Q.1.

(B) Explain Observation Method as a tool of collecting Primary Data in detail along with
its merits and demerits.
Observation is the systematic viewing/watching of specific phenomenon or investigator’s own direct
observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent for
gathering primary data for a particular study Example: Watching the life of street-children provides a
detailed description of their soocial life.
Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources through
interviews, surveys, experiments, etc. Primary data are usually collected from the source—where the
data originally originates from and are regarded as the best kind of data in research.
The sources of primary data are usually chosen and tailored specifically to meet the demands or
requirements of particular research. Also, before choosing a data collection source, things like the aim
of the research and target population need to be identified.
For example, when doing a market survey, the goal of the survey and the sample population need to
be identified first. This is what will determine what data collection source will be most suitable—
an offline survey will be more suitable for a population living in remote areas without an internet
connection compared to online surveys.

Features of observation &Component of process of observation :

Features of observation

 Physical & mental activity-direct contact with the environment.

 Selective-Specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study
 Purposive & not informal
 Grasps the significant events & occurrences
 Should be exact & based on standardized tools of research
Component of process of observation

 Sensation
 Attention
 Perception
Advantages& Limitations •
Advantages of observation method

1. Easiest method: The simplest method of data collection is the method of observation.
Very minimal technical knowledge is required, and even though scientifically controlled
observations require some technical skills, it is still more accessible and more
straightforward than other methods. It is easier because every day, everyone observes
different things in their lives. If little training is given, then it can make a person perfect
for observing their surroundings.
2. Natural surroundings: The observation method of data collection describes the
observed phenomenon precisely and does not introduce any artificiality like other
methods. They describe the phenomenon precisely as it occurs in the natural research
environment. The observation method is not as restricted as the experiment.
3. High accuracy: In interview methods and questionnaire methods, the respondents’
information provides us the information with which the researchers have to work. These
are all indirect methods, and there is no means to investigate the accuracy. But in the
observation method, the information accuracy can be checked by various testing. So, the
data collected by observation is much more reliable.
4. Appropriate tool: There is a particular phenomenon that cannot provide information
verbally regarding their behavior, activities, feelings, etc. For this phenomenon,
observations are the best method. The observation method is essential for studies on
 infants who are unable to understand the details of research work and cannot express
themselves clearly.
5. Less cooperation of the respondent is needed: The observation method does not
require people’s willingness to provide information regarding them. There are various
instances where the respondent refuses to speak about themselves and their personal life
to an outsider. Some do not have the right communicative skills or time to provide
information about themselves to researchers. Even though observation cannot always
overcome such problems, it is still relatively easier to require less cooperation from the
respondent.

Limitations

1. Everything is not observed: There are various personal behaviors and secrets which the
researcher does not observe. Many respondents refuse to let researchers observe their
activities, and due to this reason, not everything is observed by the researcher. It also
becomes difficult to gather information about an individual’s personal opinions and
preferences.
2. Past life remains unknown: The observation method has no technique to study the
subject’s past life. It is tough to gather information about past life if the subject is not
cooperative enough. Since no other option is available, researchers have to rely on
documents that are not always accurate.
3. Time-consuming: Observation is a prolonged and time-consuming method. If one wants
their observation to be precise and accurate, they must give it enough time and not hurry
the process. P.V. Young also remarked that observation is a method that cannot be hurried.
It is tough to complete an investigation in a limited period through observation. Since it is
a time-consuming process, there are chances that the observer and the observed both lose
their interests and deny continuing the process.
4. Expensive: Observation is a very costly affair. It requires plenty of time, strict and
detailed work, and high cost. Observation consists of traveling to various places, staying at
the place where the phenomenon occurred, and buying sophisticated and high-quality tools
for research. Due to the reasons mentioned above, the observation method is known as one
of the most expensive data collection methods.
5. Personal Bias: The personal bias of the researchers affects their observation in many
ways. This also creates issues for making valid generalizations. The observer or researcher
may have their insight of right and wrong regarding specific events. They may also have
different preconceptions related to a particular event which jeopardizes the objectivity of
social research.

