Name: Um Chanthou

Class: M2
Question and Answer

1. Please describe what packaging is and what its role is.

Packaging refers to the process of designing and producing containers or wrappers for products. The
main purpose of packaging is to protect the goods from damage, contamination, and tampering during
transportation, storage, and sale.
Their application:
- Containment: Packaging provides a method of securely holding the product, preventing leakage
or contamination until it is consumed.
- Protection: It safeguards the product against various hazards including damage from
microorganisms, heat, moisture, oxidation, and physical breakages during storage and
transportation.
- Convenience: Packaging ensures convenience in distribution, storage, and usage. This includes
features like easy opening, dispensing, resealing, and being suitable for disposal, recycling, or
reuse.
- Communication: Packaging communicates essential information about the product to consumers,
such as the brand, product details, and usage instructions. Packaging also plays a critical role in
marketing by promoting the brand and helping sell the product.
- Compliance with regulations: Packaging design should comply with legislative requirements
concerning food labeling. The regulations vary in different countries.
- Functional design: It provides a functional size and shape, suitable for handling, distribution,
retail requirements, and consumer use.
- Preservation: Packaging helps in preserving the quality of the product, by preventing undesirable
interactions between the product and the environment or the packaging material itself.
- Innovation: Modern packaging involves 'intelligent' systems that provide additional information,
like the state of contents in a package or time-temperature indicators.

2. Please describe the table 24.1

 These tables represent the packaging material for packaging the various products and include serving the
shelf-life of the products.
3. Please describe the theory of packaging and the factors affecting the selection of a
packaging material.
The theory of packaging revolves around creating a protective barrier for products against a range of
external factors. The shelf-life of packaged foods is primarily determined by intrinsic properties of the
food, external environmental factors, contamination by microorganisms or insects, mechanical forces,
and the barrier properties of the packaging materials.
 Key factors affecting the selection of a packaging material include:

- Light: Packaging material should restrict light transmission when foods are susceptible to
light-induced deterioration such as rancidity, loss of nutritional value, or color changes.
Transparent packages are desirable for displaying contents, whereas pigments or labels can be
used to restrict light for sensitive products.
- Temperature: The temperature stability of the packaging material is crucial. It should withstand
processing conditions without damage or interaction with the food. For frozen food packaging,
the material should remain flexible and not crack at the freezing temperatures.
- Moisture and glasses: Control of moisture and gas exchange is critical to sustain food shelf-life.
Packaging needs to prevent microbial spoilage, loss of moisture, and freezer burn while allowing
sufficient breathability to fresh foods to prevent condensation and mold growth.
- Oxygen Sensitivity: Packaging for foods containing lipids or other oxygen-sensitive components
should provide an adequate oxygen barrier to prevent spoilage. On the other hand, respiring fresh
foods and certain meats require packaging with high oxygen permeability.
- Intrinsic properties of the food: The characteristics of the food item itself, including water
activity, pH, and enzymatic activity, influence the selection of packaging materials.
- Mechanical Strength: The packaging material must be strong enough to withstand damage from
impact, vibration, compression, or abrasion.
- Marketing and consumer convenience: These factors include aesthetic appeal, functionality, ease
of opening, resealing, disposal, and the ratio of pack weight to product weight.
- Cost and disposal options: The economic feasibility of the packaging material and its
environmental impact upon disposal are also significant considerations.
4. Please describe the function 24.1 and 24.2 and its application
5. Please explain the implication of temperature on the packaging
The implication of temperature on packaging is significant in terms of the material's thermal
conductivity, reflectivity, and its resilience to changes in temperature:
- Thermal Conductivity: Materials with low thermal conductivity help maintain the temperature of
the packaged contents by reducing heat transfer.
- Reflectivity: Reflective materials can reflect heat, aiding in temperature control within the
package.
- Resilience to Processing Conditions: Packaging exposed to heat must withstand the temperature
without damaging the package or interacting with the contents.
- Thermal Shock: Materials like glass need slow heating and cooling to prevent breakage caused
by thermal shock.
- Frozen Storage: Packaging for frozen foods should remain flexible and not crack at freezing
temperatures.
6. Please explain the implication of moisture and gasses on the packaging selection.
- Moisture Control: The packaging material must control moisture exchange to prevent microbial
or enzymatic spoilage, loss or gain of moisture which could lead to drying out or sogginess in the
food. Moisture conditions within the package create a microclimate, determined by both the
moisture in the food and the permeability of the packaging material.
- Gaseous Exchange: The packaging material needs to be chosen according to the gaseous needs
of the product. Foods that contain lipids or other oxygen-sensitive components require a low
oxygen permeability to prevent spoilage. On the other hand, fresh foods like vegetables and
fruits or fresh red meats require packaging that allows exchange of respiratory gasses. Foods
packaged in modified atmospheres (where air is replaced by nitrogen and/or carbon dioxide)
require a low permeability to these gasses to maintain shelf-life.
- Odor Control: Packaging should also retain volatile compounds that contribute to desirable
odors, or prevent odor pick-up from the surrounding environment.
- Material Permeability: Glass and metal packaging are almost entirely impermeable to gasses and
vapors, while plastic films have a wide range of permeabilities, depending on their thickness,
chemical composition, and structure. The permeability of a packaging material is found using
specific equations, and it influences the shelf-life of the packaged food.
- Influence of Additives: Additives like plasticizers and pigments can increase the permeability of
plastic films.
- Temperature Impact: The permeability of the packaging material is also related to temperature,
so both the temperature and relative humidity of the atmosphere where permeability
measurements are made should be considered.

