POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GRADUATE WORK

GUIDE FOR THE PREPARATION OF SURVEYS AND TOPOGRAPHIC PLANNING

ON ROADS IN EL SALVADOR.

PRESENTED BY:

FEDOR ERNESTO SERRANO PAREDES.

JOSÉ NAHÚM RIVAS AYALA.
ROBERTO SAÚL GUERRERO SANTOS.

TO OPT FOR THE DEGREE OF

CIVIL ENGINEERING.
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR

SAN SALVADOR
2019
 ING. ROBERTO ARGUETA QUAN
RECTOR

ING. JULIUS CAESAR RICO

GENERAL SECRETARY

ING. RAUL ALBERTO GARCIA AQUINO.

DEAN OF THE FACULTY
GRADUATION JURIES

GUIDE FOR PREPARING SURVEYS AND LAYOUTS

TOPOGRAPHIC ON ROADS IN EL SALVADOR.

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 ING. MAURICIO ERNESTO VALENCIA
ADVISER

ING. CARLOS ALBERTO ARGUETA LOPEZ

JURY

ING.
JURY
Index
GRADUATE WORK...................................................................................................................1
PRESENTED BY:........................................................................................................................1
TO OPT FOR THE DEGREE OF................................................................................................1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
Chapter l. Problem Statement.......................................................................................................1
1.1. Background........................................................................................................................2
1.2. Limitations.........................................................................................................................3
1.3. Scope..................................................................................................................................3
1.4. Justification........................................................................................................................3
1.5. Goals..................................................................................................................................5
1.5.1. General objective...........................................................................................................5
1.5.2. Specific objectives.........................................................................................................5
2.1. Generalities........................................................................................................................6
2.1.1. Topographic survey classification.................................................................................6
2.1.2.1. Length units................................................................................................................7

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A. Surface units......................................................................................................................8
B. Angular units.....................................................................................................................8
C. Sexagesimal system...........................................................................................................9
D. Centesimal system or Gones..............................................................................................9
A. Angular Measurements:.....................................................................................................9
B. Linear Measurements:.....................................................................................................10
C. Units of measurement to represent areas:........................................................................10
D. Definition of terms...........................................................................................................10
2.1.4. Uncertainty, error, precision, tolerance and accuracy..................................................11
2.1.5. Accuracy and precision................................................................................................12
2.2. Terms of reference...........................................................................................................20
2.3. Bases for the preparation of the terms of reference.........................................................16
2.3.1. Functional Classification of Roads and Highways......................................................16
2.3.2. Technical Visit to the Project Site................................................................................17
2.4. Terms of reference used in El Salvador...........................................................................19
2.4.1.1. Topographic study....................................................................................................20
2.4.1.2. Mapping....................................................................................................................23
2.4.1.3. Rethinking Bases......................................................................................................26
2.4.1.4. Other Field and Office Work....................................................................................28
2.4.1.5. Axis Staking Every 20 meters..................................................................................30
2.4.1.6. Verification of the accuracy of the Control Networks, Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment.31
2.4.1.7. Drain Check..............................................................................................................31
2.4.2. Analysis of the “terms of reference” used in El Salvador............................................32
2.5. Route surveys...................................................................................................................33
2.5.1. Control survey..............................................................................................................34
2.5.1.1. Degree of precision for control surveying................................................................35
2.5.2. Configuration surveys..................................................................................................35

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 Introduction

Traditional topography continues to be part of surveying and layout work, always

being in a stage of constant technological changes with advances that occur at high
speed and that are affecting field and office topographic work. Among these changes
are satellite surveys, GPS and electronic and digital theodolites, total stations,
automatic digital levels, etc.

With respect to office work, information processing has become increasingly faster
and more efficient thanks to advances in computing and software, which allow
calculation in programs and equipment that accelerate topographic processes of any
type, map compilation and automatic contour plotting; in addition to geographic
information systems.

In this graduation work, the theoretical foundations of Topography will be presented,

revealing basic concepts that are essential and necessary for those who are
interested in entering into the study of road topography, as well as the use of
programs for drawing all the data collected from the land to be worked.

This document will be divided into four chapters, these being chapter I: problem
statement, here we will talk about the current problem of not having an updated guide,
limitations of the guide and why the importance of making one; Chapter II: Theoretical
Framework, the subject will be discussed, giving basic concepts and definitions,
equipment to use, etc.; chapter III. Methodology, here the processes and methods for
the completion of a road work will be disclosed; finally, chapter IV. Softwares used.

Chapter l. Problem Statement

In the field of topographic mapping and surveying in El Salvador there are outdated
guides, this is due to the technological and methodological progress that has occurred

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR

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in recent years in topography. In El Salvador there are currently topography guides
applied to roads, these being adaptations of regulations, guides and/or manuals from
other countries such as the AASHTO, among other standards.

