The Mole Concept

Major Concepts:

Stoichiometry
Solution Concentrations
PoAC (Principle of Atomic Conservation)

Calculation centric questions.

Atomic Structure
Major Concepts:

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

H Spectrum
Photoelectric Effect
De Broglie’s Duality
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
SWE
Electronic Configuration
Orbitals, their shapes, nodes
Magnetic Moment

A mix of Logical, theoretical and calculation based questions.

Energy E = -13.6 Z2/n2 ev/atom

E = -2.18x10-18 Z2/n2 J/atom

Radius r = Ao n2/Z

Ao = 52.9 pm

Velocity v = 2.18 x 106 Z/n m/s Mvr = nh/2π

Thermodynamics
Major Concepts:

System, Surroundings, Universe

Types of Processes (Isothermal, Isochoric, Adiabatic, Isobaric)
State Functions and Path Functions
State Variables (P, V, T, n)
1 LoT and 2 LoT
Reversible (Quasi-static) Processes
Work done Formulae
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, Gibbs Energy
Hess’ Law

A mix of Logical, and calculation based questions.

Concept Understanding is Key
Internal Energy (U)
It is the sum total of the components of energy of the system due
to the internal factors.

U = KE + PE
ΔU = q + W

Enthalpy (H)
It is the net heat content of the system. Mathematically:
H = U + PV

Remember: ΔH = qp ΔU = qv
Heat Capacity
Heat needed to raise the temperature of the system by 1K
C = q/ΔT

Molar Heat Capacity

Heat needed to raise the temperature of one mole gas by 1K
CM = q/nΔT

Molar heat capacity constant pressure (CP):

CP= qP/nΔT

Molar heat capacity constant volume (CV):

CV= qV /nΔT

ΔH = qp = nCPΔT
ΔU = qv = nCVΔT
Formulae: (Ideal gas, Reversible Processes)
Isothermal:
ΔU = ΔH =0
w = nRT ln (V1/V2) = nRT ln (P2/P1)
q = nRT ln (V2/V1) = nRT ln(P1/P2)

Isobaric:
w = – PΔV = – nRΔT

Isochoric
w=0
qv = ΔU = nCvΔT

Adiabatic
q = 0 w = ΔU
ΔU = nCVΔT = (P2V2– P1V1)/(γ–1) = (nRΔT)/(γ– 1)

ΔH = nCPΔT
Entropy (S):
The degree of “randomness” of a system

2nd Law of Thermodynamics(2LoT):

The entropy of an isolated system/Universe
always tends to increase

● In a spontaneous process the entropy of

the Universe increases

● In a reversible process, entropy of the

Universe remains constant
ΔSsys = nCV ln(T2/T1) + nR ln(V2/V1)
This expression can be simplified for the four processes:

Isothermal process:
ΔS = nR ln(V2/V1)
Isochoric process:
ΔS = nCV ln(T2/T1)
For isobaric process:
ΔS = nCP ln(T2/T1)
Adiabatic process:
ΔS = 0 (qrev= 0)
Gibbs Free Energy:
Gibbs Free energy function gives us a very convenient parameter to
judge the spontaneity of a process from the system’s perspective.

At constant temperature and pressure

ΔG = –TΔSTOTAL

For a process to be spontaneous

ΔG < 0

at a constant temperature
ΔGSYS = ΔH – TΔSSYS
Chemical Equilibrium
Major Concepts:

Law of Mass Action

Generic Rate Equation
Equilibrium Constants (Kc Kp)
Reaction Quotient
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Degree of Dissociation

Simplistic Questions - calculation centric.

Logical Questions based on theory
Chemical Kinetics
Major Concepts:

Law of Mass Action

Generic Rate Equation
Integrated Rate Laws
Nuclear Chemistry (1st Order)
Arrhenius Equation

Simplistic Questions - calculation centric.

Logical Questions based on theory
Solutions and Colligative Properties
Major Concepts:

Conc. of Solutions
Henry’s Law
Raoult’s Law
Colligative Properties
Van’t Hoff factor

Most Questions from Colligative Properties

Calculation centric. Some from Henry/Raoult
Examples:
Acetone + CS2
Acetone + Benzene
Ethanol + H2O
Acetone + Ethanol
Examples:
HCl + H2O
HNO3 + H2O
Benzene + CHCl3
RCOOH + Pyridine
Acetone + Aniline
Phenol + Aniline
ChCl3 + Acetone
Redox and Electrochemistry
Major Concepts:

Oxidation State
Cell Construction
EMF of Cell
Electrochemical Series
Nernst Equation
Conductivity
Molar Conductivity
Limiting Molar Conductivity
Conductivity vs Degree of Dissociation
Kohlrausch’s Law
Faraday Law

Logical, Graph based, and Calculation Centric

Balancing of Redox Reactions is important
Periodic Properties
Major Concepts:

Moseley’s Periodic Law

Screening Effect
Trends in Periodic Properties
Radii
Ionisation Enthalpy
Electron Gain Enthalpy
Electronegativity
Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric Oxides

Mostly logical questions. Scoring Chapter

√ν = a (Z – b)
 Ionization Enthalpy

*
*
*
*
Pauling’s Electronegativities

See wikipedia for more details

 Nature of Oxides, Hydroxides and Oxy-acids

Oxides (MxOy):

ΔEN = 2.3 Amphoteric

ΔEN < 2,3 Acidic
ΔEN > 2.3 Basic

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2

P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Basic Amphoteric
Acidic

https://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html
Chemical Bonding
Major Concepts:

Octet Rule
Lewis Structures
Fajan’s Rules
Dipole Moment
Solvation
VSEPR (& Hybridisation)
VBT
MOT

Almost all questions from VSEPR and MOT

Ionic Equilibrium
Major Concepts:

Dissociation of Acids and Bases

Degree of Dissociation
pH
Solubility product
Buffer Solutions
Salt Hydrolysis
Titration

Generally tricky questions

 P Block Elements
Group 13 - Group 18
New JEE 2024 Syllabus - P Block
Introduction to p-block elements

In p-block elements the last electron enters the outermost p orbitals, a set of these orbitals can have
a maximum of six electrons, thus there are six groups of p–block elements.