7. Please describe the equation 24.3 and 24.4 and its application.
8. Please describe the function 24.6 and 24.7 and its application.
9. Please describe the table 24.2.
10.Please describe the grease resistance of packaging.
Grease Resistance in Packaging is a crucial feature for specific types of packaged goods, particularly
those containing oils or fats. The grease resistance of packaging prevents leakage of oils or fats, which
could lead to oxidative rancidity and spoil the appearance of the package.
 Grease-resistant packaging materials also prevent oil or grease from seeping through the packaging,
which can compromise the integrity of the package and potentially affect other items if the packaged
product is part of a larger shipment.
Here is how this feature is applied in different packaging materials:
- Cooking Oils: These are typically packaged in metal or glass bottles, which offer good grease
resistance.
- Cooking Fats: These are often packaged in plastic tubs, aluminum foil, or greaseproof paper, all
of which have strong resistance to grease.
- Dry Fatty Foods: Items like chocolate are packed in foil or plastic films, which prevent the fat
from seeping through the packaging.
- Wet Fatty Foods: Foods like meats and fish are typically packaged in treated papers, trays, or
laminated films and papers that have been specifically designed to resist grease and prevent
leakage.
11.Please describe the properties of packaging against microorganisms, insects, animals
and soils.
Protection of Packaging Against Microorganisms, Insects, Animals, and Soils
Packaging plays a crucial role in protecting food products from various types of contamination,
including microorganisms, insects, animals, and soils. Here are some key characteristics:
- Microorganisms: Metal, glass, and polymer packaging materials form barriers against
microorganisms. However, inadequate seals or damage to the packaging material can lead to
microbial contamination. Processes like irradiation, pasteurisation, heat sterilisation, and ohmic
heating rely on packaging to maintain the microbiological quality of the processed products.
- Insects: Metal or glass containers and some of the stronger flexible films and foil laminates are
resistant to insect infestation. These materials are less likely to be penetrated by insects, helping
to preserve the quality and safety of the food product inside.
- Animals: Metal and glass containers can protect foods against larger pests such as rodents and
birds. These materials are robust enough to resist tampering from larger animals, thus ensuring
the food product remains untouched and safe for consumption.
- Soils: Packaging also provides protection against contamination by dust and other soils. This is
particularly critical for food products that, while they may use preservatives or specific storage
 conditions to restrict microbial growth, still require protection against environmental
contamination.
12. Please describe the mechanical strength of packaging.

The strength of packaging materials can be assessed by measuring the elongation (strain) resulting from an
applied force (stress). Key measures derived from a stress-strain diagram include:

● Tensile Strength (T): Maximum tensile (stretching) stress that a material can bear before failure.
● Young’s Modulus (E): Measure of stiffness, defined as the rate of change of stress with strain, found
from the slope of the stress-strain curve. The equation to calculate Young's modulus is E = F/Ao *
ΔL/Lo, where E is Young’s modulus, F is the force applied to the object, Ao is the original
cross-sectional area through which the force is applied, ΔL is the amount by which the length of the
object changes, and Lo is the original length of the object.
● Yield Strength (Y): The stress at which a material begins to deform permanently and non-reversibly.