When carrying out a highway project in the country, a SIECA manual is generally
used; however, this manual generally covers the Central American region, for this
reason in some cases it is of little use due to the the country's own topography, which
leads to delays and possible effects on the road project and its procedures, increasing
costs and execution time.

The main benefit that will be obtained from the guide is to describe in detail all the
activities that take place in the field, ensuring that all interested parties have an
adequate understanding of the procedures. For this reason, a guide is required to
present the appropriate methods for mapping and surveying.

1.1. Background

Topography is the branch of geodetic sciences that aims to study the methods
necessary to represent a terrain with all the natural details or created by the hand of
man, as well as the knowledge of the instruments necessary to carry out these
purposes. (EcuRed, 2018)

The beginnings of this science date back to the years 600 BC. c. Due to the periodic
overflows of the Nile River, it can be inferred that the Egyptians were the first peoples
to use this knowledge due to the need to search for methods and equipment that
would allow them to restore the limits of public and private property that were
damaged in their place of origin. due to the floods, they also used them for agricultural
purposes, in the construction of their famous pyramids, through the use of the inclined
plane and in measuring unevenness. (EcuRed, 2018)

This knowledge was taken to Greece and spread throughout the rest of the world until,
with the advances in technology, it reached the modern equipment and methods that
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we have until today. (EcuRed, 2018)

Topography, from an engineering point of view, covers the most varied aspects. It can
be said that every Civil Engineering study is fundamentally a topographical work.
(EcuRed, 2018)

The layout of a road, the layout of a railway, the opening of a tunnel, etc. They
constitute essentially a problem of practical topography. (EcuRed, 2018)

1.2. Limitations

Currently, El Salvador does not have a guide or manual of updated topographic

procedures for road projects.

Due to the limited time for the graduation work, it is not possible to describe the survey
methods and processes in topographic traces for the three types of terrain, in each of
the regions of the country, so they will be described in a general way. The guide will
not take into account urban areas.

1.3. Scope

With this guide, the different methods and procedures for the correct execution of
topographic procedures in road works in El Salvador will be made known, with the
purpose of contributing to the improvement of topography practices with adequate
planning to carry out a survey, making decisions about reference systems and
appropriate equipment.

Unify and capture the various methods of developing processes related to topography,
so that the reader can facilitate the execution of surveys and topographical layouts of
roads in El Salvador.

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 1.4. Justification

Due to the need for a clear, concise and updated guide for the preparation of surveys
and topographical layouts on roads in El Salvador, the guide to be described will be
created. This guide will benefit the student and/or professional sector since it will
facilitate the processes and methods for surveying and mapping road projects in
accordance with new requirements and provisions of the Ministry of Public Works
(MOP).

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 1.5. Goals

1.5.1. General objective

Prepare a guide that describes the most appropriate methods and steps for preparing
surveys and topographic traces on roads in El Salvador.

1.5.2. Specific objectives

• Investigate the most used methods for surveys and topographic traces on
roads in El Salvador.

• Apply the different electronic, digital and satellite instruments that are within the
reader's reach in the field of topography.

• Adequately explain the different surveying and topographic tracing processes

according to the most common types of terrain in road projects.

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 Chapter ll. Theoretical framework

2.1. Generalities

In the study, execution and preparation of any Civil Engineering work, the use of
topography is necessary. Since based on this science, the characteristics of the
terrain can be determined for the guidance of the engineer and/or surveyor for the
best distribution and location of the work. (Korea and Associates SA, 2008)

The topographic aspect should at no time be minimized, ignored or underestimated,

no matter how small the magnitude of a given project may be; Otherwise, it is when
problems occur and are generated in the initiation and completion of an engineering
project in any area in which it has to be developed. (Korea and Associates SA, 2008)

In road engineering, there is an infinite amount of documentation or written texts that

focus on the topographic aspect; at a certain moment it is difficult to establish the
appropriate methods to use in a specific place; It usually starts with the basic aspects
of topography. (Oocities, 2009)

Civil Engineer Wilfredo Amaya Zelaya, Coordinator of geodetic survey National

Geographic and Cadastre Institute, National Registration Center (CNR) in his
presentation “Modern topography with total station and TDS recon survey pro
collector” describes the general terms that have to do with the topography.

2.1.1. Topographic survey classification.

Under this classification, a large number of surveys are carried out depending on the
object and purpose of the particular survey, such as:
(Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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 • Uprisingsof plots

• Uprisingsof roads

• Uprisings urban

• Uprisingsof construction

• Uprisingshydrographic

• Uprisingsmarine

• Uprisingsminers

• Uprisingsforestry

• Uprisingsgeological

• Uprisingsaeronautical

2.1.2. Measurement units

2.1.2.1. Length units.

The fundamental unit is the meter, so all dimensions, coordinates and levels are
expressed in that unit, unless due to some practice to the contrary, other units have to
be used. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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 A. Surface units.