13 14 15 16 17 18
5 p block contains:
B ● Metals (Al, Ga, In, Tl, Bi,
Pb, Sn)
● Metalloids (Si, Ge, As, Sb,
Te, Po )
● Non metals (B, C, N, O, F
etc.)
● Noble gases
(Ne, Kr, Ar, Xe, Rn)
Nature of Oxides
P Block Elements
Group 13
Group 13 Elements - Atomic Properties

Electronic Configuration

General electronic configuration for group 13 elements = ns2 np1

5B = [He] 2s2 2p1

13Al = [Ne] 3s2 3p1

31Ga = [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

49ln = [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p1

81Tl = [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1

113Nh = [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1 (Radioactive )
Group 13

B < Tl < In < Ga < Al

B > Al > Tl > In > Ga

 Group 13
Ionisation enthalpy

Non-metal

Metals
Electronegativity
Group 13

B < Tl < In < Ga < Al

B > Al > Tl > In > Ga

 Group 13
Oxidation State and Inert Pair Effect

Element Observed
oxidation state
B +3
Al +1 (rare), +3
Ga, In, Tl +1, +3
Group 13

B < Tl < In < Ga < Al

B > Al > Tl > In > Ga

Group 13 Elements - Physical Properties

● Boron is extremely hard and black coloured solid. It exists in many allotropic forms.
Boron has unusually high melting point.
● Rest of the members are soft metals with low melting point and high electrical
conductivity.
● All form covalent compounds in +3 O.S except - AlF3 , GaF3, InF3, TlF- ionic
● Lewis acidity trend - B > Al > Ga > In > Tl
Group 13
Group 13 Elements - Chemical Properties

Reactivity towards air

● Only B and Al forms nitrides

● BN - inorganic Graphite
● Tl2O3 and Tl2O
● Reactivity with O2 - B <Al < Ga < In < Tl
Group 13

B < Tl < In < Ga < Al

B > Al > Tl > In > Ga

Group 13 Elements - Chemical Properties

Reactivity towards acids and alkalis

● Boron trioxide is acidic and reacts with basic (metallic) oxides forming metal borates.

● Boron does not react with acids and alkalis even at moderate temperature.

● Only Al & Ga reacts with alkalis - release H2 gas

Group 13 Elements - Chemical Properties

Reactivity towards acids and alkalis

● Aluminium dissolves in mineral acids and aqueous alkalies and thus shows amphoteric
character.

○ Aluminium dissolves in dilute HCl and liberates dihydrogen.

2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 6Cl–(aq) + 3H2(g)

○ Aluminium reacts with aqueous alkali and liberates dihydrogen.

2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) → 2Na+[Al(OH)4]–(aq) + 3H2(g)

● Concentrated nitric acid renders aluminium passive by forming a protective oxide layer
on the surface.
Group 13

B < Tl < In < Ga < Al

B > Al > Tl > In > Ga

Group 13 Elements - Chemical Properties

Reactivity towards halogens

● Lewis Acid Character - BX3 > AlX3 > GaX3 > InX3

● Lewis Acid Character - BI3 > BBr3 > BCl3 > BF3
Group 13 - Boron Anomalous Properties

● Small size
● High First I.E.
● High E.N
● No d - orbitals
Anomalous Properties of Boron
P Block Elements
Group 14
 Group 14

Electronic Configuration

General electronic configuration for group 14 elements = ns 2 np2

6C = [He] 2s2 2p2

14Si = [Ne] 3s2 3p2

32Ge = [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2

50Sn = [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2

82Pb = [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2

114Fl = [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2 (Radioactive)

 Group 14
Property Remarks

Atomic Radii C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb

Ionisation Energy C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn

Electronegativity C > Pb > Si ≃ Ge ≃ Sn

Metallic character Increases down the group

C - non metal
Si, Ge - metalloids
Sn, Pb - soft metals
Catenation C > Si > Ge ≈ Sn

MP C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn

BP Si > Ge > Sn > Pb

Density Increases down the group

 Group 14

Property Remarks

Oxidation state General oxidation states: +2, +4

Stability of +2 state increases down the group due to inert pair
effect

● Sn in +2 state is a reducing agent

● Pb compounds in +2 state are stable and in +4 state are strong oxidising
agents.
 Group 14 - Oxides

Monoxides (MO) Dioxides (MO2)

SiO only exists at high temperature. CO2, SiO2 and GeO2 - acidic
CO - neutral SnO2 and PbO2 - amphoteric
GeO - distinctly acidic PbO2 - strong O.A.
SnO and PbO - amphoteric.
CO - strongest R.A.

Oxides in higher oxidation states of elements are generally more acidic than
those in lower oxidation states.
Group 14 Elements - Chemical Properties

Reactivity towards water

 Group 14 - Halides

Dihalides (MX2) Tetrahalides (MX4)

All elements can form tetrahalides. However, Pb

All except C & Si form MX2
doesn’t form PbI4 because Pb—I bond weak
All MX4 - Lewis acids except - CX4

Stability decreases down the group.

Stability - GeX2 > SnX2 > PbX2
PbCl4 > PbBr4
PbX2 > PbX4
GeX2 < GeX4

Most of the MX4 are covalent in nature except SnF4

MX2 is more ionic than MX4
and PbF4.
 Anomalous behaviour of Carbon

Carbon Other members of the group

Can expand their covalence due to the presence

Maximum covalence is four
of d orbitals

Heavier elements do not form pπ– pπ bonds

Unique ability to form pπ– pπ multiple bonds
because their atomic orbitals are too large and
with itself and with other atoms of small size
diffuse to have effective overlapping.
and high electronegativity.
They form dπ– pπ bonds
 Anomalous behaviour of Carbon
● Small size
● High First I.E.
● High E.N
● No d - orbitals
Group 14 - Oxides
P Block Elements
Group 15
Group 15 - Pnicogens
 Group 15

Property Remarks

Atomic Radii Increases down the group

Ionisation Energy Decreases down the group

IE 15 >> IE 14
Due to half filled configuration
Electronegativity N > P > As > Sb ≃ Bi

Melting point Increases up to As then decreases

Boiling point Increases down the group

Density Increases down the group

 Group 15
Property Remarks

Oxidation state General oxidation states: –3, +3, +5

-3 O.S. decreases down the group
+5 O.S. decreases down the group due to inert pair effect

● Only Bi (V) known - BiF5

● N shows - +1 , +2, + 3 with O
● P - +1, +4 (oxoacids)
● N & P shows disproportionate Reactions in intermediate O.S.
 Group 15 - Physical Properties
● All elements - polyatomic
● N2 gas - diatomic
● Except N - all others show allotropy
 Group 15 - Hydrides - EH3