Plastic materials often exhibit anisotropy, where their mechanical properties vary depending on the
direction of the force applied, due to the orientation of the molecules in the material. The properties are
usually measured in both the axial (or machine) and lateral (or transverse) directions of the film.

13.Please describe the equation 24.8 and its application.

Coextrusions are multilayered films that offer several advantages over other types of film. They have
high barrier properties, similar to multilayer laminates but produced at a lower cost. They are thinner,
closer to monolayer films, and easier to use on forming and filling equipment. Additionally, the layers of
coextruded films cannot separate.

The copolymers used in coextruded films should have compatible chemical structures, flow
characteristics, and viscosities during the molten stage to achieve strong adhesion. There are three main
groups of polymers:

● Olefins (LDPE, HDPE, and PP)

 ● Styrenes (PS and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS))
● PVC polymers.

Generally, all materials within each group adhere to each other, with ABS also adhering to PVC. Other
combinations require bonding with ethylene vinyl acetate.

Flat-sheet coextrusions (753000 μm thick) are formed into pots, tubs, or trays, and have wide-ranging
applications as outlined in Table 24.8. For instance, a coextrusion type that combines high-impact polystyrene
and polyethylene terephthalate is used for margarine tubs. Another that includes polystyrene, polyvinylidene
chloride, and polyethylene is appropriate for containers for butter, cheese, margarine, coffee, mayonnaise, and
sauces.

For certain coextrusions, such as a three-layer one, have distinct layers each serving a purpose - an external
presentation layer (high gloss, printable), a middle bulk layer (provides stiffness, strength and split resistance),
and an inner layer (suitable for heat sealing). These films provide good barrier properties and cost-effectiveness.
They are commonly used for confectionery, snack foods, cereals, dry mixes, etc.

14.Please describe the packaging properties against Tamper

Packaging plays a crucial role in ensuring the integrity of a product, providing a barrier against potential
tampering. Tamper-proof or tamper-evident packaging is designed to show visible signs of meddling, allowing
consumers to identify if the product has been interfered with.

properties of tamper-resistant packaging:

Sealing Mechanisms: Tamper-proof packaging often includes induction seals or pressure-sensitive seals that are
broken upon first opening.

Shrink Bands/Caps: These are plastic bands heat-sealed around the lid or cap of a package. If the band is broken
or damaged, it may indicate tampering.
Breakable Caps: In some packages, the cap is connected to the seal, and any attempt to open the product will
result in a broken or damaged cap.

Tamper-Evident Labels: These are labels or stickers which will show signs of damage or leave a residue if they
are removed or manipulated.

Printed Films or Foil Seals: Often found in food or pharmaceutical packaging, these seals must be pierced or
completely removed to open the package, which will clearly show if the product has been opened.

Visible Printed Codes: Certain packages come with printed codes that can be checked for verification.

Special Packaging Design: Some packages have unique design elements that make them difficult to open
without leaving evidence of tampering.

15.Please describe the interactions between packaging and foods.

The interaction between packaging materials and food can negatively affect consumer safety and the
food's shelf-life or sensory quality. This can occur when oils from food migrate into plastic packaging,
altering its barrier properties. The main concern is with flexible films and various plastic additives.

Volatile compounds from the manufacturing process or additives can be absorbed by food, causing
potential tainting.

In metal containers, lacquers and coatings are used to avoid food's interaction with the metal.However,
a lacquer failure in tinplate containers can lead to a reaction, causing potential can swelling.

Glass containers are chemically inert, but lid or cap materials might interact with food. Current
research and legislation are focusing on testing methods, migration mechanisms, and the safety
management of materials in contact with food, with considerations for recycling, reuse, and
environmental impact.
16.Please describe the table 24.3
The migration of oils from foods into plastic materials can alter their barrier properties. This primarily
concerns flexible films that contain residual monomers from polymerisation processes and additives to
plastics. These additives include nucleating agents, stabilisers, fillers, plasticisers, antifogging agents,
and pigments.