The square meter (m2) is used as a unit of measurement; For land demarcation
purposes, the following agricultural units are also used: (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

• Centiare = 1 m2

• Area = 100 m2

• Hectare = 10,000 m2

• Milliare = 1,000,000 m2

• Km2 = 1,000,000 m2

B. Angular units.

The unit of measurement is the sexagesimal degree, the relationship with other
systems of units is as follows:
(Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Illustration 1 . Types of angular units. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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 C. Sexagesimal system.

The circumference is divided into 360 parts. The basic unit is the degree (°), which is
subdivided into 60 minutes (60'), and the minute is subdivided into 60 seconds (60").
This system is used by almost everyone. Its use is quite widespread, the correlations
of the units of time and arc in astronomy (1 hour = 15°), and other considerations,
favor the continued use of this sexagesimal system. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

D. Centesimal system or Gones

The use of decimal degrees in various engineering calculations has certain

advantages. This led to the creation of the centesimal system, in which the
circumference is divided into 400 parts, called centesimal degrees or gones (g).
Therefore, 100g = 90°. The centesimal degree is divided into 100 centesimal minutes
(100c) and one centesimal minute, into 100 centesimal seconds (100c). Thus, an
angle can be expressed as 236.4268g, where the first pair of digits after the dot
represents centesimal minutes, and the second pair of digits represents centesimal
seconds. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

2.1.3. Summary of units of measurement

A. Angular Measurements:

• Sexagesimal System = 360°

• Centesimal system = 400 gons

• Ratio = 90°=100gons

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 B. Linear Measurements:

• Metric (m, km, cm, mm)

• English (inches, feet, yards, miles)

C. Units of measurement to represent areas:

• Hectare: ha = 10,000 m2

• 1 apple mz = 10,000 vrs2

• Area; a= 100 m2

• Centiare: ca= 1 m2

• Conversion factor: 1 mt2 = 1.430828 vrs2

D. Definition of terms

In every topographic survey, the directions of the polygon lines are defined by a
“course” or an “azimuth”. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Azimuth: is the angle measured clockwise from the north end of the reference
meridian, that is, it is the right angle measured from the north and ranges between 0° -
360°. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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 AZIMUTHS

Illustration 2 . Azimuth measurement demonstration. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Heading: It is the angle that defines the direction of a line, measured from the NORTH
or SOUTH in a positive or negative direction, and can have values between 0-90. (Ing
Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Illustration 3. Heading measurement demonstration. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

2.1.4. Uncertainty, error, precision, tolerance and accuracy

The terms error, precision, tolerance and accuracy are related to the quality of a
measurement or the quality of geographical spatial data. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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2.1.5. Accuracy and precision

Precision refers to the dispersion of the set of values obtained from repeated
measurements of a quantity. The smaller the dispersion, the greater the precision
(closeness of one measurement to the other). A common measure of variability is the
standard deviation of measurements, and precision can be estimated as a function of
it. It is important to highlight that the automation of different tests or techniques can
produce an increase in precision. This is because, with said automation, what we
achieve is a reduction in manual errors or their immediate correction. Do not confuse
resolution with precision. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Accuracy refers to how close the measured value is to the actual value. In statistical
terms, accuracy is related to the bias of an estimate.

The lower the risk the more accurate an estimate is. When the accuracy of a result is
expressed, it is expressed by the absolute error, which is the difference between the
experimental value and the true value. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

As an example of precision and accuracy, let's put shots in a circle. Precision and
accuracy in shooting have to do with the proximity of the shots to each other:
precision, and with the concentration of the shots around the center of the circle:
accuracy. . (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

In Illustration 4, it has a high degree of precision since all the shots are concentrated
in a small space, and a high degree of accuracy since the shots are concentrated over
the center of the circle. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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Illustration 4 . High degree of precision. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

In illustration 5, the degree of precision is similar to that of figure A, the shots are
equally concentrated, the accuracy is lower, since the shots have deviated to the left
and up, separating themselves from the center of the circle. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya,
2018)

Illustration 5. Moderately high degree of precision. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

In illustration 6, the precision is low as can be seen by the dispersion of the shots
throughout the target, but the accuracy is high because the shots are distributed over
the center of the circle. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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Illustration 6. Low precision degree. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

In Illustration 7, the distribution of shots over a wide area denotes lack of precision,
and the deviation to the left of the center of the circle reveals lack of accuracy. (Ing
Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

Illustration 7. Very low degree of precision. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

As can be seen, these properties are independent and high or low precision does not
imply high or low accuracy; an operation, information or measurement is of better
quality the greater its precision and accuracy. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

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 Table 1 . Recommended accuracies for topographic surveys
Recommended accuracy for topographic surveys
Lifting type Linear Angular precision
precision (1:K)
Preliminary 1:1,000 1.5Vn
Common with good precision 1:3,000 1'/n
High precision for city work 1:5,000 30"/n
Maximum precision 1:10,000 15"n

2.2. Terms of reference

The “Manual for the preparation of terms of reference for road design” published by
“CORASCO” in Nicaragua in 2008 defines the concepts and practices necessary for
the preparation of appropriate terms of reference. (Korea and Associates SA, 2008).

