READING STRATEGIES IN ENGLISH

(2014)
1 . Predicting . Before reading a text in detail, you can predict the information you
will find and perhaps you know something about the topic, this can help you anticipate
what the content of the text is.
2. Skimming . This means doing a quick read of the text to get a general idea of its
content: Title, subtitles, author details, summary, introduction (first paragraphs in
cases of extensive readings).
3. Scanning . When you do this you give the text a quick read, but look for specific
words or phrases, we are looking for precise details rather than a general idea.
4. Detailed Reading . When you read a text for the second or third time you also
focus on the secondary ideas and details that can support or substantiate the main
idea, this can also be described as reading comprehension.
5. Guessing unknown words : It is very difficult for you to understand 100 percent of
the vocabulary of a text in a second language, especially on the first reading.
Therefore you have to use the context, it is more productive to give a second reading
looking for the probable meaning of a term instead of searching in a dictionary, the
second reading will allow you to form a clearer idea of what the unknown words mean.
You can also use the ideas that are presented throughout the text, not only the main
ones, but also the secondary ones.
6. Understanding main ideas . When you are in the speed reading step you will
identify some main ideas, when reading a second or third time you will be able to
understand the main ideas more accurately, generally each paragraph contains a main
idea.
7 Inferring . Sometimes the writer expresses or suggests something indirectly in the
text, that is, he can suggest something and let the reader make the inference or
understand what he wants to express. When writers do this they expect readers to
share knowledge or ideas from their culture that allow them to understand the true
meaning of their paragraphs. Sometimes when reading it is important to know what
the reader wants to say.
8. Understandig text organization . Recognizing the way a text has been organized
can help us understand its meaning more completely. A writer will perhaps be able to
highlight a situation, discuss a problem and propose a solution, this will show in a
pattern of organization in the text. Perhaps the writer wants to make a comparison
between two ideas and will do this by presenting the ideas in a specific way.

9. Assessigns a writer's purpose . Once we understand the organization of a text, we

can more easily recognize the writer's purpose. Often the writer also wants to make
his opinion known and try to persuade his readers to agree with his ideas. It is
important that we can recognize a writer's opinion in order to contrast it with our
own.

Skimming and Scanning. Reading techniques

Submitted by Robert D. Children.

Parts: 1 , 2

1. Introduction
2. What is Skimming?
3. What is Skimming used for?
4. How is this type of reading used?
5. Procedure suggestion
6. Definition of Skimming
7. Example of the Information sought when we use this technique
8. Scanning or Exploration
9. Definition of Scanning
10. Example of reading Exploration or Scanning
11. Conclusion
12. Bibliographic

 Introduction
There are different reading styles for different situations. The technique you choose will depend
on the purpose for reading . For example, you may be reading for enjoyment, information , or
to complete a task. If you are browsing or reviewing, it is possible that a document. If you're
looking for information, you might search for a particular word. To get detailed information,
you can use a technique like SQ4R or ( Survey Question Read Recite Relate Opinion). You need
to adjust your reading speed and techniques depending on your purpose.
Many people consider speed reading search techniques rather than reading strategies .
However when reading large volumes of information, they can be more practical than reading.
For example, you may search for specific information, look for clues, or review information.
Web pages , novels , textbooks , manuals , magazines, newspapers, and mail are just some of
the things people read every day. Effective and efficient readers learn to use many reading
styles for different purposes.
Speed reading techniques are especially valuable for studying scientific textbooks. Science
writers pack many facts and details closely, and students react by shifting their reading speeds
to the lowest gear and crawling through the material. Even though science books are usually
well organized, with main points and subtopics clearly defined, the typical student ignores
those clues and trudges through chapter by word, trying to fit everything in.
 What is Skimming?
Skimming involves finding the main ideas by reading the first and last paragraphs, taking into
account other organizational cues , such as summaries, used by the author.
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper ,
you're probably not reading word by word, instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is
performed at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when
they have large amounts of material to read in a limited amount of time . Use skimming
whenever you want to see if an object may be of interest in your investigation . There are many
strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs
using headings, summary, and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You can
read the title, subtitles, caption and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each
paragraph . This technique is useful when you are looking for specific information rather than
reading for comprehension. Skimming works well for finding dates, names and places. It can be
used to review graphs , charts and graphs .

 What is Skimming used for?

It consists of giving a quick reading, identifying key ideas or phrases; It is not necessary to read
every word of the text. Read the first sentence of each paragraph and try to identify the key
phrases or words in each of them. At the end they are extracted and annotated in order to
discover the general idea of the text.
It is not necessary to read everything. The reading questions are specific, they use different
types of keys, through drawings , and the questions themselves tell you exactly what you are
going to look for.

 How is this type of reading used?

It is a quick reading technique where it is used to locate the general meaning of the reading or a
certain part of it. This technique saves you a lot of time and gives you a very general idea of
what the text or paragraph is about.
The purpose of this lesson is to teach students how and why to skim textual material.
Skimming allows students to begin identifying the main ideas of a text by reading the first and
last paragraphs, starting from phrases in other paragraphs (topic sentences), and noting other
organizational clues such as the title, bold , italics, capitalized words, etc. In skimming titles,
students are not looking for specific information, as in scanning. Skimming allows students to
cover a large amount of textual material in a limited amount of time.