Furthermore, some packaging materials contain volatile compounds that might be absorbed by foods,
potentially leading to tainting. These volatile compounds can originate from the manufacturing process
(for instance, solvents used in the creation of polymer films or containers) or from additives, such as
wax coating on papers, lacquers, sealing compounds, printing inks, or label adhesives.

To reduce the risk of food tainting, materials are carefully selected. For metal containers, interactions
with food acids and other components are prevented using lacquers and coatings. If there's a failure in
the lacquer of tinplate containers, food acids can react with the tin coating, leading to the formation of
hydrogen and potential can swelling.

Glass containers are inert, but elements used in the cap or lid could interact with the food content.
Current research and legislation focus on regulating materials that come in contact with foods. These
regulations encompass chemical testing, migration mechanisms, and safety management, alongside
considerations for recycling, reuse, and environmental impact.

17.Please describe the textiles and wood packaging

Textiles and Wood

Textile Packaging

Textile packaging, despite its poor gas and moisture barrier properties, low speed filling suitability,
lower aesthetic compared to plastics, and minimal barrier to insects and microorganisms, is used in
certain applications. Typically, it is utilized as shipping containers for dried foods or as overwraps for
other packaging in niche markets.

One common form of textile packaging is woven jute sacks, or 'burlap' as known in the United States.
Treated chemically to prevent rotting and reduce flammability, these sacks offer non-slip surfaces, high
 resistance to tearing, low extensibility, and good durability. They are often used to transport dry bulk
foods like grain, flour, sugar, and salt. However, they are progressively being replaced by alternatives
like multiwall paper sacks, polypropylene sacks, or intermediate bulk containers.

Wood Packaging

Wooden shipping containers have traditionally been used for a variety of solid and liquid foods,
including fruits, vegetables, tea, wines, spirits, and beers. They offer excellent mechanical protection,
good stacking characteristics, and a high vertical compression strength-to-weight ratio.

However, they are gradually being replaced in many applications by lower cost alternatives like
polypropylene and polyethylene drums, crates, and boxes. Despite this, the use of wood continues in the
packaging of some wines and spirits owing to the quality improvement imparted by the transfer of flavor
compounds from the wooden barrels to the product. Moreover, wooden tea chests, which are produced
more cheaply than other containers in tea-producing countries, are still widely used.

18.Please describe the different metal packaging

Other Metal Packaging

Metal packaging, including aluminium and tinplate, is widely used in the food industry due to its
durability and excellent barrier properties. Different types of metal packaging are used for different
purposes.

Aluminium Bottles

An aluminium bottle with a spout and screw cap, designed to compete with PET bottles, is significantly
lighter than its equivalent-sized glass bottle and weighs 30-40% less than cans made using the impact
extrusion process. The manufacturing process for these bottles uses 57-65% recycled aluminium alloy,
rather than the 99.7% pure aluminium required for impact extrusion. These bottles are used for various
drink types, including carbonated drinks, sports drinks, and alcoholic beverages.

Tinplate and Aluminium Cans

 Tinplate and aluminium cans, fitted with a variety of closures, are used to package powders, syrups, and
cooking oils.

Foil Packaging

Aluminium is also used for foil wrappers, lids, cups, and trays, laminated pouches, collapsible tubes,
barrels and closures. Aluminium foil offers multiple advantages including an attractive appearance,
impermeability to moisture, odours, light and microorganisms, good weight: strength ratio, high-quality
surface for decorating or printing, and compatibility with a wide range of sealing resins and coatings.

Foil packaging is commonly used for bottle caps, trays for frozen and ready meals, and wrappers. In
cases where foil is required to contain acidic or salty foods, it is usually coated with nitrocellulose.

Collapsible Tubes

Aluminium is preferred over polyethylene for food applications in collapsible tubes (used for products
like tomato puree and garlic paste) because it permanently collapses when squeezed, preventing air and
potential contaminants from being drawn into the partially used product.

A potential disadvantage of aluminium is its reported incompatibility with microwave ovens. However,
certain studies have found that in most instances, the results of food heating were as good as with
microwave-transparent materials and sometimes even more uniform. Only in the earliest microwaves,
before 1969, has any damage to magnetrons occurred due to aluminium containers.

