (energy and 2D momentum), so we need one more number to describe
what happens, such as the angle of deflection. In a two-dimensional collision, the outcome
depends on the details, such as how the objects approach each other, and the force between
them. The same holds in three dimensions.

Example 6

Two masses are constrained to a line. The mass m1 moves with velocity v1 , and the mass m2
moves with velocity v2 . The masses collide perfectly elastically. Find their speeds afterward.

Solution
The usual method is to directly invoke conservation of energy and momentum, which leads
to a quadratic equation. A slicker method is to work in the center of mass frame instead.
(This is useful for collision problems in general, and it’ll become even more useful for the
relativistic collisions covered in R2.)

The center of mass of the system has speed

m 1 v1 + m 2 v2
vCM = .
m1 + m2
Moreover, by momentum conservation, the center of mass never accelerates. Now we boost
into the frame moving with the center of mass. Since the total momentum is by definition
zero in the center of mass frame, the momenta of the particles cancel out. The only way for
this to remain true after the collision is if we multiply their velocities by the same number.
Energy is only conserved if this number is ±1, with the latter representing no collision at all.

Therefore, during an elastic collision, the velocities in the center of mass frame simply reverse.
The initial velocities in that frame are

v1,CM = v1 − vCM , v2,CM = v2 − vCM .

The final velocities in that frame are

′ ′
v1,CM = −v1 + vCM , v2,CM = −v2 + vCM .

Finally, going back to the original frame gives the final velocities

v1′ = −v1 + 2vCM , v2′ = −v2 + 2vCM .

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There are many special cases we can check. For example, if m1 = m2 , then the two masses
simply swap their velocities, as if they just passed through each other. As another check,
consider the case where the second mass is initially at rest, v2 = 0. Then
m1 − m2 2m1
v1′ = v1 , v2′ = v1 .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
When m1 = m2 , the first mass gives all its velocity to the second. When m2 is large, the first
mass just rebounds off with velocity −v1 . When m1 is large, the first mass keeps on going
and the second mass picks up velocity 2v1 . Finally, when m1 = m2 /3, then the final speeds
are v1′ = −v1 /2 and v2′ = v1 /2, a nice result which is worth committing to memory.

Idea 6
The kinetic energy of a set of masses mi with total mass M can be decomposed as
X1 1 X1
mi vi2 = M vCM
2
+ mi (vi − vCM )2
2 2 2
i i

where the first term is the “center of mass” contribution, and the second term is the amount
of kinetic energy in the center of mass frame. (This statement also holds true for multidimen-
sional collisions, if the squares are replaced with vector magnitudes.) The first term can be
rewritten as P 2 /2M where P is the total momentum of the masses. Therefore, the kinetic
energy of a system of masses with fixed total momentum is minimized when the second term
is zero, i.e. when all the masses are traveling with the same velocity. This implies, for instance,
that a totally inelastic collision dissipates the highest possible amount of kinetic energy.

Example 7

Three balls of mass M are initially at rest. Then an explosion occurs, giving the system a
fixed total kinetic energy. What is the maximum possible fraction of this energy that one
ball can carry by itself?

Solution
Suppose we want to maximize the energy of the first ball, and let p0 be the magnitude of its
final momentum. Since the total momentum is zero, the other two balls also have a total
momentum of magnitude p0 . As shown in the above idea, the energy of those two balls is
minimized if they travel at the same speed. Therefore, the optimal scenario is to have the
first ball come out with speed v0 and have both of the other two come out the other direction
with equal speed v0 /2. Then the first ball has 2/3 of the total energy.

This is the simplest possible “optimal collision” problem; we’ll see more in R2. Many can be
solved with the basic idea that some of the outgoing masses should have the same velocity.

[2] Problem 18 (Morin 5.23). A tennis ball with mass m2 sits on top of a basketball with a mass
m1 ≫ m2 . The bottom of the basketball is a height h above the ground. When the balls are
dropped, how high does the tennis ball bounce?

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[3] Problem 19 (PPP 46). A Newton’s cradle consists of three suspended steel balls of masses m1 ,
m2 , and m3 arranged in that order with their centers in a horizontal line. The ball of mass m1 is
drawn aside in their common plane until its center has been raised by h and is then released. If
all collisions are elastic, how much m2 be chosen so that the ball of mass m3 rises to the greatest
possible height, and what is this height? (Neglect all but the first two collisions.)

[3] Problem 20. Here’s a variety problem involving some “clean” mathematical results. All three
parts can be solved without lengthy calculation.

(a) Consider n identical balls confined to a line. Assuming all collisions are perfectly elastic, what
is the maximum number of collisions that could happen? Assume no triple collisions happen.