 Procedure suggestion
As a whole class , discuss the definition of skimming and the purpose of digitization. The
teacher can ask the class to compare this with the students' definition of digitization.
 Provide each student with a copy of an article.
 Together, read the first and last paragraphs.
 Have the class to predict what they believe are the author's main ideas or themes.
4. Write this on the paper post. Now they have the class to read the sentences from the
rest of the paragraphs: 1. Ask the class if they wish to add or change their prediction.
2. Add these new or modified predictions to the list.
Ask students to consider other organizational clues and, again, see if they would like to add to
or change their prediction. Have the class add it to the prediction list. Read the entire article in
your class. Discuss the author's main ideas after completing the reading . Have the class
compare what they believe are the author's main ideas with the predictions the class made
together.
AssessmentProvide students with additional articles or informative books . In pairs, have them
practice predicting main ideas by reading the first and last paragraphs, drawing on sentences
from the paragraphs, and taking note of other organizational clues. As homework, have each of
the students independently read the entire piece and record what they believe are the main
ideas or themes. Have pairs compare their ideas when they return to class. Have them check to
see if they agree with each other as well as with their predictions.

 Definition of Skimming
Skimming is when you "surf" online, or randomly glance through a book . It has great
importance in learning and stands out as a strategy in reading speed in particular to take the
exam. The purpose of skimming is to get an overview "and not" the specific details of the
material. We use it to decide if the book, article or report is worth our time , and has something
new and valuable to tell us. Why waste time if it is a review of things we already know?

 Example of the Information sought when using this

technique
For example:
Paragraph: The frog sat on the edge of the pond. It was very still. Its green color made it
difficult to see. A bug flew near him. His tongue compressed out, and he globbed it up. Then the
frog followed again. He waited for the next error. The main idea of this paragraph is: A) Frogs
are green. B) Frogs eat bugs. C) Frogs do not move. D) Frogs live in ponds. The correct answer
is part "b", since the key words are: static image , insect got in, with its tongue, the bug waited
for the next bug. The last, the generalization of the idea that the frog itself feeds on bugs.

 Scanning or Exploration
What does Scanning consist of?
Scanning is a technique often used when looking up a word in the phone book or dictionary .
Looking for keywords or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're
focused on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly around the
search page for specific words and phrases. Exploration is also used the first time you find a
resource to determine if it answers your questions. Once you have scanned the document, you
can go back and skim it. While searching, look for the author's use of organizers such as
numbers, letters, measurements, or the words, first, second, or next. You can look for words
that appear in bold italic face, or in a different font size, style or color. Sometimes the author
Put key ideas in the margin.
Reading a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have
more difficulty reading on a computer screen than off paper. Although you can read and
comprehend at the same speed as your paper
volume, on the computer it is much slower than on paper.
2.- What is it used for?
Scanning involves running your eyes across the page looking for specific facts or key words and
phrases.
Firstly, they are an aid in locating new terms, which are introduced in the chapter
Secondly, scanning is useful in locating the statements, definitions, formulas, etc., which you
must remember completely and accurately.
Likewise, exploration skills are valuable for several purposes in studying.
3.- How is it used?
The technique is used when you are searching for a name in the telephone book: move your eye
quickly over the page to find certain words or phrases that are relevant to the task you are
doing. It is useful for analyzing fragments of text to see if they will be useful to you: * The
introduction or prologue of a book * The first or last paragraphs of chapters * The last chapter
of a book.

 Definition of Scanning
Scanning is a skill that requires you to read quickly in search of specific information. To scan a
reading text , you should start at the top of the page and then move your eyes quickly to the
bottom. In general, scanning is a technique that is useful when you are looking for an answer to
a known question. This is especially useful when taking a test.
Scanning originally meant to read in a superficial or hurried manner - to glance at. Its origins
are in Latin, to rise. Today scanning means to see and reproduce everything you see: an optical
scanner is fast but doesn't miss anything. An MRI produces an exact version of what it
examines you. When we "scan" at speed reading we read each and every word, punctuation
mark and symbol on the page. Don't build on words to understand ideas, complete them
through words and sentences and let them unite meanings.

 Example of reading Exploration or Scanning

Reading a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have
more difficulty reading on a computer screen than off paper. Although you can read and
comprehend at the same speed as your paper
volume, on the computer it is much slower than on paper. Scan before reading. Look at the
table of contents, indexes, topic headings, captions, etc. These will help you determine if,
A) You have a real interest in that reading, and B) What information are you most likely to get
from it. Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want to find specific
informationinformation quickly. In scanning you have a question in your mind and read a
passage just to find the answer, ignoring unrelated information. How to Scan:
 Status of the specific information you are looking for.
 Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what clues you might use to help locate the
answer. For example, if you are looking for a certain date, you will want to quickly read the
paragraph looking only for the numbers.
 Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which sections may contain the
information you are looking for.
 Selectively mind read and skip through sections of the passage

 Conclusion
To do your study well, just as to do any job well, you need three things: being able to , wanting
to, and knowing how to do that job or study. To be able to study is to have intelligence and the
rest of the human faculties. There is no doubt that intelligence is closely related to academic
success . All things being equal , a "smart" student gets better grades than his or her peers.
Wanting to study is having the desire and determination to acquire knowledge. There are
students who, with normal intelligence, achieve good results based on personal effort and
dedicating the necessary time. Just as important or more than intelligence is motivation or
wanting to study. Many students fail not due to lack of intelligence but due to disinterest,
apathy, leaving work until the last minute, that is, due to lack of motivation . Knowing how to
study is the third important factor to achieve good performance. It may happen that a student
has sufficient intelligence and dedicates a lot of time to studying, but the results are low and he
even fails. It's probably because he uses poor study techniques . Hence the gap between work
and performance.
Study techniques are a set of actions and strategies that the student carries out to understand
and memorize concepts and contents of the various subjects. These actions and strategies are
those usually used by students who achieve good academic results. To learn to study, it is not
enough to know the techniques described and others that are related to the courses; it is
necessary to put them into practice daily in all possible subjects until you get into the habit of
applying them naturally. The combination of theory and practice will improve your study
performance

 Bibliographic
 http://cursodeingles5saeta.blogspot.com/2008/12/estrategia-de-lectura-skimming.html
 http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/21stcent/lskim.html
 http://42explore.com/skim.htm
 http://ar.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080916200340AAEgRoU
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/2056650/Unit-III-Skimming-Scanning-Microclase-1
 http://ababasoft.com/words/scanning.html
 http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/scanning.html
 http://42explore.com/skim.htm
 http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view. php ?id=190350

Author:
Robert D. Children.