19.Please describe the glass packaging including the production technique in figure
24.3

● Glass Packaging and Production Techniques

Glass packaging is often used for its non-reactive nature, preserving the quality and taste of the product
contained within. It is used widely in food and beverage industries. Key techniques in glass production
include the "blow and blow" process and the "press and blow" process.
 ● Blow and Blow Process
Outlined in Figure 24.3 (A), this process begins with a gob (lump of molten glass) dropped into a
parison mould. The gob is initially shaped by a 'settle blow' to form the finish. A 'counter-blow' then
forms the complete parison, a rough first-shape of the glass object. The parison or blank is then
transferred to a blow mould where the final shape of the glass is blown and formed.

This process, however, has been largely replaced by the press and blow process, mainly due to its ability
to reduce the weight of the glass without impacting its mechanical performance.

● Press and Blow Process

As seen in Figure 24.3 (B), the press and blow process also starts with a gob of molten glass dropping
into a parison mould. Instead of blowing, a plunger is used to press and shape the parison and finish.
This method is usually employed for wide-neck containers. Once the parison is formed, similar to the
blow and blow process, it is transferred to a blow mould to give it the final shape.

In both processes, when the product comes out of the moulds, it is roughly at a temperature of 800°C. If
allowed to cool naturally, the difference in contraction rates between the interior and exterior of the glass
could cause damaging internal stresses. To avoid this, the glass is annealed at 540-570°C to relieve these
stresses and then cooled in a controlled manner in an annealing lehr, essentially a special kiln that cools
glass at a controlled rate to prevent distortion or fracturing.

Several resources like British Glass provide more detailed information on these techniques, and videos
of the manufacturing process are also available for a more visual explanation.

20.Please describe briefly the flexible films packaging covering single films, cellulose,
and EVA
● Flexible Films
 Flexible films, also known as 'web,' are utilized in packaging and are typically constructed from
nonfibrous plastic polymers less than 0.25 mm in thickness. The plastic polymers take their form from long
polymer molecules that can be reshaped or oriented, providing the 'flexible' property.

● Single Films

Most single films are produced through a process called extrusion, where pellets of the polymer
are melted and forced out under pressure in the form of a sheet or tube. Other methods include
'callandering', in which a polymer like polyvinyl chloride or ethylene vinyl acetate is passed through
heated rollers until the desired thickness is achieved. An alternative is solvent casting which involves
casting a solution of a polymer and additives onto a stainless steel belt, where the solvent is evaporated
to leave a clear, sparkly film.

These films are then treated with processes like ion beams, flame, or corona treatments to
enhance their sealability, adhesion, printability, and barrier properties.

Cellulose

Cellulose films are derived from sulphite paper pulp dissolved in caustic soda to form sodium
cellulose. This is then converted to cellulose xanthate and later regenerated into cellulose by being
extruded or cast into an acid-salt bath, forming cellulose hydrate. The film is then dried on heated
rollers.

Cellulose films are transparent, greaseproof, and biodegradable. Their properties can change
depending on humidity levels, and they're mainly used for food items that don't require a complete
moisture or gas barrier, such as fresh bread and certain types of confectionery.

Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)