Basicity Reducing Character

NH
3
PH
Decreases 3
Increases
down AsH down
the group 3 the group
SbH3
BiH3
"L.P. is more dispersed & "Less Bond strength,
not easily available" H can be removed easily"
 Group 15 - Hydrides

● Bond Angle - NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
● Thermal stability - NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
● Solubility - Only NH3 is soluble in water
 Group 15 - Oxides

● Acidity -

N2O < NO < N2O3 < NO2 or N2O4 < N2O5

Group 15 - Oxides of Nitrogen
Group 15 - Halides
 Group 15 - Halides

EX3 -
● All stable except NX3
● Only NF3 is stable
● Except BiF3 - ionic , all others are covalent
● Basicity - NF3 < NCl3 < NBr3 < NI3

EX5 -
● N doesn’t form pentahalides
● More covalent than trihalides
Group 15 - Reactivity with metals
Anomalous behaviour of Nitrogen
Anomalous behaviour of Nitrogen
Group 15 - Oxoacids of Phosphorus
Group 15 - General Properties & compounds of Phosphorus

Oxoacids of Phosphorus

Basicity = No. of OH More P-H bonds,

groups Better Reducing
Agent
Group 15 - Oxoacids of Phosphorus
Group 15 - Nessler’s reagent
P Block Elements
Group 16
Group 16 - Chalcogens
 Group 16
5f86f6869662c8587a4106c1

Property Remarks

Atomic Radii Increases down the group

Ionisation Energy Decreases down the group

Electronegativity Decreases down the group

O is most E.N. after F
Electron Gain Enthalpy Becomes less negative down the group
S > O > Se > Te > Po

Melting point Increases up to Te then decreases

Boiling point Increases down the group

Density Increases down the group

 Group 16
5f86f6869662c8587a4106c1

Property Remarks

Oxidation state General oxidation states: -2, +4, +6

Stability of +4 state increases down the group due to inert pair
effect

Oxidation states shown by O

 Group 15 - Oxidation State

● S, Se, Te - +4 with O
- +6 with F
● +6 most stable - S - SF6
 P Block - Group 16 - Hydrides

Acidic Character Reducing Character

H2O Non reducing

Increases H2S Increases

down
down
the group H2Se the group
H2Te

"Due to Less Bond Enthalpy for

H-E bond dissociation"
 Group 16 - hydrides

● H2O is liquid due to H - bonding

● All others are foul smelling, poisonous gases
 Group 16 - Oxides
➔ Forms two oxides - MO2 and MO3
➔ Both are acidic oxides
➔ O3 and SO2 are gases while SeO2 - solid
➔ Reducing character - SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2
➔ SO2 is reducing while SO3 and TeO2 are oxidising agent
➔ Higher O.S. oxides are more acidic
Group 16 - Reactivity towards Halogens
Group 16 - Reactivity towards Halogens
Anomalous behaviour of Oxygen
Group 16 - Oxoacids of Sulfur
P Block Elements
Group 17
Group 17 - Halogens
 Group 17
Property Remarks

Atomic Radii Smallest in the period,

F < Cl < Br < I

Ionisation Energy F > Cl > Br > I

Electronegativity F >> Cl > Br > I

Electron gain Enthalpy Max. EGE in the period,

Cl > F > Br > I

M.P./ B.P. F < Cl < Br < I

Density Increases down the group

 Group 17

Property Remarks

Coloured F2 - pale yellow. Cl2 - greenish yellow, Br2 - reddish brown,

I2 - deep violet
Bond dissociation Enthalpy Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2

● F & Cl react with H2O

● Br & I - sparingly soluble in H2O but soluble in organic solvents
Group 17
 Group 17 - Oxidising Power

Property Remarks

Oxidation Potential F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

Reducing Power I- > Br- > Cl- > F-

 Group 17
Property Remarks
Oxidation state All show - -1 O.S.
F only shows -1 O.S.
F - +1 in HOF
Others oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +5, +7

Higher O.S. (Cl, Br, I) - with small, high E.N. element - F & O
Ex. in interhalogens and oxyacids
Anomalous behaviour of Fluorine
 ● Anomalous behaviour of Fluorine

● Most reactions with F - exothermic - due to small

size
 Group 17 - Reactivity towards Hydrogen
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

● Reactivity - F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

● Dipole moment - HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Group 17 - Reactivity towards Metals
 Group 17 - Reactivity towards Oxygen
Stability of Oxides - Br < Cl< I due to kinetic and thermodynamic factors

● Cl, Br, I - oxides - +1 to +7

● Higher O.S oxides more stable
Group 17 - Reactivity towards Oxygen
Group 17 - Reactivity towards Oxygen
Group 17 - Reactivity towards Oxygen
Group 17 - Interhalogen Compounds
Group 17 - Interhalogen Compounds
Group 17 - Interhalogen Compounds
Group 17 - Oxoacids of Halogen
Group 17 - Oxoacids of Halogen
P Block Elements
Group 17
Group 18
 Group 18

Property Remarks

Atomic Radii Increases down the group

Ionisation Energy Decreases down the group

Electron Gain Large positive values

Enthalpy
Group 18
Group 18- Chemical Properties
Xenon Compounds
D - block elements
+
F - block elements

JEE 2024
New JEE 2024 Syllabus - d & f Block
d-Block
 Introduction to d-block elements

● The term transition metals is generally used for d-block elements except for group - 3 - 12
elements.
● According to IUPAC, transition metals are defined as metals which have incomplete d
subshell either in neutral atom or in their ions.
Classification of d Block Elements
Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
 D - block elements - Properties

● The d orbitals of the transition elements extend more towards the outermost surface of an atom than
the other orbitals (i.e., s and p)

● Hence, they are more influenced by the surroundings as well as affect the atoms or molecules
surrounding them.

● There are greater similarities in the properties of the transition elements of a horizontal row in contrast
to the non-transition elements.

● However, some group similarities also exist.

 D - block elements - Properties

Due to Partly filled d orbitals -

➔ Variety of Oxidation States

➔ Formation of coloured ions

➔ Entering into complexes with a variety of ligands

➔ Catalytic property

➔ Paramagnetic behaviour
Atomic and Ionic Radii
 Ionisation enthalpy
IE
(kJ Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
mol–)
IE1 631 656 650 653 717 762 758 736 745 906
IE2 1235 1309 1414 1592 1509 1561 1644 1752 1958 1734
IE3 2398 2657 2833 2990 3260 2962 3243 3402 3556 3837

● IEs increase along each series from left to right due to an increase in Zeff. (exceptions maked
in red)
● The variation in IE along a series of transition elements is much less in comparison to the
non-transition elements
 Ionisation enthalpy - Anomalies
➔ The second ionisation energy of Mn is less than that of Cr.
Mn+ = [Ar] 3d5 4s1
Cr+ = [Ar] 3d5
Since the second e– is to be removed from stable 3d5 configuration in case of Cr, it has more IE2.