Strategies to improve reading in ENGLISH – Reading activity #2 ——– Article

13
As we saw before in the first reading activity ( ACTIVITY 1 ), reading in English is a
vital tool for learning English. We must make it a habit so that we can get the most
out of it.
How do I read better? What strategies are there when reading in English? How can
I improve my ability to understand what I read? In this article we will discuss these
topics so that we can improve the way we read in English
We are going to talk about strategies to improve reading comprehension in English
and thus make this activity more productive, but it is recommended:
Find a comfortable place to read
 Get rid of distractions
 Focus on the purpose of reading
 Take breaks to avoid boredom
Strategy 1: Ignore the words that are not important
When they read they will encounter new words that they do not understand. The
first thing you have to do is determine the importance of the word in the sentence.
If you see that the word is not important, deduce its meaning or simply ignore it. Do
not use the dictionary every time you see a new word as it prevents fluency when
reading. If you see that the word is extremely important and prevents you from
understanding the main message, then continue with strategy 2. Many times it is
possible to understand the message without having to understand every word.
Strategy 2: use the context to guess the meaning of the word
Suppose you have detected a word that is important. Before using the dictionary,
try to guess its meaning. Look at the context in which the word is used. Quickly
determine if it is a verb, noun, preposition, etc. to make deduction easier. Once you
have an idea you can consult a dictionary. You will see that this strategy will make
the words stay more in your minds.
Guessing the meaning is a skill that has to be practiced and there are many
situations where you have to be careful. This is the case of “phrasal verbs” or
“idioms” which are words that when put together form a meaning that is often
totally different from the individual meaning of the words.
Strategy 3: Scan to find specific information.
“Scanning” is a technique in which the reader does not try to absorb all the
information but rather search for specific information. To scan correctly one must
start at the top and quickly go line by line. It is a good technique to find answers
and is widely used in exams where we have reading activities in English.
Strategy 4: “Skimming”.
It is very similar to “scanning” since it is read quickly. The difference is that in
“skimming” one is not looking for specific information but rather one is trying to
understand and obtain the main idea of the text without paying attention to the
details. “Skimming” is widely used when doing investigations.
Strategy 5: “Extensive Reading”
This strategy is used to obtain a general understanding and includes reading long
texts. It is very common to use this strategy to read novels, articles or study books.
Strategy 6: “Intensive Reading”
Here one pays attention to all the details. One is focused on understanding each
word. It is very common when reading contracts or extremely important reports.
These are just some strategies and ways of reading that one can use when
reading. It is also important to know what kind of readings to read. Remember:
Read something that is interesting to you
Who reads something in Spanish by force? Forced reading is something that does
not contribute much to learning. Choose something that causes interest and
curiosity as this will make the reading easier to understand.
Read books that are not too difficult
I recommend reading texts that are at an appropriate level. It would be frustrating
to read very complex texts. It is recommended to read 6 to 10 new words per page.
In conclusion, no one understands everything when reading. Do you understand all
the words when reading in Spanish? Before running to open the dictionary, analyze
and make deductions. Try to take the meaning out of the context. Don't forget to
use the appropriate strategy when reading. It all depends on what they are reading
(an article, a paragraph in an exam, a magazine, a novel, etc.)
Remember that when you read your minds you imagine a scene and make your
mind recognize structures learned in class, review and learn vocabulary, and form
a writing pattern (that is, if you read emails your mind will see the format of how to
make an email and how much The more they read, the easier it will be to write an
email). So, start reading as soon as possible and you will see how much it will help
you in learning English.

SECOND REPORT

Essay on evolution of administration and administrative theory

Since the origin of the universe, the administration has been present in
every evolutionary process in each of the species on this planet;
unconsciously, in each of the systems that allow us to explore and inhabit
this universe, there is some process of empirical administration. Leaving
aside for a moment theorists who have taken on the task of searching for
concepts to define what “administration” is and creating administrative
tools, the planet we inhabit, by itself, is a system that has managed to
manage itself. same without the human being being aware of each one of
the “natural” administrative processes that take place around him.

And a doubt arises, as a conscious being, I wonder how I have managed

my life? I start by analyzing how I came to be writing this article today,
and I begin to analyze the way, time, moment when I woke up today and
then I want to know more, and I think about what I did on the day
yesterday before going to bed, I want to know more, and I think about my
birth, the birth of my parents, my grandparents, each generation of people
up to the first human being who was previously an unconscious being and
thus to the origin of our planet . And all this may not have as much sense
or relationship with the administration, but I do see it in the sense that
each of those moments had administrative processes involved; good or
bad management, each of those moments was managed by someone or
something.

Our planet, is a complex system that gives us life, is spinning around the
sun, which nourishes us with light and heat. We have systems of rivers,
mountains, seas, forests, jungles, deserts, volcanoes... that have a
particular function, an end; And they were strategically placed there for
our planet to continue its functions and provide us with a place to live, but
none of these systems has a structured standard that tells you what to do
and what not to do. It is a task that corresponds to each of the species
that inhabit this planet.