(b) A billiard ball hits an identical billiard ball initially at rest in a perfectly elastic collision. Show
that the balls exit at a right angle to each other.

(c) A mass M collides elastically with a stationary mass m. If M > m, show that the maximum
possible angle of deflection of M is sin−1 (m/M ).

[3] Problem 21 (PPP 72). Beads of equal mass m are strung at equal distances d along a long,
horizontal, infinite wire. The beads are initially at rest but can move without friction. The first
bead is continuously accelerated towards the right by a constant force F . After some time, a “shock
wave” of moving beads will propagate towards the right.

(a) Find the speed of the shock wave, assuming all collisions are completely inelastic.

(b) Do the same, assuming all collisions are completely elastic. What is the average speed of the
accelerated bead in this case?

01^‚
If you’re having trouble visualizing this, try plotting all the masses’ positions x(t) over time.

[3] Problem 22. USAPhO 2019, problem A1.

[3] Problem 23. 01mƒ USAPhO 2009, problem B1.

Example 8: MPPP 42

There are N identical tiny discs lying on a table, equally spaced along a semicircle, with total
mass M . Another disc D of mass m is very precisely aimed to bounce off all of the discs in
turn, then exit opposite the direction it came.

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In the limit N → ∞, what is the minimal value of M/m for this to be possible? Given this
value, what is the ratio of the final and initial speeds of the disc?

Solution
The reason there is a lower bound on M is that, by problem 20(c), there is a maximal angle
that each tiny disc can deflect the disc D. For large N , the deflection is π/N for each disc, so

π M/N M
= sin−1 ≈
N m Nm
which implies that M/m ≥ π.

To see how much energy is lost in each collision, work in the center of mass frame and consider
the first collision. In this frame, the disc D is initially approximately still, and the tiny disc
comes in horizontally with speed v. To maximize the deflection angle in the table’s frame, the
tiny disc should rebound vertically, as this provides the maximal vertical impulse to the disc D.

Thus, going√back to the√table’s frame, where the disc D has speed v, the tiny disc scatters
with speed v 2 + v 2 = 2v. By conservation of energy,

1M √ 2
 
1 2
∆ mv = − ( 2v) .
2 2N

This simplifies to
∆v π
=−
v N
which means that after N collisions, we have the cute result
vf  π N
= 1− ≈ e−π
vi N
where in the last step we used a result from P1.

Example 9: EFPhO 2003.1

A spherical volleyball of radius r and mass m is inflated with excess pressure ∆P . If it

is dropped from the ceiling and hits the ground, estimate how long the subsequent elastic
collision takes.

Solution
Answering this question requires making a simplified physical model of how the collision
occurs. Let’s say that when the volleyball hits the ground, it will keep going straight down,
deforming the part that touches the ground into a flat circular face. Specifically, when the
ball has moved a distance y into the ground, the flat face has area
p 2
A=π r2 − (r − y)2 = πy(2r − y) ≈ 2πry

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where we assumed that y ≪ r at all times, which is reasonable as long as the ball’s initial
speed is not enormous. As a result, the pressure of the volleyball exerts a force

F = 2πr ∆P y

on the ground. This assumes the pressure inside the volleyball remains uniform, and that
the rest of the volleyball stays approximately spherical, which is again reasonable as long as
the initial speed is not huge.

Assuming the initial velocity is not too small, gravity is negligible during the collision, so
during the collision the force on the volleyball is effectively that of an ideal spring. The
collision lasts for half a period, giving
r r
m πm
τ =π = .
keff 2r ∆P

If we plug in realistic numbers, the result is of order 10 ms, which is plausible.

5 Continuous Systems
Example 10

As shown in M2, a hanging chain takes the form of a catenary. Suppose you pull the chain
down in the middle. How does the center of mass of the chain move? Does the answer depend
on how hard you pull?

Solution
No matter how hard you pull, or in what direction, the height of the center of mass always
goes up! This is because this quantity measures the total gravitational potential energy of
the chain. If you pull a chain in equilibrium, in any direction whatsoever, you will do work
on it. So this raises its potential energy, and hence the center of mass.

Another way of saying this is that the equilibrium position, without the extra pull you supply,
is already in the lowest energy state, and hence already has the lowest possible center of mass.
Changing this shape in any way raises the center of mass.

[2] Problem 24. A uniform half-disc of radius R is nailed to a wall at the center of its circle and
allowed to come to equilibrium. The half-disc is then rotated by an angle dθ. By calculating the
energy needed to do this in two different ways, find the distance from the pivot point to the center
of mass.