Terms of reference are instruments that define the “success” or “failure” of the design
for which they were created. In other words, the terms of reference are documents
that define the scope of each of the specialties that will intervene in the design of a
highway and that will lay the foundations for the consultant to initially prepare his
technical proposal and economic and then prepare the design of the road taking into
consideration the parameters and scope requested in the terms of reference prepared
for this purpose. Clarity of the terms of reference is the key to good quality proposals
and, ultimately, to a robust contract. The terms of reference must be adapted
according to the design that is required, depending on the characteristics of the road
or highway where it is to be implemented, that is, they must be proposed in
accordance with its needs. The document containing the required terms of reference
must attempt to comprehensively cover the needs of the proposed project. Preferably
it should 15
focus on the study being carried out by an interdisciplinary group, with an ideal
professional profile and in accordance with the needs of the project (Corea and
associates SA, 2008)

2.3. Bases for the preparation of the terms of reference.

As a prior work to the preparation of the terms of reference, there must be the assurance
of institutional regulations that provide the technical bases that guarantee in the content
of the terms of reference a greater and better understanding in relation to the aspects that
are addressed below: (Korea and Associates SA, 2008)

2.3.1. Functional Classification of Roads and Highways

According to the Central American manual for highway design (SIECA), the road network
has been classified into each of the categories. This classification considers six
categories of roads and paths grouped into: (SIECA, 2002)

• regional highway

• suburban trunks

• Rural trunks

• Suburban collectors

• Rural collectors

The terms of reference should adapt their content to road categories based on the
classifications in order to facilitate their understanding. Grouping the road network into
categories will facilitate the identification of many parameters related to the geometry of

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the road, the elements that compose it and the different studies that are associated with
the solution of problems generated in it. (SIECA, 2002)

2.3.2. Technical Visit to the Project Site.

The field visit to the site of the road under study must be preceded by the reading and
analysis of the information collected. This analysis of the information will be prior
knowledge of the characteristics and conditions of the road to be contrasted with the real
or current conditions and characteristics of the same. The visit to the project site consists
of the execution of the Problem Identification stage, a stage that is part of the project life
cycle. From its results, contributions will be obtained towards the definition of the scope
requested from the consultant. Before carrying out the visit, the official or officials who
carry it out must plan it, set objectives, divide the work by specialties if more than one
attends, have the necessary resources to take evidence of important data on the path
that must be highlighted later. in the document. The resources that must be available
during the visit are:
(Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

• Geodetic maps with the approximate layout of the proposed path.

• Very good precision manual navigator.

• Tape measure of 8 m and 30 m.

• Digital camera with spare batteries.

• Tables with clamp.

• Reflective safety vests.

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 • Four-wheel drive vehicle.

Without being exclusive, the official(s) must carry out the following activities during the
field visit:
(Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

• Clearly identify the origin and destination of the section to be studied using its
proper names and coordinates.

• Walk the road and identify its main accidents, such as: presence of gullies, state of
the rolling surface, state of longitudinal and transverse drainage. Each of these
points must be marked using the manual navigator.

• Note the existence of subsurface currents.

• Trace the entire path with dotted marks with the manual navigator.

• Take measurements of the width of the right-of-way at different places along the
route.

• Take measurements of the current tread width at different locations along the road.

• In major drainage structures, inspect their physical condition, take photos, and
take the main dimensions of the structures.

• Identify population centers along the road by name and importance.

• Identify the different population ethnicities, if any.

• Recognize the main travel generating and attracting centers, such as:
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 agricultural facilities, industrial facilities, facilities
tourism, etc., in each case a categorization of them must be achieved if necessary.
In addition, it should be mentioned whether these generating centers are of
municipal, local, regional or national importance.

• Note should be made about traffic in all its forms along the road, this implies
making observations of the types of vehicles observed, their approximate number,
the speeds observed, making reference to public transport vehicles, the type of the
same, the loading conditions of passengers and cargo itself, etc.

• Make observations on the type of soil that makes up the first or first layers of the
pavement thickness in the event that its pavement surface was coated or, evaluate
the damage that the rolling surface had in the event that it was made of material.
asphalt or some form of concrete.

• Identify the possible negative impacts that the road generates to the environment
through the degrees of deterioration that it presents.

• Identify the sources of materials that were found on the road or in its vicinity.

The greater information obtained in the field visit will also help the official to include the
scope of the consultant's services regarding specific aspects that must be resolved
through the development of the study. (Ing Wilfredo Amaya, 2018)

2.4. Terms of reference used in El Salvador.

In the country, the terms of reference are governed by the entities National Registry
Center (CNR) and the Ministry of Public Works (MOP).

In this work, the terms of reference used by the Ministry of Public Works (MOP) will be
taken into account since these are described specifically oriented to the survey and

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topographic layout of highways in the country.