An anthill, from the point of view of the administration. I would dare to

define it as: a system that is responsible for sheltering and reproducing
ants; store food and is made up of a large number of cameras connected
to each other. It has an end, to shelter, reproduce and store; then it is
necessary for someone to go out to collect food, someone to supply and
someone to take care of the other ants, etc.… that is why there are
soldiers ants, workers, etc. and in turn this anthill will have the function of
feeding other species such as birds, frogs etc. And in this simple analogy
I can realize the importance of administration, what is it? and what
interests us in this article. By instinct or unconsciously, ants carry out
multiple administrative processes, well performed or poorly performed,
are achievable and have an end, and just like ants, each species on the
planet develops multiple administrative processes that allow it to continue
evolving.

Some historians have been given the task of investigating and describing
what were the conditions in which the first humans lived. They have
created a concept where they suppose a world where people were
primitive beings who sought to satisfy multiple needs in order to take care
of all the dangers that lurked at the time. We have been told that we were
nomadic beings, that we went from one place to another seeking refuge
depending on the weather conditions, if there was food, where to protect
the herd, defenseless beings. From that moment, the human being
needed to administer each resource that he obtained in order to feed and
protect himself; manage the time to get to a place where the harsh
winters did not end their lives and the work team with which they were
going to carry out hunting activities, the care of the herd and the food they
required. Unconsciously he used empirical administrative techniques.

Little by little, the human being became more aware of the tasks he
performed, acquired skills, learned to organize and manage his
resources. I stop living in caves therefore the man left hunting aside now
he planted his food. I create a shelter to protect myself from inclement
weather; used skins to protect his body The man began to develop
empirical administrative methods that began to facilitate life. As Alvin
Toffer (1980) says, the first wave arrived:
4765/5000
Character limit: 5000 TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING 5000
It emerged with the agricultural revolution (from 8000 BC to the 17th
century). The stage of hunting and fishing is overcome, and agriculture is
born. consequently:

New structures such as commerce and the first villages emerge.

Then primitive man became a being that lives in community.

Administrative definition
Before continuing it is important to know the definitions of some theorists
who have tried to create a concept of the term administration:

The Bible defines administration in some verses as:

Effective management includes sharing the workload (Exodus 18:2);

Effective management includes supervision and confirmation. (Exodus
39:42-43); Stewardship is one of the gifts of God (Romans 12:6-8);
Effective administrators recognize their limitations, (Deuteronomy 1:9);
good administrators plan ahead (Luke 14: 28-30).

The Royal Spanish Academy (2017) defines administration as:

The action and effect of administering; position or activity of the

administrator; The set of government agencies of a nation or a lower
political entity; Group of organisms destined to the management and
operation of a certain part of social life; In the United States of America,
Mexico and some other countries, a government team that acts under a
president; Office or establishment dedicated to the management of
certain activities that have State intervention.

Henry Fayol (1916) considered the father of the classical theory of

administration defines it as:

Planning: Visualize the future and outline the action program. Organize:
Build the material and social structures of the company. Coordinate: link,
unite and harmonize all collective acts.

Taylor, who is also considered a classical management theorist and

known as the founder of the scientific theory of work, defines
management as follows.

Work can be performed better and more economically through the

subdivision of duties; The work of each person in the organization should
be limited to a single predominant task or function.

Lyndall Urwick (1943) integrated Henry Fayol's theoretical ideas into a

comprehensive theory of administration. He also wrote a book called the
1943 Public Administration Business Effects. And Administration defines
Urwick's four principles:

Specialization: each person must have a single function

Authority: there must be a single girl of authority, clearly defined and

recognized by all members of the organization.
Administrative breadth, superior must have a certain number of
subordinates to his position said number will depend on the level of the
position the nature of the same.
Differentiation: The duties, authority and responsibility of each position
and their relationships with other positions must be defined in writing and
communicated.
American Magnately Association (2012) defines the concept of
administration as:

Administration is the activity by which certain results are given through

the effort and cooperation of others.

To conclude, my definition of administration is the efficient management

of resources (whether human, material, financial, etc.) that is made up of
endless techniques, processes, and tools that are interrelated with each
other to achieve an end.

Administrative theories.

Throughout the time the empirical knowledge of the administration has

taken a way, the tendencies have modified the different concepts and
theories of the administration depending on the time in which they were
created. The different concepts, theories, schools or administrative
approaches have their origin in the last 100 years, most of the theories
keep the same approach and change their content very little; They are
related, each theory has been formulated in consequence of what was
experienced in the technological development of that time.

The main theories of administration are numbered as they appeared:

Scientific theory of administration

Classical administration theory

Bureaucracy theory

Scientific theory of behavior

Total quality theory

Theory Z

Theory of organizations as social systems

New theory of human relations

contingency theory

Organizational development theory

The scientific theory of administration

It emerged in the nineteenth century in the United States, born out of the
need to increase productivity, since at that time the efficiency of workers
was poor. The main exponent of this theory is Taylor Frederick Winslow
who had multiple followers who also made contributions to this theory.
The main focus of this theory is on tasks and basically consisted of
including the scientific method such as observation and
measurement, in tasks, in order to achieve good industrial
efficiency. Due to the slow development in the industry (industrial
revolution) of that time, social conflicts caused a disorganized
growth of companies; I have considered the person as being
interested only in financial remuneration, ignoring the personal
needs and objectives of the people. It is a rigid theory where
human motivational factors were not interested and therefore
workers were exploited.