[4] Problem 25 (Morin 5.31). Assume that a cloud consists of tiny water droplets suspended (uniformly
distributed, and at rest) in air, and consider a raindrop falling through them. Assume the raindrop is
initially of negligible size, remains spherical at all times, and collides perfectly inelastically with the
droplets. It turns out that the raindrop accelerates uniformly; assuming this, find the acceleration.

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

[3] Problem 26 (Kvant). Half of a flexible pearl necklace lies on a horizontal frictionless table, while
the other half hangs down vertically at the edge. If the necklace is released from rest, it will slide off
the table. At some point, the hanging part of the necklace will begin to whip back and forth. What
fraction of the necklace is on the table when this begins? (Hint: we are considering a pearl necklace
with no empty string between adjacent pearls; as a result, all the pearls accelerate smoothly. To
solve the problem, think about the vertical forces. There is an important related problem in M2.)
[4] Problem 27 (BAUPC 2002). A small ball is attached to a massless string of length L, the other
end of which is attached to a very thin pole. The ball is thrown so that it initially travels in a
horizontal circle, with the string making an angle θ0 with the vertical. As time goes on, the string
wraps itself around the pole. Assume that (1) the pole is thin enough so that the length of string in
the air decreases very slowly, and (2) the pole has enough friction so that the string does not slide
on the pole, once it touches it. Show that the ratio of the ball’s final speed (right before it hits the
pole) to initial speed is sin θ0 .
When dealing with an extended system whose parts all move in different ways, conservation of
energy is occasionally useless. However, the somewhat obscure idea of “center of mass energy” may
become useful instead. For more about this concept, see section 13.5 of Halliday and Resnick.

Idea 7: Center of Mass Energy

The work done on a part of a system is

dW = F dx

where F is the force on that specific part of the system, and dx is its displacement. Then
dW = dE where E is the total energy of the system.

Similarly, the “center of mass work” done on a system is

dWcm = F dxcm

where F is the total force on the system and dxcm is the displacement of the center of mass.
Then dWcm = dEcm where the “center of mass energy” is defined as Ecm = M vcm 2 /2.

It should be noted that, like regular energy and work, center of mass energy and work depend
on the reference frame you’re using.

Example 11

Consider a cyclist who pedals their bike to accelerate. The wheels roll without slipping on
the ground. The cyclist moves a distance d, with the bike experiencing a constant friction
force f from the ground. Analyze the situation using both energy and center of mass energy.

Solution
Since the wheels roll without slipping, their contact point with the ground is always zero,
so the friction force does exactly zero work. Thus the net energy of the cyclist/bike system
is conserved. The additional kinetic energy of the cyclist/bike comes from the chemical

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

energy of the cyclist, which ultimately came from what they ate. So conservation of energy
is correct, but it doesn’t tell us anything useful at all.

Now consider center of mass energy. Considering the cyclist/bike system, the center of mass
2 /2. This allows us to compute the change in velocity
work is f d, which is the change in M vcm
of the cyclist/bike.

Example 12

Consider the same setup as in the previous example, but now the cyclist brakes hard. The
wheels slip on the ground, and experience a friction force −f while the cyclist moves a
distance d. Analyze the situation using both energy and center of mass energy.

Solution
The center of mass work equation tells us about the overall deceleration of the cyclist/bike,
just as in the previous example.

On the other hand, the work done by the friction force is indeterminate! It can be any
quantity between zero and −f d. When it is 0, the total energy of the cyclist/bike system
is again conserved, which means all the kinetic energy lost is dissipated as heat inside the
bike itself. When it is −f d, all the kinetic energy lost is dissipated as heat in the ground,
and hence energy is removed from the cyclist/bike system. In general, the work will be
an intermediate value, meaning that both the ground and the bike heat up, but we can’t
calculate what it is without a microscopic model of how the friction works. It depends on,
e.g. how easily the ground and bike tire surface deform.

[1] Problem 28. Alice and Bob stand facing each other with their arms bent and hands touching on
an ice skating rink. Bob has his back against a wall.

(a) Suppose Bob extends his arms, pushing Alice through a distance d with a force F . Analyze
what happens to Alice in terms of both work and center of mass work.

(b) Suppose Alice extends her arms, pushing herself through a distance d with a force F . Repeat
the analysis; what is different and what is the same?

(c) Suppose a spherical balloon is compressed uniformly from all sides. Is there work done on the

01mƒ
balloon? How about center of mass work?

[4] Problem 29. USAPhO 2013, problem B1. This problem is quite tricky! Once you’re done,
carefully read the official solution, which describes how center of mass work is applied.

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