2.4.1. Terms of reference used by the Ministry of Public Works (MOP).

2.4.1.1. Topographic study.

The Consultant must collect all the geodetic information that serves as a basis for
establishing the geographical location of the route. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The consultant must establish a primary control network with pairs of points monumented
with concrete markers which guarantee their permanence. In no case will less than three
(3) pairs be accepted, however, the number of pairs necessary will be established taking
into consideration. the length of the project, these must be established outside the right of
way of the road and if it cannot be done due to its topography, place it on the sides of the
road (in no case, located in the taxiing area), foreseeing its removal by eventual
maintenance work. The points of each pair must be observable from each other and will
have a minimum separation of 50 meters. The maximum separation between pairs of
points is detailed according to the terrain as follows:
(Ministry of public works, 2016)

Table 2. Maximum separation between pairs of points.

Land type Maximum clearance
Flat land 5.0km
hilly terrain 4.0 km
Mountainous Terrain 3.0km
Very mountainous terrain 1.5 km

The points of this network may be established by the Geographic Institute of the National
Cadastre (IGCN) of the CNR, either in existing geodetic markers or, preferably, using
GPS devices, and leveling with an electronic level.
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Failing that, points established through triangular networks that meet the following
requirements will be accepted: (Ministry of Public Works, 2016)

First order precision Class II, with permanent monumenting, as detailed in Table 3:
Degrees of Precision used by the MOP.

The vertices of the Primary Control Network will be recorded on the ground by means of
monumented milestones, steel nails received with concrete or other means that
guarantee their permanence. A sketch will be made for each of them with references,
coordinates, elevation and a color photograph, which will be included in the topography
section of the descriptive report. For the Primary Control Network, the points must have
as reference two semi-permanent monuments, whose coordinates must be recorded in
notebooks and plans. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The boundary stones of this network must have minimum dimensions of 0.50 x 0.50
meters at the base and buried at least 0.60 meters from the foundation level. (Ministry of
public works, 2016)

They will be tied in plan with the National Geodetic network, and geometric elevation will
be given from one point of the Precision Leveling network, mooring in another of the
same network, or through a round trip route to the first point. In the event that due to the
position of the vertices of the traverse it is difficult or compromised to carry out the
aforementioned leveling, each of the vertices will be given a trigonometric elevation from
at least three points linked to the leveling network, by reciprocal and simultaneous
reading between the vertex and each of them, taking the average of those obtained as
the final limit. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

Point leveling with a total station will not be accepted; it must be carried out using a fixed
level, whether optical or laser. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The descriptions of the vertices, both of the primary control network and that of the
support points, will be included in the descriptive report and will be drawn on the most
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appropriate cartography plans. Likewise, the calculation of the traverse and the order of
observation followed will be included. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

Starting from the primary control network, the consultant must establish new control
networks for the approach to the final layout, each of them meeting the precision detailed
in Table 3: Degrees of Precision used by the MOP. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The separation of the points of the approach control network should be, if possible, of the
order of 500 to 1,500 meters. This must meet the precision requirements for second-order
control networks, Class II. If the closing error is less than specified, compensation must
be carried out using the least squares method, per network segment and simultaneously
all the circuits and polygons that connect two pairs of points of the primary control
network. . (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The points of this network will be given a level based on the levels of the primary control
network, by means of a fixed level, either optical or preferably electronic, with the
precision detailed in Table 3: Degrees of Precision used by the MOP. These levels must
be compensated if the closing error is less than specified, in order to distribute it. In the
event that said error exceeds what is specified, the measurements carried out must be
reviewed so that the survey meets this requirement. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

For all those sections in which the points of the approach control network are separated
by more than 1,000 meters, a tertiary control network must be established with the
requirements of Table 3: Degrees of Precision used by the MOP. It will be made up of
polygonal lines that connect points of the primary or approach control networks,
throughout the project, in such a way that there is a control point outside what I know will
be the construction sides, every 500 meters, as maximum. The network points will be
leveled using a fixed level. In the event that this network has a degree of precision equal
to or greater than 1:10,000, the respective compensation will be made, otherwise the
consultant must verify the procedures carried out in the field so that this network meets
the established requirements. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

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In the case of surveys of links and intersections and of passage works that have a total
span of 12 meters or more, a pair of points observable from each other will be
established, with a separation of the order of 300 meters, linked to the other networks by
common or polygonal connection points, establishing its leveling from the road trunk
control networks. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

Once the points of the approach control networks have been established, their vertices
will be recorded on the ground by means of monumented milestones, steel nails received
with concrete or other means that guarantee their permanence. A sketch will be made for
each of them with references, coordinates, elevation and a color photograph, which will
be included in the topography section of the descriptive report. (Ministry of public works,
2016)

The control networks will be received in the field by the Owner, once their layout has
been completed, and must communicate to the Technical Monitoring Committee and the
Owner, the completion of the activity, for which they must provide the raw data of the
survey in format digital, all this before starting the mapping or gathering of details.
(Ministry of public works, 2016)

2.4.1.2. Mapping

Once the layout of the control networks is completed, the consultant will develop all the
work and topography studies, general and detailed, necessary to obtain a cartography of
the terrain that serves as a basis for the preparation of the plans of all the units that make
up the the project, and those related to the management of acquisition of rights of way.
He will also prepare the topographical references on the ground.
The final results of the topographic study will be a series of files in AUTOCAD v.2007,
which must reflect at least the following elements: (Ministry of Public Works, 2016)

• Route layout and existing road works.