Taylor stated that organizational efficiency depended on three

fundamental factors:

1.- I analyze every movement that was necessary to carry out

within the organization, times, functions, work methods and
activities; He described each of the tasks in a series of simplified
movements and fixed times. Thus, I have managed to design simple
and specific tasks for each task and the relationship that existed
with the other activities.

In order to ensure that the worker fulfilled his functions, I have

developed an idea of remuneration. For each task completed, the
worker had financial remuneration. I have designed each of the
rates that each worker corresponds to and in this way whoever
produced more earned more.

3.- He realized that efficiency not only depended on what the

worker was going to do and how much he was going to earn, but it
also depended on the conditions that would generate the worker's
physical well-being, therefore he developed four fundamental
principles that allowed a higher performance from the hand of
work and saving of materials:
Principle of the approach: I needed to analyze the activity to
perform, and plan a method; there was no room for improvisation.

Principle of preparation: scientifically select each worker according

to their skills; He trained them to produce more and better
according to the planned method, he also prepared equipment and
they were strategically distributed so that he always had the tools
and materials at his disposal to avoid wasting time.

Control principle: I needed to assess that the work was actually

being carried out in accordance with the provisions of the
regulations and according to the plan.

Principle of execution differentiated each one of the responsibilities

so that it could be distributed and they will be executed as a
disciplined work.

Taylor realized that to succeed she needed a "mental revolution."

This resolution sought that there were no confrontations between
each of the workers, between who earned more, who did more etc.
He needed the workers to see the administration as a benefit for
everyone and that each one could satisfy their economic needs.
And so the interests of each of the workers will be unified in a set
to achieve the objective of the organization.
Taylor had some followers, Henry L. Gantt and the Gilbert spouses
made great contributions on the basis of the theory of Taylor's
theory.

Gantt had an interest in the human aspect of the organization and

analyzed the tariff system and developed a new idea where he
stimulated the workers, emphasizing the training of the workers.
Supervisors also had to be encouraged to teach their workers. The
results of all the evaluations were public, recorded in a graph called
the Gantt graph.

The Gilberth spouses did studies related to fatigue and movement

within the organization. Eliminating unnecessary movements and
reducing fatigue sought to promote worker well-being and reach
their full potential as human beings. They had to be prepared to get
promoted and to train their successors at the same time to take
advantage of every opportunity.

The classical theory of administration

Unlike the scientific theory of administration, the classical theory

seeks, in the same way, the efficiency of the organization, but
develops an approach where it analyzes each of the components of
administration, structure, location and of each of the departments.
It is an inverse approach to scientific theory where the
administration works towards the workers and not the workers
towards the administration.

Henry Fayol was the main exponent of this theory and carried out
different studies where I concluded that administration is a skill and
that administrative principles should be known by those who head
high administrative positions. Any operation in groups of activities
related to each other and the main administrative functions that
Fayol describes are: commercial, financial, security, accounting and
management techniques.

Bureaucracy theory.

Bureaucracy refers to the characteristics of organizational design,

an efficient and rational way to meet the needs of the time, since
society was governed by the industrial development of large
organizations, therefore the degree of efficiency had to have
effective control over the personnel. . The norms had to be clear,
guidelines of authority were created and the organizational
structure gave rise to the formation of closed groups.

Theory of human relations

Human behavior will always be an important element in

organizations. The theory of human relations sought to include this
behavior from the approach of classical theory in conjunction with
the terms of effectiveness and efficiency of the organization.
Human beings by nature always seek to work in groups in work
groups. From the perspective of scientific theory, these problems
could be solved, allowing the worker to contribute solutions to
solve the problems in high administrative positions.

For an organization to be efficient it needs to achieve its goals, and

for it to be effective it needs to meet the individual needs of
employees. There were two concepts that Chester Bernad
contributed in his theory of organizational life. Bernard recognized
the universality of informal organization and managed to direct
current administrative thinking with working groups.

It is when in the need to correct strong tendency of

dehumanization at work in classical theory. and this is how the
humanistic approach focuses on two basic aspects:

the analysis of the work and the recruitment of the worker to this:
where the human characteristics that each task demanded was
identified is a fundamental aspect in the selection of personnel.

Doing the work the worker: where the personality of the worker
and the bosses, motivation, communication and work incentives
were studied.

Subsequently, Elton Mayo carried out experiments in companies

that led him to formulate the so-called "Mawthome Effect" that
says: "Individuals react positively to the fact that they take care of
them to improve their situation, especially when they have a weak
position in the company” (Stoner, 1995).

The humanistic approach brought a new vision of administration

where: the lower levels participated in solving the organization's
problems; the incentive generated better relationships between
individuals; an attitude directed towards research and towards a
deeper knowledge of human nature (Chiavenato, 1995)

Scientific theory of behavior

Following queue in search of man's motivation, following the idea

of E. May. The needs of man were hierarchized where in the upper
part it includes the needs of self-realization and in the lower part it
has to do with those of survival, this order indicates the order in
which these needs must be satisfied, survival being the first they
have to be satisfied.

Another approach that was taken at that time was that of Douglas
Mc Gregor had an idea where he divided into two parts called
"Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X raises work as something necessary for people, even if it is

something that they try to avoid, in contrast, Theory Y raises that
people seek to develop if given the opportunity.
These theories are the most outstanding of this time and are
forerunners of the theories that we currently put into practice,
although there are still many more. Currently they highlight the Z
theory, the total quality approach, the contingency theory, the
systems approach, a new approach to human relations and
organizational development.