➔ The second ionisation energy of Zn is less than that of Cu.

Zn+ = [Ar] 3d10 4s1
Cu+ = [Ar] 3d10
Since the second e– is to be removed from stable 3d10 configuration in case of Cu, it has more IE2.
 Ionisation enthalpy - Anomalies

The explanation for some of the anomalies is as follows:

➔ The third ionisation energy of Mn is more than that of Fe.
Mn2+ = [Ar] 3d5
Fe2+ = [Ar] 3d6
Since the third e– is to be removed from stable 3d5 configuration in case of Mn, it has more
IE3.
 Density

● The elements with highest density are Osmium (Os) = 22.51 g/cm3 and Iridium
(Ir) = 22.61 g/cm3
 Physical Properties

● Nearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties.

high tensile strength ductility malleability

high thermal conductivity high electrical

conductivity metallic lustre
 Melting and Boiling Points
● The transition metals (with the exception of Zn, Cd and Hg) are very hard and have low volatility.

● Their MP and BP are high due to involvement of greater number of electrons from (n-1)d in
addition to the ns electrons in the interatomic metallic bonding

In any row the melting points of these

metals rise to a maximum at d5 except for
anomalous values of Mn and Tc and fall
regularly as the atomic number increases.
 Enthalpy of atomisation
● They have high enthalpies of atomisation.

● The maxima at about the middle of each series is due to greater number of valence electrons, and
thus stronger is the resultant bonding.

● ΔaH is an important factor in determining the standard electrode potential of a metal.

3d < 4d < 5d
“Due to more metal-metal
bonding
in compounds of heavy
transition metals”
 Oxidation States

Transition elements may show great variety of oxidation states in their compounds.
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
+1
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
 Oxidation States
● Special features:

○ From group 4 to 10, the higher oxidation states are favoured by the heavier members,
which is opposite to p-block elements (where heavier members tend to occur in lower
oxidation states due to inert pair effect).

■ Example: In group 6, Mo6+ and W6+ are more stable than Cr6+. Thus, Cr6+ in form of
Cr2O72– is a strong oxidizing agent whereas MoO3 and WO3 are not.

○ Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has ligands capable of π-
acceptor character in addition to the σ-bonding.

■ For example, in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, the oxidation state of nickel and iron is zero.
 Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States

+6 CrF6
+5 VF5 CrF5
+4 TiX4 VXI4 CrX4 MnF4
+3 TiX3 VX3 CrX3 MnF3 FeXI3 CoF3
+2 TiXIII2 VXIII2 CrX2 MnF2 FeX2 CoX2 NiX2 CuXII2 ZnX2
+1 CuXIII

Here X - F to I XI - F to Br XII - F and Cl

XIII - Cl to I
● Beyond Mn, the only trihalides known are FeX’3 (X’ = F to Br) and CoF3.
 Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States

● F can stabilise the highest oxidation state due to

○ higher lattice energy, as in the case of CoF3
○ or higher bond enthalpy terms for the higher covalent compounds, e.g., VF 5 and CrF6.
● For V+5 the halides other than VF5 undergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides, VOX3.
● Another feature of fluorides is their instability in the low oxidation states. Example VX2 and CuX
(X = Cl, Br or I only)
 Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States

● All CuII halides are known except the iodide. In this case, Cu2+ oxidises I– to I2:
2Cu2+ + 4I– → Cu2I2(s) + I2
● Many Cu(I) compounds are unstable in aq. soln and undergo disproportionation.
2Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu
● The stability of Cu2+(aq) > Cu+(aq) is due to the much more negative ∆hydH° of Cu2+(aq) than
Cu+, which compensates for the IE2 of Cu.
 Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States
+7 Mn2O7

+6 CrO3

+5 V2O5

+4 TiO2 V2O4 CrO2 MnO2

+3 Sc2O3 Ti2O3 Mn2O3 Fe2O3

+2 TiO VO (CrO) MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO ZnO

+1 Cu2O

Apart from these oxides, mixed oxides Mn3O4, Fe3O4 and Co3O4 are known.
 Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States

● The highest O.S. in the oxides till group 7 coincides with group number.
● No higher oxides of Fe above Fe2O3, are known. However it can form ferrates(VI) in alkaline media
(FeO4)2–, but they readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2.
● Besides the oxides, oxocations are stabilised.
○ V(V) as VO2+
○ V(IV) as VO2+
○ Ti(IV) as TiO2+
● Order of increasing oxidising power: VO2+ < Cr2O72– < MnO4– (due to stability of the lower
oxidation state to which they are reduced)
Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States
 Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals
● All the metals except Sc form MO type oxides which are ionic.

● As the oxidation number of a metal increases, ionic character decreases.

○ Mn2O7 is a covalent green oil, CrO3 and V2O5 have low melting points.

● In the higher oxides, the acidic character is predominant.

○ Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7.

○ V2O5 is amphoteric though mainly acidic and it gives VO43– as well as VO2+ salts.

● In vanadium there is gradual change from the basic V2O3 to less basic V2O4 (gives VO2+ salt with acids) and
to amphoteric V2O5.

● CrO is basic but Cr2O3 is amphoteric.

Magnetic Properties
Magnetic Properties
 Electrode Potential

● All 3d series elements have negative M2+/M electrode potential except for Cu.
● It is related to the following thermodynamic parameters -
○ Enthalpy of atomisation (ΔaH)
○ Ionisation Energy (IE1)
○ Enthalpy of hydration (ΔhydH)
● The E° (Cu2+|Cu) is positive because the high energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced
by its hydration enthalpy.
● Positive value for Cu implies - inability to liberate H2 from acids.
 Electrode Potential
● E° value becomes less negative as we move from Ti to Zn.
● However, the values for Mn, Zn and Ni are more negative than expected.
○ For Mn - it is due to 3d5 configuration.
○ For Zn - it is due to 3d10 configuration.
○ For Ni - it is due to highest negative ΔhydH.