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• Starting from the current (existing) axis, a detailed planimetric and altimetric survey
will be required of what will be the right of way required for the construction, plus
ten meters (10 Mts.) on both sides of it.

• Man-made buildings and structures.

• Public services.

• Existing drains.

• Existing pavements.

• Existing bridges and passage works.

• Fences and property divisions.

• Development of lateral slopes.

• Rivers, streams, channels and bodies of water.

• Contour curves that reflect topographical features.

• Other elements that may be of interest for each particular project.

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The following table shows the degrees of precision used in the terms of reference by the
Ministry of Public Works (MOP).

Table 3. Degrees of Precision used by the Ministry of Public Works (MOP)

Item First order Second order Third order
Horizontal control
Class I Class II Class I Class II Class I Class II
Precision relative
between points
directly connected
1 part in 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in
before 1 part in 100,000
50,000 20,000 10,000 5,000
angular
compensation
(minimum)
Vertical control

Precision relative
between points
directly connected or
4mm√k 5mm√k 6mm√k 8mm√k 12mm√k
between brand banks
(permissible closing
error)

Traverse Requirements
Points of the geodetic
Recommended network, between 10
separation of points and 15 km. 4km 2 km 1km 1km
from the traverse Others
points, more than 3
km

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Minor reading
horizontal angle of 0.2” 0.2” 0.2” 1.0” 1.0”
the device
Number of horizontal
observations 16 8 6 4 2

Limit difference from

the average for 4” 4” 4” 5” 5”
discard read
Number and range
between observations 3D/R 3D/R 2 D/R 2 D/R 2 D/R
of angles 10” 10” 10” 10” 10”
vertical
Maximum number of
points in a 5 or 6 10 to 12 15 to 20 20 to 25 30 to 40
polygonal
Maximum

2'√n 3'√n 6”√n 10”√n 30”√n

mistake
K: route kilometers. N: number of points in the traverse.
D/R: one observation with a normal reading and another reading with a bell ring (inverted image)

2.4.1.3. Rethinking Bases.

The stakeout base networks will be established using polygonals that will start and close
at points of the primary control networks, or the approach networks (Secondary and/or
tertiary). These polygonals will be leveled with a fixed level to establish the levels of the
points that form them. The minimum degree of precision required for the layout bases
must comply with what is established for class I third-order networks (see table 3). The
horizontal and vertical compensations will be carried out once at least the minimum
required precisions are obtained, however, if the precision obtained is lower than that
established in table 3, the consultant must review the procedure carried out in the field

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and verify that The proposed traverses meet the aforementioned requirements. (Ministry
of Public Works, 2016) These bases must be arranged in such a way that all the entire
stations of the project, (points every 20 meters on the axis of the project) are observable
from at least one layout base. If the axis of a section of the project is observable from
points of the primary, secondary or tertiary control networks, these will be used as
additional stakeout bases for said section. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

From each setting out base or control point that will be used for setting out, it must be
possible to observe at least one other setting out base. Additionally, the sections of the
axis observable from adjacent staking bases will overlap a minimum of 40 meters.
(Ministry of public works, 2016)

The staking bases will be located outside the work area and away from the axis, so that
staking out by bisection does not produce angles less than 15º. (Ministry of public works,
2016)

Entire stations that are staked out with observations from more than 250 meters away
from one stakeout base must be staked out from a second stakeout base to verify their
location. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

The network must be made up of points placed outside the construction sides, in
locations that ensure that they will not be altered by traffic, pedestrians, runoff or other
reasonably foreseeable external agents. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

In any case, the consultant will be in charge of replacing the removed or missing bases,
prior to carrying out the verification operations of the layout of the works. (Ministry of
public works, 2016)

The precision of the work in tolerances will be Third Order, Class I.

Among the staking bases, simple links will be established to facilitate their replacement.
(Ministry of public works, 2016)
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They will be represented on the floor plans of the layout, along with the axes and the line
that delimits the grading. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

In this way, permanent planimetry and altimetry control will be established for the layout
and construction phases of the works. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

In the staking bases, a sketch will be given - a summary with references, photographs,
access, location, name and a list of its coordinates “x”, “y”, “z”. (Ministry of public works,
2016)

In transit works, at least two layout bases must be established, observable from each
other, outside the construction sides. These bases may be those of the control network
points. On the other hand, verification of the location of the work must be verified by
observing the closest layout bases of the main axis. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

2.4.1.4. Other Field and Office Work.

In addition to those outlined above, the consultant must carry out the following field and
office work:
(Ministry of public works, 2016)

• Topographic surveys, with total station devices, at scales 1:200 or 1:500 of the
areas in which works of art or drainage, structures or tunnels are going to be
located.