The theory of total quality

At first in the United States it was a simple strategy that allowed us

to eliminate the products that met the minimum requirements.
While in Japan the same activity was carried out, but the products
were arranged at the beginning of production since they believed
that a poorly developed product caused a cascading effect and
created more waste.

Many theorists were those who participated emphasizing from

different approaches; from the point of view of the client and from
the point of view of the organization. The total quality approach
consists of two fundamental philosophical components and
statistical tools for problem solving. The former are in charge of
managing the work groups and serve to identify the potential of the
workers, while the latter allow visualizing various factors, locating
themselves where problems occur, assigning tasks and whether the
resolved problems have had the desired impact. .
Theory Z

Theory is based on the fundamental aspects of total quality theory,

but includes the factor of both individual and group human
relations. It seeks, in broad strokes, the satisfaction of self-esteem
and self-realization needs of the staff.

Theory of organizations as social systems

Of the theories with the greatest impact on administrative theory.

Contrary to the classical theory that the organization was
considered as a closed system, this theory considers the
organization as an open system that is in an active and constant
exchange with its environment. It has a constant exchange of
information that becomes an essential element for the creation of
products and services. They receive feedback which is a key activity
for the quality controls of the work systems.

The new theory of human relations

It is intended to constantly train employees to perform more

complex tasks, to automate work so that routine tasks are reduced,
and to promote flexibility and creativity in workers. It caters to the
individual needs of workers.

contingency theory
Due to the accelerated changes of the current era in organizational
design, it tries to find alternatives that allow organizations to adapt
to these changes by restructuring methods, routines, procedures,
etc. It focuses on the human and social aspect of the organization.
They begin to implement leadership techniques, seeking to learn
from the problems of modifying policy methods and being
concerned with analyzing the internal and external environment
that affect the organization.

Administrative theories have evolved with increasing importance

given to social circles, people, and human resources as a creative
and fundamental element in any organization. At first, the only
concern was that the organization produces what it had
programmed at cost, sacrificing the worker, exploiting him, giving
him remuneration that managed to satisfy his basic needs. Now it is
sought to satisfy other needs that go more towards the
psychological and social satisfactions of each person. It is a
somewhat contradictory approach in some of the cases because we
get into the role of what is measurable and what is not measurable
and how we could measure people's emotions.

SPANISH
Essay on evolution of
administration and
administrative theory


Since the origin of the universe, administration has been present in each
evolutionary process in each of the species on this planet; Unconsciously, in each
of the systems that allow us to explore and inhabit this universe there is some
empirical administration process. Leaving aside for a moment the theorists who
have taken on the task of searching for concepts to define what “administration” is
and creating administrative tools, the planet we inhabit, by itself, is a system that
has managed to manage itself. without the human being being aware of each of
the “natural” administrative processes that happen around him.

And a doubt arises, as a conscious being, I ask myself, how have I managed my
life? I begin by analyzing how I came to be writing this article today, and I begin to
analyze the way, time, moment in which I woke up today and then I want to know
more, and I think about what I did that day from yesterday before going to sleep, I
want to know more, and I think about my birth, the birth of my parents, my
grandparents, each generation of people until the first human being who was
previously an unconscious being and so on until the origin of our planet . And all
this may not have much sense or relationship with administration, but I do see it in
the sense that each of those moments had administrative processes involved;
good or bad management, each of those moments was managed by someone or
something.

Our planet is a complex system that gives us life, it is rotating around the sun, who
nourishes us with light and heat. We have systems of rivers, mountains, seas,
forests, jungles, deserts, volcanoes... that have a particular function, a purpose;
and they were placed there strategically so that our planet continues its functions
and provides us with a place to live, but none of these systems has a structured
rule that tells it what to do and what not to do. It is a task that corresponds to each
of the species that inhabit this planet.

An anthill, from the administration's point of view. I would dare to define it as: a
system that is responsible for sheltering and reproducing ants; store food and is
made up of a large number of chambers connected to each other. It has a purpose,
to shelter, reproduce and store; So it is necessary for someone to go out to collect
food, someone to supply it and someone to take care of the other ants, etc.... that
is why there are soldier ants, worker ants, etc. and in turn this anthill will have the
function of feeding other species such as birds, frogs, etc. And in this simple
analogy I can realize the importance of administration, what is it? and what
interests us in this article. By instinct or unconsciously, ants carry out multiple
administrative processes, well performed or poorly performed, they are achievable
and have a purpose and just like ants, each species on the planet develops
multiple administrative processes that allow them to continue evolving.

Some historians have taken on the task of investigating and describing the
conditions in which the first humans lived. They have created a concept where they
suppose a world where people were primitive beings who sought to satisfy multiple
needs in order to protect themselves from all the dangers that loomed at that time.
They have told us that we were nomadic beings, that we went from one place to
another looking for shelter depending on the weather conditions, if there was food,
where to protect the herd, defenseless beings. From that moment on, human
beings needed to manage every resource they obtained in order to feed
themselves and protect themselves; manage time to reach a place where the
harsh winters would not end their lives and the work equipment with which they
were going to carry out hunting activities, the care of the herd and the food they
required. Unconsciously he used empirical administrative techniques.

Little by little, human beings became more aware of the tasks they performed,
acquired skills, and learned to organize and manage their resources. He stopped
living in caves, so man put hunting aside and now planted his food. I create a
shelter to protect yourself from inclement weather; He used skins to protect his
body. Man began to develop empirical administrative methods that began to make
his life easier. As Alvin Toffer (1980) says, the first wave arrived:

…emerged with the agricultural revolution (from 8000 BC until the 17th century).
The stage of hunting and fishing is overcome, and agriculture is born.
Consequently:

New structures emerge such as commerce and the first villages.