+0.34

-0.44 -0.28 -0.25

-0.76
-0.9
-1.18 -1.18
-1.63
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Formation of Coloured Ions
Formation of Coloured Ions
 Catalytic Properties

● Because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states, they become more
effective as catalysts. For example, iron(III) catalyses the reaction between iodide and
persulphate ions.
2I– + S2O82– → I2 + 2SO42–
The reaction takes place as follows:
2Fe3+ + 2I– → 2Fe2+ + I2
2Fe2+ + S2O82– → 2Fe3+ + 2SO42–
 Interstitial Compounds

● Formed when small atoms like H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals.
● They are usually non stoichiometric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent, for example, TiC,
Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0.56 and TiH1.7, etc
(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals.
(ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness.
(iii) They retain metallic conductivity.
(iv) They are chemically inert.
Alloy formation
 K2Cr2O7
(Potassium
Dichromate)
 d
Block
Potassium Dichromate
Structure

Chromate ion Dichromate ion

(Yellow) (Orange red)

 Potassium dichromate

● Chromate and dichromate are interconvertible in aqueous solution

depending upon pH of the solution.
 dD
Block
Potassium Dichromate
 Potassium dichromate

● In acidic solution, K2Cr2 O7 is used as oxidising agent as

 dD
Block
Potassium Dichromate
Chemical Reactions
1 Oxidising Action in Acidic Medium
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O
Ferrous Ferric

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6I- 2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O

Iodide Iodine
 dD
Block
Potassium Dichromate
Chemical Reactions
2 Reaction with H2O2
Cr2O72- + 2H+ + 4H2O2 2CrO5 + 5H2O
Chromium oxide
peroxide

Butterfly structure Deep blue

colour
Oxidation No. of Cr = +6
 KMnO4
(Potassium
Permanganate)
 d
Block
Potassium Permanganate
Structure

Dark purple crystals

Permanganate ion Manganate ion

(purple) (green)
 d
Block
Potassium Permanganate
Preparation From mineral
Pyrolusite (MnO2)
Step 1:
2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O
Potassium
Manganate
(Green)

Step 2: Disproportionation
+ + +
3MnO4 +
6 2- 4H+ -
2MnO4 + MnO2 + 2H2O
7 4
Manganate Permanganate
ion ion
 d
Block
Potassium Permanganate
Commercial Preparation

Step 1: Fused with KOH,

oxidised with air (Step same as
MnO2 MnO42- previous rxn.)
Manganate
ion

Step 2:
Electrolytic oxidation
in alkaline sol.
MnO42- MnO4-
Permanganate
ion
 d
Block
Potassium Permanganate
Laboratory Preparation

2Mn2+ + 5S2O82- + 8H2O 2MnO4- + 10SO42- + 16H+

Peroxodisulphate Permanganate
 d
Block
Potassium Permanganate
Chemical Reactions
1 Action of Heat
513K
2KMnO4 K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
Potassium Manganese
manganate dioxide
 Potassium permanganate

KMnO4 behaves as oxidising agent as :

● Basic medium :

MnO4- + e- → MnO42-

● Neutral/faintly alkaline medium :

MnO4- + 4H+ + 3e- → MnO2 + 2H2O

● Acidic medium :

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O

f-Block
F Block
 F - block elements

The f-block consists of the two series -

Lanthanoids (4f series, 14 elements after La)

Actinoids (5f series, 14 elements after Ac)

 F - block elements

The lanthanoids resemble one another.

● They have only one stable oxidation state.
● There are small changes in size and nuclear charge along a series of
otherwise similar elements.
Silvery white
metals

The chemistry of the actinoids is much more complicated.

● They show wide range of oxidation states
● They are radioactive which creates special problems in their study

Radioactive
The Lanthanoids
Electronic Configurations
Electronic configuration
Z Element
Ln Ln2+ Ln3+ Ln4+
57 La (Lanthanum) 5d1 6s2 5d1 4f0 -
58 Ce (Cerium) 4f1 5d1 6s2 4f2 4f1 4f0
59 Pr (Praseodymium) 4f3 6s2 4f3 4f2 4f1
60 Nd (Neodymium) 4f4 6s2 4f4 4f3 4f2
61 Pm (Promethium) 4f5 6s2 4f5 4f4 -
62 Sm (Samarium) 4f6 6s2 4f6 4f5 -
63 Eu (Europium) 4f7 6s2 4f7 4f6 -
64 Gd (Gadolinium) 4f7 5d1 6s2 4f7 5d1 4f7 -
The Lanthanoids
Electronic Configurations
Electronic configuration
Z Element
Ln Ln2+ Ln3+ Ln4+
65 Tb (Terbium) 4f9 6s2 4f9 4f8 4f7
66 Dy (Dysprosium) 4f10 6s2 4f10 4f9 4f8
67 Ho (Holmium) 4f11 6s2 4f11 4f10 -
68 Er (Erbium) 4f12 6s2 4f12 4f11 -
69 Tm (Thulium) 4f13 6s2 4f13 4f12 -
70 Yb (Ytterbium) 4f14 6s2 4f14 4f13 -
71 Lu (Lutetium) 4f14 5d1 6s2 4f145d1 4f14 -

● The electronic configurations of all Ln3+ (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are
of the form 4fn
 F
Block
Lanthanoids
General Electronic Configuration

[Xe] 4f1-14 5d0-1 6s2

Exception
[Xe]4f7 5d1 6s2

[Xe]4f8 5d0 6s2

 F
Block
Lanthanoids
Oxidation state

Elements Oxidation state

La, Ho, Er, Lu, Gd +3 “+3 is most

common
Ce, Pr, Tb, Dy +3, +4 Oxidation state”
Sm, Eu, Tm, Yb, Pm +2, +3
Nd +2, +3, +4
The Lanthanoids
Oxidation States