• Surveying of longitudinal profiles (x, y, z) and transversal profiles in areas where

connections with rural roads, tertiary roads, secondary or primary roads must be
adapted, for the purposes of the design of intersections or links.

• Staking out the axis every 20 meters, and obtaining the longitudinal profile by
leveling it, as well as the singular points

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• Obtaining the transverse profiles at each staked point, with the necessary length
depending on the occupation area.

• Establishment of the affected services in the plans, in order to study their

modification if necessary.

• At the beginning of the work, the consultant will place the limits or signs indicative
of milestones or geodetic markers on the cartography.

• The plan and elevation alignments of the roads, paths or other infrastructures with
which it connects, over which it passes, or which must be crossed over, will be
obtained using coordinates of points on its axis. Likewise, the coordinates of
significant points of the buildings or any element close to the layout that may affect
it will be obtained.

• Starting from the current (existing) axis, a survey of details of all existing
constructions and infrastructure will be required within the right of way required for
the construction of the project, plus ten meters (10 Mts.) on both sides of it,
including, structures for public service (both above and underground), fences,
access to properties and any other important details,

• In the case of permanent monuments that are located in paved areas, rods
received with concrete, cut at the level of the pavement, will be used and semi-
permanent monuments will be galvanized iron tubes.

• In the sectors that are paved, levels of the road edges and shoulders must be
taken, in order to have the information that allows the design of the regularization
of the rolling surface, uniform pumping, optimal fixation of the level and an
estimate of quantities with acceptable precision.

• In places where the cross section of the road is cut in the middle of the slope and
as a consequence of the improvement of the route the width of the current road is
not sufficient, for which it is necessary to design retaining walls, it must be taken
for this purpose. sections, profiles and complementary levels.
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 • Complementary topographic surveys will be carried out where platform scours,
slope instability and faults occur, so that the specialist can design the
corresponding solution, in all the integrity of the phenomenon.

• The topography in urban areas will be carried out with all the existing details,
including elevations, sidewalks, façade lines, well covers, posts, etc., the plans will
be presented with contour lines every 0.50 m. and at a scale of 1:500. (Ministry of
public works, 2016)

2.4.1.5. Axis Staking Every 20 meters.

The lists for the layout of the different axes will be attached, necessary to completely
define the projected layout, in such a way that they enable the use of the different
methods for the layout points of the layout, (by bisection, polar, reference to North , etc.).
(Ministry of public works, 2016)

The stakeout lists must contain the following data: (Ministry of Public Works, 2016)

• Coordinates, elevation and anamorphosis coefficient of each base and relative

location between each pair of staking bases.

• Distance to the origin (DO), coordinates and elevation of the point to stake out.

• Distance and azimuth (with respect to the vector that joins the two bases) of the
point a
rethink, with respect to each of them.

The layout data will correspond to the points equidistant from the axis, at most every 20
meters, and to all the singular points of the plan layout. In the case of the staking out of
the bridges, if they exist, the maximum separation of the points will be 5 meters. (Ministry
of public works, 2016)

In curved alignments with a radius equal to or less than 150 meters, the setting out data
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will correspond to points equidistant from the axis, distant from each other, a maximum of
10 meters. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

2.4.1.6. Verification of the accuracy of the Control Networks, Horizontal and

Vertical Alignment.

1. Two monumented points with known position and levels (X, Y, Z coordinates) are
selected, preferably from those included in the plans. These points must be
separated by a minimum distance of 300 meters and preferably 500 meters.

2. Starting from one of the selected points, an auxiliary polygonal will be drawn until
reaching the second selected point.

3. As the auxiliary traverse is run, the PT's, PI's and PC's that are within the interval
of the line included within the selected points will be set out. If there are a
considerable number of curves within the mentioned section, the curves and
transversal profiles chosen randomly by supervision will be reconsidered.

4. It will be checked that the position of the line coincides with what is indicated in the
planimetry of the floor - profile plans.

5. It will be verified that the closure in elevation and in plan are equal to or less than
the permissible closures contained in these Terms of Reference.

6. It will be checked that secondary references (to trees, buildings or poles) match
those shown in the documents.

7. In the case of verification of the Control Networks, the same methodology of

drawing an auxiliary traverse will be followed in the places that the Study
Supervisor deems appropriate. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

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2.4.1.7. Drain Check

1. For the drainage works included in the section in which the traverse runs, they will
be staked out, that is, the prism will be placed on the central line of the project, at
the station indicated on the plan for each drainage work.

2. For new works, it will be verified that the location and diversion are adequate for
the existing channel, and that the discharge reaches an appropriate point. It will
also be verified that the planned works (spills, ditches, boxes, channels, etc.) are
suitable for the field conditions.