So primitive man became a being that lives in community.

Definition of administration
Before continuing, it is important to know the definitions of some theorists who
have attempted to create a concept of the term administration:

The Bible defines administration in some verses as:

 Effective management includes sharing the workload (Exodus 18:2); Effective
management includes supervision and confirmation. (Exodus 39:42-43);
Administration is one of the gifts of God (Romans 12:6-8); Effective managers
recognize their limitations, (Deuteronomy 1:9); Good managers plan ahead (Luke
14:28-30).

The Spanish Royal Academy (2017) defines administration as:

The action and effect of managing; position or activity of the administrator; Set of
government agencies of a nation or a lower political entity; Set of organizations
intended for the management and operation of a specific area of social life; In the
United States of America, Mexico, and some other countries, a government team
acting under a president; Office or establishment dedicated to the management of
certain activities that involve State intervention.

Henry Fayol (1916), considered the father of classical management theory, defines
it as:

Plan: Visualize the future and outline the action program. Organize: Build the
material and social structures of the company. Coordinate: link, unite and
harmonize all collective acts.

Taylor, who is also considered a classical management theorist and known as the
founder of the scientific theory of work, defines management as follows.

Work can be performed better and more economically through the subdivision of
functions; The work of each person in the organization should be limited to a single
predominant task or function.

Lyndall Urwick (1943) integrated the theoretical ideas of Henry Fayol into a
comprehensive theory of administration. He also wrote a book called The Business
Effects of Public Administration in 1943 and defined Urwick's four principles of
administration:

1. Specialization: each person must have a single function

2. Authority: There must be a single authority, clearly defined and recognized by all members
of the organization.
3. Administrative breadth, superior must have a certain number of subordinates under his/her
charge, this number will depend on the level of the position and its nature.
4. Differentiation: The duties, authority and responsibility of each position and its
relationships with other positions must be defined in writing and communicated.

American Magnally Association (2012) defines the concept of management as:

Administration is the activity by which certain results are achieved through the
effort and cooperation of others.

To conclude, my definition of administration is the efficient management of

resources (whether human, material, financial, etc.) that is made up of an endless
number of techniques, processes, tools that are interrelated with each other to
achieve a goal.

Administration Theories.

Over time, empirical knowledge of administration has taken a path; trends have
modified the different concepts and theories of administration depending on the
time in which they were created. The different concepts, theories, schools or
administrative approaches have their origin in the last 100 years, most theories
retain the same approach and modify their content very little; They are related,
each theory has been formulated as a consequence of what was experienced in
the technological development of that time.

The main theories of administration are numbered as they appeared:

Scientific theory of administration

Classical management theory

Bureaucracy theory

Scientific theory of behavior

Total quality theory

Theory Z

Theory of organizations as social systems

New theory of human relations

Contingency theory

Organization development theory

The scientific theory of administration

It emerged in the 19th century in the United States, born out of the need to
increase productivity, since at that time the efficiency of workers was low. The main
exponent of this theory is Taylor Frederick Winslow who had multiple followers who
also made contributions to this theory.

The main focus of this theory is on the tasks and basically consisted of including
the scientific method, such as observation and measurement, in the tasks, in order
to achieve good industrial efficiency. Due to the slowed development in the
industry (industrial revolution) at that time, social conflicts caused disorganized
growth of companies; He considered the person as a being interested only in
economic remuneration, ignoring the personal needs and objectives of people. It is
 a rigid theory where human motivational factors were not interested, therefore
workers were exploited.

Taylor proposed that organizational efficiency depended on three fundamental

factors:

1.- I analyze each movement that was necessary to carry out within the
organization, times, functions, work methods and activities; He described each of
the tasks in a series of simplified movements and fixed times. In this way, he was
able to design simple and specific positions for each task and the relationship that
existed with the other activities.

2. To ensure that the worker fulfilled his duties, he developed an idea focused on
remuneration. For each completed task the worker had financial remuneration. He
designed each of the rates that corresponded to each worker and in this way whoever
produced more earned more.

3.- He realized that efficiency not only depended on what the worker was going to
do and how much he was going to earn, but also depended on the conditions that
will generate the worker's physical well-being, therefore he developed four
fundamental principles that allowed greater performance at the hands of work and
savings of materials:

Principle of the approach: I needed to analyze the activity to be carried out, and
plan a method; there was no room for improvisation.

Principle of preparation: scientifically select each worker according to their abilities;

He trained them to produce more and better according to the planned method, he
also prepared equipment and they were strategically distributed so that the tools
and materials were always available to avoid loss of time.

Control principle: I needed to evaluate that the work was actually being carried out
in accordance with what was established in the standards and according to the
plan.

Execution principle differentiated each of the responsibilities so that they could be

distributed and executed as a disciplined job.

Taylor realized that to be successful he needed a “mental revolution.” This

resolution sought to ensure that there were no confrontations between each of the
workers, between who earned more, who did more, etc. He needed workers to see
the administration as a benefit for all and that each one could satisfy their
economic needs. And so the interests of each of the workers will be unified into a
group to achieve the organization's objective.

Taylor had some followers, Henry L. Gantt and the Gilbert couple made great
contributions following the foundations of Taylor's theory.
Gantt was interested in the human aspect of the organization and analyzed the
rate system and developed a new idea where he stimulated workers by placing
emphasis on worker training. Supervisors also had to be encouraged to teach their
workers. The results of all evaluations were public, recorded in a chart called the
Gantt chart.