Tb65 ⟶ +4 Oxidation State

Tb+4 + e- ⟶ Tb+3 ⟶ Strong Oxidant

Sm62 ⟶ +2 Oxidation State

Sm2+ - e- ⟶ Sm+3 ⟶ Strong reducing Agent

 F
Block
Lanthanoids
Atomic size
La
Atomic Radius

Lanthanoid contraction

“Due to the
Lu
poor shielding effect of
Atomic No. 4f electrons”
 f Block - Lanthanoids
Separation
➔ As change in ionic radius is very small, the chemical properties are
similar.
➔ This makes the separation of the element in pure state difficult.
➔ Separation is done by Ion Exchange methods which is based on the
ionic size.
 f Block - Lanthanoids
Color
➔ silvery white metals
➔ most of the trivalent metal ions are coloured, both in the solid state
and in aqueous solution.
➔ This is due to the partly filled-f-orbitals which permit f-f transition.
 f Block - Lanthanoids
Chemical Reactivity
Actinoids
The Actinoids
● The actinoids are radioactive elements and the have half-life decreasing as we
move towards right.
Electronic configuration
Z Element
M M3+ M4+
89 Ac (Actinium) 6d1 7s2 5f0
90 Th (Thorium) 6d2 7s2 5f1 5f0
91 Pa (Protactinium) 5f2 6d1 7s2 5f2 5f1
92 U (Uranium) 5f3 6d1 7s2 5f3 5f2
93 Np (Neptunium) 5f4 6d1 7s2 5f4 5f3
94 Pu (Plutonium) 5f6 7s2 5f5 5f4
95 Am (Americium) 5f7 7s2 5f6 5f5
96 Cm (Curium) 5f7 6d1 7s2 5f7 5f6
The Actinoids
Electronic configuration
Z Element
M M3+ M4+
97 Bk (Berkelium) 5f9 7s2 5f8 5f7
98 Cf (Californium) 5f10 7s2 5f9 5f8
99 Es (Einsteinium) 5f11 7s2 5f10 5f9
100 Fm (Fermium) 5f12 7s2 5f11 5f10
101 Md (Mendelevium) 5f13 7s2 5f12 5f11
102 No (Nobelium) 5f14 7s2 5f13 5f12
103 Lr (Lawrencium) 5f14 6d1 7s2 5f14 5f13

● 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent than 4f electrons.

 F
Block
Actinoids
General Electronic Configuration
[Rn] 5f1-14 6d0-1 7s2

Exception
[Rn]5f7 6d1 7s2

[Rn]5f8 6d0 7s2

 F
Block
Actinoids
Atomic size
Ac
Atomic Radius

Actinoid contraction

“Due to the
Lr
poor shielding effect of
Atomic No. 5f electrons”
Actinoid contraction > Lanthanoid contraction

“5f shielding effect < 4f shielding effect”

 F
Block
Actinoids
Variable Oxidation states

“ Due to very less energy gap

between 5f, 6d & 7s orbitals”
 f Block

Actinides - Color

➔ These metals are silvery white.

➔ However, actinide cations are generally coloured.
➔ The colour of the cation depends upon the number of 5f-electrons.
➔ The cations containing 2 to 6 electrons in the 5f-subshell are coloured both
in the crystalline state as well as in aqueous solution.
➔ The colour arises due to f–f transition
Coordination Compounds
New JEE 2024 Syllabus -
Coordination Compounds
Introduction to Coordination Compounds
Coordination Compounds
Coordination Compounds
 Coordination Compounds

Chlorophyll
Haemoglobin
Coordinate Bond
 Synergic Bonding - Metal Carbonyls

NOTE: Synergic bonding is possible in case of 𝞹-acid or 𝞹-acceptor ligands. Examples include: CO, –
CN, +NO, PF3, PR3 (R= H, Et, Ph…), C2H4, C2H2, CO2 etc.
 Organometallic Compounds

Sigma (σ) bonded complexes

The ligand contributes one electron and is therefore called one electron donor.
Example:
- Grignard’s Reagent RMgX where R is a alkyl or aryl group and X is halogen.
- (CH3)4Sn, (C2H5)4Pb, Al2 (CH3)6, Al2(C2H5)6 etc.
 Organometallic Compounds

Pi (𝜋) bonded complexes

These are the compounds of metal with alkenes, alkynes, benzene and other ring compounds.
Example -

● “The number of carbon atoms bound to the metal in these compounds” is known as hapticity
of ligand.It is indicated by the Greek letter 'η' (eta) with a number.
 Organometallic Compounds
Sigma (σ) + Pi (𝜋) bonded complexes
Metal carbonyls: 2 types:
Monomeric - Metal carbonyls which contain only one metal atom per
molecule.
Examples:
 Organometallic Compounds
Sigma (σ) + Pi (𝜋) bonded complexes
Metal carbonyls: 2 types:
Polymeric - Metal carbonyls which contain two or more than two metal
atoms per molecule and they have metal-metal bonds.
Examples:
Introduction to Coordination Compounds
Some important terminologies

[Co(NH3)6]3+ Coordination sphere

central atom ligand Oxidation Number = 3

Coordination Number = 6
Introduction to Coordination Compounds
Homoleptic and Heteroleptic Compounds
Classification of Ligands
Classification of Ligands
Classification of Ligands
Classification of Ligands
Classification of Ligands - Monodentate
Classification of Ligands- Bidentate
Classification of Ligands- Bidentate
Classification of Ligands- Tridentate
Classification of Ligands- Tetradentate
Classification of Ligands- Pentadentate
Classification of Ligands- Hexadentate
Ambidentate Ligand
Ambidentate Ligand
Chelating Ligands
Chelating Ligands
Chelating Ligands
Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Write the IUPAC name for the following:

Compounds IUPAC Names

Na3[Cr(OH)2F4] Sodium tetrafluoridodihyroxochromate (III)

Pentaaminethiocyanato - S - Chromium (III)

[Cr(NH3)5SCN]Cl2
chloride

Tetraamminedichloridoplatinum (IV)
[Pt(NH3)4Cl2] [PtCl4]
tetrachloridoplatinate (II)
 Effective Atomic Number

EAN Rule
E.A.N. = Atomic number - oxidation number + coordination no. x 2
Postulates of Werner’s Theory
 Postulates of Werner’s Theory
Metal in a complex shows two type of valences- primary & secondary
Primary valency Secondary valency

It is oxidation no. of metal It is coordination no.

It is variable It is non variable

Satisfied by anions (present in Satisfied by ligands (present in

coordination or ionisable sphere) coordination sphere)

Ionisable Non Ionisable

Directional decide geometry of

Ionic nondirectional
complex ion.

Represented by dotted line in werner Represented by solid lines in wemer

structure. structure.
Valence Bond Theory
 Valence Bond Theory

CN = 6 CN = 4

Octahedral C.N. = 4

sp3d2 d2sp3 sp3 (tetrahedral) dsp2 (square planar)

ns and np orbital (n-1)d , ns and np
nd orbital used (n-1)d orbital used
used orbital used
Outer orbital Inner orbital Outer orbital Inner orbital
complex complex complex complex
 Valence Bond Theory

● Inner orbital complex- Low spin complex, Diamagnetic or

less Paramagnetic

● Outer orbital complex- High spin complex, Paramagnetic

 Magnetic Properties
We can predict geometry of complex from the knowledge of its
magnetic behaviour on basis of VBT and vice-a-versa.