3. Levels will be taken at the entrance and exit of the projected pipes, checking that
the existing water bed is congruent with the projected one. It will be checked that
the cushion on the pipe is adequate.

4. For existing pipelines, their length and levels will be checked to be adequate for
the projected road section. It will also be verified that the planned works (repairs,
replacements, spills, etc.) are consistent with the current condition of the pipeline.

5. For new works, levels will be taken at at least three points of the existing water
bed, on the center line of the project, in order to verify that the levels of said points
are congruent with the works indicated on the plans. Likewise, it will be verified
that the deviation indicated in the plans is appropriate for the conditions of the
project. (Ministry of public works, 2016)

2.4.2. Analysis of the “terms of reference” used in El Salvador.

With respect to the “terms of reference” proposed by the MOP, it tells us the precision
methods at the time of placing geodetic markers referenced by the CNR, the precision of
closing a survey or topographic trace to obtain a good layout and the method to be used
in the preliminary layout of a road both to locate what is essential such as buildings,
public services, drainage, bridges, civil works, among others.

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For the terms of reference used by the Ministry of Public Works, there are no
bibliographical references, but according to professionals in the area of civil engineering,
the TDR are based on regulations from Latin American countries.

2.5. Route surveys

Route surveys are done with the aim of locating and constructing cross-country works
such as roads, railways and canals.

Route surveys consist of determining the configuration of the terrain and the location of
objects along a proposed route, drawing the line on the terrain and calculating the
volumes of the dirt roads. (ARQHYS, 2012)

The location of any route includes a study to determine how certain business
requirements should be satisfied with the least expense, which includes not only the cost
of construction, but also the cost of maintenance and operation. It is, therefore, a problem
of applying economics to engineering. (ARQHYS, 2012)

Related aspects are the right of way, geology, soils and foundations, and drainage. The
details of the surveying methods employed naturally vary with the character of the project,
but some general field methods are applicable. (ARQHYS, 2012)

When you plan to make a topographic location, you generally define the points where you
are going to pass, those that are going to be avoided and those that are going to be
joined. Certain standards are also established with respect to concepts such as maximum
slope, minimum radius of curvature, width of the crown, the right of way, and the precision
with which the survey will be carried out. (ARQHYS, 2012)

The general procedure for locating a new route is as follows:

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 1. First, a general study called reconnaissance is made of the entire region under
study, then one or more general routes are chosen to investigate in more detail.

2. Stroke tests are made by fixing the center line in the topographic plane (location on
the paper), then deducing the profile in the topography.

3. After It is located and staked on the ground with traffic, and tape, if it is
necessary the location is modified, this operationcalled adjustment of the
located line.

4. After lifting work is necessary of control and

configuration to get the construction data, for determine the
alignment and slopes of special structures or to cube dirt roads.

2.5.1. Control survey

In the book “Topography” Wolf/Brinker 9th. Edition, Editorial “Alfaomega” tells us that the
control surveys accurately determine the horizontal and vertical precision of the reference
markings. These serve as a basis to originate, or as verification of subordinate surveys in
the case of cartographic work in the delimitation of properties and in the planning and
projects of land roads and various constructions. The aforementioned surveys are also
essential as indications for the determination of data contained in the Land Information
Systems (Land Information System) and in the Geographic Information Systems
(Geographic Information System). (Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

There are two general types of control surveys: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal control
surveys over large areas generally fix geodetic latitudes and longitudes of the stations.
From these values, plane rectangular coordinates can be calculated, generally in a state

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plane or in the universal transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system. (Wolf/Brinker,
2000)

2.5.1.1. Degree of precision for control surveying.

The precision required in the case of a control survey depends mainly on its objective.
Some major factors affecting accuracy are the type and condition of equipment used, field
procedures adopted, and the experience and aptitude of available personnel.
(Wolf/Brinker, 2000)
2.5.2. Configuration surveys.

Configuration surveys are carried out to determine the relief of the earth's surface.
(Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

A terrain has artificial and natural elements which, in order to represent them on a plane,
are first located through measurements and contour lines are used to show their altitude.
(Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

All of this can be represented by means of a topographic map. In addition to representing

the Earth's surface and contour lines, it also includes other geographic means such as
soils, localities, vegetation, each of them with their respective symbols. (Wolf/Brinker,
2000)

This type of survey can be carried out using aerial or surface methods. In some cases,
both methods are used. They are generally used to survey large areas of land since it is
more economical in these cases and the precision is higher. elderly; Surface methods,
unlike aerial ones, are used on small surfaces.
To carry out a configuration survey, the first step must be control, both horizontal and
vertical. (Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

Horizontal control is obtained through polygonals, triangulation or trilateration and

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consists of establishing two or more points on the ground, which must have distance and
direction and then define the coordinates. (Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

Vertical control is carried out by leveling, the type of leveling chosen will depend on the
relief of the terrain, these methods are carried out using a brand bench. Vertical control
can also be performed using GPS receivers. (Wolf/Brinker, 2000)

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