The Gilberth couple did studies related to fatigue and movements within the
organization. Eliminating unnecessary movements and reducing fatigue sought to
promote worker well-being and reach their full potential as human beings. They
had to be prepared to obtain a promotion and be able to train their successor all
this at the same time to be able to take advantage of all opportunities.

The classical theory of administration

Unlike the scientific theory of administration, the classical theory seeks, in the
same way, the efficiency of the organization, but develops an approach where it
analyzes each of the components of the administration, the structure, the location
and of each of the departments. It is an inverse approach to scientific theory where
management works towards workers and not workers towards management.

Henry Fayol was the main exponent of this theory and carried out different studies
where he concluded that administration is a skill and that administrative principles
should be known by those who head high administrative positions. Any
administrative operation in groups of related activities and the main functions that
Fayol describes are: commercial, financial, security, accounting and management
techniques.

Theory of bureaucracy.
Bureaucracy refers to the characteristics of the organization design, an efficient
and rational way to meet the needs of that time since society was governed by the
industrial development of large organizations, therefore the degree of efficiency
had to have effective control over personnel. . The rules had to be clear, authority
guidelines were created and the organizational structure gave rise to the formation
of closed groups.

Theory of human relations

Human behavior will always be an important element in organizations. The theory
of human relations sought to include this behavior from the perspective of classical
theory in conjunction with the terms of effectiveness and efficiency of the
organization. Human beings by nature always seek to work in groups in work
groups. From the approach of scientific theory, these problems could be solved,
allowing the worker to provide solutions to solve the problems in high
administrative positions.
 For an organization to be efficient it needs to achieve its goals, and for it to be
effective it needs to satisfy the individual needs of employees. They were two
concepts that Chester Bernad contributed in his theory of organizational life.
Bernard recognized the universality of informal organization and managed to direct
current administrative thinking with work groups.

It is when in need to correct strong tendency of dehumanization at work in classical

theory. And this is how the humanistic approach focuses on two basic aspects:

1. The analysis of the work and the recruitment of the worker to it: where the human
characteristics that each task required were identified, is a fundamental aspect in the
selection of personnel.
2. The worker doing the work: where the personality of the worker and the bosses,
motivation, communication and work incentives were studied.

Later Elton Mayo carried out experiments in companies that led him to formulate
the so-called “Mawthome Effect” which says: “Individuals react positively to the fact
that they are taken care of to improve their situation, especially when they have a
weak position in the company. ” (Stoner, 1995).

The humanistic approach brought a new vision of administration where: lower

levels participated in solving the organization's problems; the incentive generated
better relationships between individuals; an attitude directed towards research and
towards the deeper knowledge of human nature (Chiavenato, 1995)

Scientific theory of behavior

Following the search for man's motivation, following the idea of E. May. The needs
of man were hierarchized where at the top it includes the needs for self-realization
and at the bottom it has to do with those of survival, this order indicates the order in
which these needs must be satisfied, with those of survival being the first. that
have to be satisfied.

Another approach that was taken at this time was that Douglas Mc Gregor had an
idea where he divided it into two parts called “Theory X and Theory Y.”

Theory

These theories are the most prominent of this time and are precursors of the
theories that we currently put into practice, although many more still exist.
Currently, theory Z, the total quality approach, contingency theory, the systems
approach, a new approach to human relations and organizational development
stand out.

The theory of total quality

At first in the United States it was a simple strategy that allowed us to eliminate
products that met our minimum requirements. While in Japan the same activity was
carried out, but the products were fixed at the beginning of production since they
believed that a poorly developed product caused a cascade effect and created
more waste.

Many theorists participated, emphasizing different approaches; from the

customer's point of view and from the organization's point of view. The total quality
approach consists of two fundamental philosophical components and statistical
tools for problem solving. The first are in charge of managing the work groups and
serve to identify the potential of the workers, while the second allow us to visualize
various factors, locate where problems occur, assign tasks and whether the solved
problems have had the desired impact. .

Theory Z
Theory is based on the fundamental aspects of the theory of total quality, but
includes the factor of both individual and group human relations. It seeks, broadly
speaking, the satisfaction of staff's self-esteem and self-fulfillment needs.

Theory of organizations as social systems

Of the theories with the greatest impact on administrative theory. Contrary to the
classical theory that considered the organization as a closed system, this theory
considers the organization as an open system that is in an active and constant
exchange with its environment. It has a constant exchange of information that
becomes a fundamental element for the creation of products and services. They
receive feedback which is a key activity for quality controls of work systems.

The new theory of human relations

Its purpose is to constantly train employees to perform more complex tasks, to
automate work in a way that reduces routine tasks, and to promote the flexibility
and creativity of workers. Addresses the individual needs of workers.

Contingency theory
Due to the accelerated changes of the current era in organizational design, it tries
to look for alternatives that allow organizations to adapt to these changes through
restructuring in methods, routines, procedures, etc. It focuses on the human and
social aspect of the organization. Leadership techniques begin to be implemented,
seeking to learn from problems to modify policy methods and is concerned with
analyzing the internal and external environment that affect the organization.
Administrative theories have evolved increasingly giving more importance to social
circles, people, and human resources as a creative and fundamental element in
every organization. At first the only concern was that the organization would
produce what it had planned at the expense, sacrificing the worker, exploiting them
by giving them remunerations that managed to satisfy their basic needs. Now we
seek to satisfy other needs that go more towards the psychological and social
satisfactions of each person. It is a somewhat contradictory approach in some
cases because we enter into the role of what is measurable and what is not
measurable and how we could measure people's emotions.