While the original text does not directly describe EVA, it's worth mentioning that Ethylene Vinyl
Acetate (EVA) is a type of plastic film known for its flexibility and toughness. It's typically used in
packaging due to its excellent barrier properties, low-temperature toughness, stress-crack resistance, and
resistance to UV radiation. Its flexibility and transparency make it suitable for use in applications where
 clarity and flexibility are needed, such as food and beverage packaging. It can also be used to produce
laminated films and pouches.
21.Please describe briefly the flexible films packaging covering from PP up to
coextruded film.
Flexible film packaging is a versatile solution used in various industries for protecting and presenting
products. The materials used in flexible films packaging can range from polypropylene (PP) to
coextruded films, each with distinct properties suited for different applications.
Polypropylene (PP) Films
Polypropylene is a thermoplastic polymer used widely in packaging due to its clarity, high tensile
strength, and resistance to moisture. It has a high sealing temperature ( 170C) and is therefore often
coated or laminated with polyethylene. PP films are often used for:
Food packaging, including snacks and baked goods, due to their excellent barrier properties.
Medical and pharmaceutical packaging, owing to their chemical resistance and ability to withstand
sterilization processes.
Labels and tapes, benefiting from PP's durability and printability.
Coextruded Films
Coextruded films are made by combining two or more layers of different polymers to form a single film
with enhanced properties. The coextrusion process allows for customization of the film’s characteristics,
such as:
Improved barrier properties: Different layers can be designed to provide resistance to oxygen, moisture,
and other contaminants, which is critical for food packaging.
Strength and durability: The combination of materials can result in films that are more resistant to
punctures and tears.
Enhanced flexibility: Coextruded films can offer better flexibility compared to single-layer films,
making them suitable for various applications including shrink wraps and stretch films.
Heat sealability: Specific layers can be tailored for optimal sealing performance, ensuring package
integrity.
Applications of Flexible Film Packaging
Flexible films are used in a wide range of applications across different industries, including:
Food & Beverage: Packaging for snacks, meats, dairy products, and beverages, ensuring extended shelf
life and freshness.
 Pharmaceuticals: Blister packs, sachets, and pouches that protect medicines from environmental factors.
Consumer Goods: Packaging for personal care items, household products, and electronics, providing
convenience and protection.
The ability to laminate to paper, aluminium or other plastics.
Suitable for high-speed filling and ease of handling and printing
They add little weight to the product and fit closely to the shape of the food, thereby.
wasting little space for storage and distribution
Relatively low cost.
Benefits of Flexible Film Packaging
Cost-effective: Generally, flexible films are more economical compared to rigid packaging solutions.
Lightweight: Reduces transportation costs and carbon footprint.
Versatile: Suitable for various shapes and sizes of products.
Customizable: Can be printed with high-quality graphics and tailored to specific barrier and mechanical
properties.
22.Please describe briefly the Rigid and Semirigid plastic containers.
Rigid and semirigid plastic containers, such as trays, cups, tubs, bottles, and jars are typically made from
single or coextruded polymers.
In the food industry, plastic containers come in two main types: rigid and semi-rigid.

■ Rigid containers: Think tough tubs and bottles. These are super sturdy and protect food
well from bumps and squishes. They're ideal for:
■
■ Fragile foods: Like berries or pastries that need to stay fresh and whole.
■ Liquids: To prevent spills and leaks, like milk or juice bottles.
■ Preserving freshness: Some rigid containers block air and light, keeping food good longer
(think yogurt tubs).
■ Semi-rigid containers: Imagine ketchup bottles or squeezable yogurt tubs. These bend a
bit but keep their shape. They're great for:
■ Easy dispensing: Perfect for squeezing out condiments, sauces, or honey.
■ Lighter weight: Makes them easier to transport and eco-friendly.
■ Resealing: Often have lids to keep food fresh after opening (like yogurt tubs)
 ■ They offer several advantages over glass and metal packaging. These include:
■ Lower weight, which results in up to 40% savings in transport and distribution costs.
■ Cups, tubs, and trays are tapered for more compact stacking for transport and storage.
■ Lower production temperature than glass, leading to lower energy costs.
■ Plastic containers can be precisely molded into a wider range of shapes, they are tough,
unbreakable (impact and pressure-resistant), easy to seal, and offer more chemical
resistance than metals.
■ They can be easily colored for aesthetic appeal and UV-light protection.
■ However, these containers are not reusable and have a lower heat resistance and rigidity
than glass or metal.
■ There are seven methods for manufacturing these containers:
■ Thermoforming: Used for making containers like trays, punnets, cups or tubs for various
foods.
■ Blow Moulding: Used for producing bottles, jars, or pots for cooking oils, vinegar,
beverages, and sauces.
■ Injection Moulding: Used for wide-mouthed containers and lids.
■ Injection Blow Moulding: Offers accurate control of the container weight and neck
finishes, mainly used for small bottles.
■ Extrusion Blow Moulding: Used for larger bottles and can be used to form handles and
offset necks.
■ Stretch Blow Moulding: Produces clear containers with increased material properties and
stability over a wide temperature range.
■ Multilayer Blow Moulding: High-cost but has excellent oxygen barrier properties.

The type of co extrusion used depends on the application; certain types are suitable for
margarine tubs, juices, dairy products, etc. The material choice depends on the product it holds;
HDPE is common for vinegar, milk, syrups, and similar products, while polypropylene co extrusion is
used for mustard, mayonnaise, jams, and so on.