Spin Magnetic
moment :
μ = √n(n + 2) BM
n= no. of unpaired electron
 Magnetic Properties
No. of unpaired electrons Magnetic Moment
1 1.73 BM
2 2.82 BM
3 3.87 BM
4 4.89 BM
5 5.91 BM
Limitations of VBT
Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes
 Spectrochemical Series

I-< Br-< SCN-< Cl-< S2-< F-< OH-< C2O42-< H2O < NCS-< edta4-< NH3 < en< CN-< CO
Halide donors < O donors < N donors < C donors

WFL Increasing Ligand Strength SFL

Spectrochemical Series
Crystal Field Theory (Octahedral complexes)
 Crystal Field Splitting Energy in Octahedral entities

Example

WFL SFL

Pair up Can’t pair

electrons up
electrons
 Crystal Field Splitting Energy (CFSE)
depends on
Nature of Ligand

Strong field Ligand Weak field Ligand

❖ More splitting ❖ Less splitting
❖ Δo > P ❖ Δo < P
❖ Pair up electrons ❖ Can’t pair up electrons
 Crystal Field Splitting Energy (CFSE)

“The difference of energy between two sets of d-orbitals”

Crystal Field Splitting Energy in tetrahedral entities
 Crystal Field Splitting Energy (CFSE)

Factor affecting splitting:

(i) Strength of ligand:
[C.F.S.E. is more in case of S.F.L. as compared to W.F.L.]
(ii) Oxidation state of central metal ion:
[C.F.S.E. ∝ oxidation state]
 Crystal Field Splitting Energy (CFSE)

Factor affecting splitting:

(iii) Transition series (d-series):
[C.F.S.E. , 5d > 4d > 3d]
(iv) Geometry (number of ligands):
Jahn - Teller distortion
Jahn - Teller distortion
Colour of Coordination Compounds

"Due to d-d transition"

Colour of Coordination Compounds
Colour of Coordination Compounds
Stability of Coordination Compounds in a solution
Stability of Coordination Compounds in a solution
Isomerism
 Structural Isomerism

“ Same chemical formula but different bonds”

Ionisation Isomerism

Hydrate/Solvate Isomerism

Linkage Isomerism

Coordination Isomerism
 Structural Isomerism

Ionisation Isomerism

+ AgNO3
[Co(NH3)5SO4]+ + AgBr
Pale yellow ppt.

+BaCl2
[Co(NH3)5Br]2+ + BaSO4
White ppt.
Structural Isomerism

Hydrate/Solvate Isomerism
 Structural Isomerism

Linkage Isomerism

[Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2 & [Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl2

 Structural Isomerism
Coordination Isomerism
 Geometrical Isomerism

“Isomerism due to Different geometrical arrangement of

Ligands around Central Metal Atom”

cis trans
 Geometrical/ Cis-trans Isomerism

Shown by

Square planar complex Octahedral complex

 Geometrical Isomerism

For Square Planar Complexes

MA2B2 MA4

MA2BC MA3B
MABCD
 Geometrical Isomerism

(i) MA2B2 type

Example Pt(NH3)2Cl2

H H
H
Cl N N Cl
H
H H
H H H H
Cl N Cl N
H H
Cisplatin Transplatin
 Geometrical Isomerism

(ii) MA2BC type

Example [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]

Cis Trans
 Geometrical Isomerism

(iii) MABCD type

Example [Pt(Cl)(Br)(NH3)(Py)]

Py Cl NH3 Cl NH3 Cl
Pt Pt Pt
Py Br Py
NH3 Br Br
Cis Cis Trans
 Geometrical Isomerism

For Octahedral Complexes

MA4B2 MA6

MA2(BB)2 MA5B
MA3B3
 Geometrical Isomerism

(i) MA4B2 type

Example [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]+

+ +

Cis(Violet) Trans(Green)
 Geometrical Isomerism

(ii) MA2(BB)2 type

Example [CoCl2(en)2]

Cis Trans
 Geometrical Isomerism

(iii) MA3B3 type

Example [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]

fac-isomer mer-isomer
 Optical Isomerism

“Thus complexes which have same physical and chemical properties

but differ in their action towards plane polarised light are called as
optical isomers & the phenomenon is optical isomerism”
 Optical Isomerism

➔ Optically active complexes are those which are non-superimposable

over the mirror image structure.

➔ An optically active complex is one which is asymmetric in nature

i.e., not divisible into two identical halves.
 Optical Isomerism

dextro (d) laevo (l)

Rotates plane polarised Rotates plane polarised
Light towards Light towards
Right Left
 Optical Isomerism

➔ The 'd' and 'l' isomers of a compound are called as Enantiomers

or Enantiomorphs.

Enantiomers
 Optical Isomerism
Shown by

Tetrahedral Complex Octahedral complex

 Optical Isomerism

Why Square planar complex doesn’t show Optical Isomerism?

“Because Square planar complex has

Plane of Symmetry”
 Optical Isomerism
For Tetrahedral Complexes

Only MABCD
 Optical Isomerism
For Octahedral Complexes

“Only cis forms”

MA2B2C2 M(AA)2B2
MABCDEF M(AA)B2C2

M(AA)3
 Optical Isomerism

MA2B2C2 Type
Example [Pt(Py)2(NH3)2Cl2]2+
 Optical Isomerism

MABCDEF Type
Example [Pt(Py)(NH3)(NO2)(Cl)(Br)(I)]
 Optical Isomerism

M(AA)3 Type
Example [Co(en)3]3+
 Optical Isomerism

M(AA)2B2 Type
Example cis [Co(en)2Cl2]+
 Optical Isomerism

M(AA)B2C2 Type

Example cis [Co(en)(NH3)2Cl2]

The Mole Concept
Major Concepts:

Stoichiometry
Solution Concentrations
PoAC (Principle of Atomic Conservation)

Calculation centric questions.

Atomic Structure
Major Concepts:

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

H Spectrum
Photoelectric Effect
De Broglie’s Duality
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
SWE
Electronic Configuration
Orbitals, their shapes, nodes
Magnetic Moment

A mix of Logical, theoretical and calculation based questions.

Energy E = -13.6 Z2/n2 ev/atom

E = -2.18x10-18 Z2/n2 J/atom

Radius r = Ao n2/Z

Ao = 52.9 pm

Velocity v = 2.18 x 106 Z/n m/s Mvr = nh/2π

Thermodynamics
Major Concepts:

System, Surroundings, Universe

Types of Processes (Isothermal, Isochoric, Adiabatic, Isobaric)
State Functions and Path Functions
State Variables (P, V, T, n)
1 LoT and 2 LoT
Reversible (Quasi-static) Processes
Work done Formulae
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, Gibbs Energy
Hess’ Law

A mix of Logical, and calculation based questions.

Concept Understanding is Key
Internal Energy (U)
It is the sum total of the components of energy of the system due
to the internal factors.

U = KE + PE
ΔU = q + W

Enthalpy (H)
It is the net heat content of the system. Mathematically:
H = U + PV

Remember: ΔH = qp ΔU = qv
Heat Capacity
Heat needed to raise the temperature of the system by 1K
C = q/ΔT

Molar Heat Capacity

Heat needed to raise the temperature of one mole gas by 1K
CM = q/nΔT

Molar heat capacity constant pressure (CP):

CP= qP/nΔT

Molar heat capacity constant volume (CV):

CV= qV /nΔT

ΔH = qp = nCPΔT
ΔU = qv = nCVΔT
Formulae: (Ideal gas, Reversible Processes)
Isothermal:
ΔU = ΔH =0
w = nRT ln (V1/V2) = nRT ln (P2/P1)
q = nRT ln (V2/V1) = nRT ln(P1/P2)

Isobaric:
w = – PΔV = – nRΔT

Isochoric
w=0
qv = ΔU = nCvΔT

Adiabatic
q = 0 w = ΔU
ΔU = nCVΔT = (P2V2– P1V1)/(γ–1) = (nRΔT)/(γ– 1)

ΔH = nCPΔT
Entropy (S):
The degree of “randomness” of a system

2nd Law of Thermodynamics(2LoT):

The entropy of an isolated system/Universe
always tends to increase

● In a spontaneous process the entropy of

the Universe increases

● In a reversible process, entropy of the

Universe remains constant
ΔSsys = nCV ln(T2/T1) + nR ln(V2/V1)
This expression can be simplified for the four processes:

Isothermal process:
ΔS = nR ln(V2/V1)
Isochoric process:
ΔS = nCV ln(T2/T1)
For isobaric process:
ΔS = nCP ln(T2/T1)
Adiabatic process:
ΔS = 0 (qrev= 0)
Gibbs Free Energy:
Gibbs Free energy function gives us a very convenient parameter to
judge the spontaneity of a process from the system’s perspective.

At constant temperature and pressure

ΔG = –TΔSTOTAL

For a process to be spontaneous

ΔG < 0

at a constant temperature
ΔGSYS = ΔH – TΔSSYS
Chemical Equilibrium
Major Concepts:

Law of Mass Action

Generic Rate Equation
Equilibrium Constants (Kc Kp)
Reaction Quotient
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Degree of Dissociation

Simplistic Questions - calculation centric.

Logical Questions based on theory
Chemical Kinetics
Major Concepts:

Law of Mass Action

Generic Rate Equation
Integrated Rate Laws
Nuclear Chemistry (1st Order)
Arrhenius Equation

Simplistic Questions - calculation centric.

Logical Questions based on theory
Solutions and Colligative Properties
Major Concepts:

Conc. of Solutions
Henry’s Law
Raoult’s Law
Colligative Properties
Van’t Hoff factor

Most Questions from Colligative Properties

Calculation centric. Some from Henry/Raoult
Examples:
Acetone + CS2
Acetone + Benzene
Ethanol + H2O
Acetone + Ethanol
Examples:
HCl + H2O
HNO3 + H2O
Benzene + CHCl3
RCOOH + Pyridine
Acetone + Aniline
Phenol + Aniline
ChCl3 + Acetone
Redox and Electrochemistry
Major Concepts:

Oxidation State
Cell Construction
EMF of Cell
Electrochemical Series
Nernst Equation
Conductivity
Molar Conductivity
Limiting Molar Conductivity
Conductivity vs Degree of Dissociation
Kohlrausch’s Law
Faraday Law

Logical, Graph based, and Calculation Centric

Balancing of Redox Reactions is important
Periodic Properties
Major Concepts:

Moseley’s Periodic Law

Screening Effect
Trends in Periodic Properties
Radii
Ionisation Enthalpy
Electron Gain Enthalpy
Electronegativity
Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric Oxides

Mostly logical questions. Scoring Chapter

√ν = a (Z – b)
 Ionization Enthalpy

*
*
*
*
Pauling’s Electronegativities

See wikipedia for more details

 Nature of Oxides, Hydroxides and Oxy-acids

Oxides (MxOy):

ΔEN = 2.3 Amphoteric

ΔEN < 2,3 Acidic
ΔEN > 2.3 Basic

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2

P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Basic Amphoteric
Acidic

https://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html
Chemical Bonding
Major Concepts:

Octet Rule
Lewis Structures
Fajan’s Rules
Dipole Moment
Solvation
VSEPR (& Hybridisation)
VBT
MOT

Almost all questions from VSEPR and MOT

Ionic Equilibrium
Major Concepts:

Dissociation of Acids and Bases

Degree of Dissociation
pH
Solubility product
Buffer Solutions
Salt Hydrolysis
Titration

Generally tricky questions

Mesomeric Effect
Mesomeric Effect
Order of Stability?
 Functional Isomerism

CnH2n+2 Alkanes
CnH2n Alkenes, Cyclo Alkanes
CnH2n-2 Alkynes, Cyclo Alkenes, Dienes
CnH2n+2O Alcohols, Ethers
CnH2nO Aldehydes, Ketones, Unsaturated Alcohols and Ethers
CnH2nO2 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, Hydroxy Aldehydes or
Ketones, etc
 Practice

All structural isomers of C5H12O

Which of these show
tautomerism?
JEE adv 2020
Pinacole Pinacolone Rearrangement
Williamson’s Ether Synthesis
Dow’s Process
Tollens', Fehling's, and Benedict’s reagent
give positive results with formic acid
triphenyl phosphonium ylide
Hunsdiecker reaction
(also called the Borodin reaction or the Hunsdiecker–Borodin reaction)
Ing–Manske procedure This method produces a precipitate of
phthalhydrazide (C6H4(CO)2N2H2) along with the
primary amine