Q1 (C.) What is research design? Explain need and importance of research

design.

Designing of the research is done mainly to solve the problem of

getting the various stages of the
research under control. This control factor is very important for the
researcher during any of the research
operation. Preparation of the design for the research forms a very
critical stage in the process of carrying
out some research work or a research project.
Designing of the research is done mainly to solve the problem of
getting the various stages of the
research under control. This control factor is very important for the
researcher during any of the research
operation. Preparation of the design for the research forms a very
critical stage in the process of carrying
out some research work or a research project.
Designing of the research is done mainly to solve the problem of getting the various stages of the
research under control. This control factor is very important for the researcher during any of the
research operation. Preparation of the design for the research forms a very critical stage in the process
of carrying out some research work or a research project. Research Design in general terms can be
referred to as the scheme of work to be done or performed by a researcher during the various stages of
a research project. With the help of the research design, one can very easily handle and operate
research work as research design acts as a working plan, which is made by a researcher even before he
starts working on his research project. By this, researcher gets a great help and guidance in achieving
his aims and goals.
According to Russell Ackoff, research design is the process of making decisions before a situation
arises in which the decision has to be carried out. It is actually a process of deliberate anticipation
directed towards bringing an unexpected situation under control. Russell Ackoff has in a great way
explained about the research design in his book ‘Designs of Social Research’. Meaning of research
design Like an architect prepares a blue print before he approves a construction – in the same way
researcher makes or prepares a plan or a schedule of his own study before he starts his research work.
This helps the researcher to save time and also save some of his crucial resources. This plan or blue
print of study is referred to as the research design. Research design is also called as the research
strategy and the various steps or stages that a research design may include can be summarized as
follows –
1. Research problem selection
2. Problem presentation
3. Hypothesis formulation
4. Conceptual clarity
5. Methodology
6. Literature survey
7. Bibliography 8. Collection of the data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Interpretation of the result
11. Report writing
This specific presentation of the various steps in the process of research was given by Cook Jahoda.
Factors affecting research design
1. Availability of scientific information
2. Availability of sufficient data
3. Time availability
4. Proper exposure to the data source
5. Availability of the money
6. Manpower availability
7. Magnitude of the management problem
8. Degree of Top management’ s support
9. Ability, knowledge, skill, technical understanding and technical background of the researcher
10. Controllable variables
11. Un – controllable variables
12. Internal variables
13. External variables

Advantages of research design

1. Consumes less time.
2. Ensures project time schedule.
3. Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way.
4. Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going on.
5. Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
6. Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning of
the work of the research project.

Need and importance of Research Design

 The main importance of research is to produce knowledge as research helps in problem

solving Marketing research is important because it allows consumers and producers to
become more familiar with the products, goods, and services around them.
• Research is important to society because it allows us to discover more and more that might
make are lives easier, more comfortable, and safer
• Research encourages interdisciplinary approaches to find solution to problems and to make
new discoveries.
• Research is a basic ingredient for development and therefore serves as a means for rapid
economic development.
• It provides basis for government policies
• Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business
• It is useful to students, professionals, philosophers, literary men, analysts and intellectuals

Q2- Write Short Notes

A) Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects
of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or
phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,
situation or attitude. e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an
account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in
a particular industry. Unstructured interview involves- (1) document analysis, (2) particular
observation ( ethnographic studies), (3) diaries, (4) case study (5) particular observation (6) focus
groups

B) Two independent groups: Mann-Whitney U

The Mann-Whitney U test is used to compare differences between two independent groups when the
dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous, but not normally distributed. For example, you
could use the Mann-Whitney U test to understand whether attitudes towards pay discrimination,
where attitudes are measured on an ordinal scale, differ based on gender (i.e., your dependent variable
would be "attitudes towards pay discrimination" and your independent variable would be "gender",
which has two groups: "male" and "female"). Alternately, you could use the Mann-Whitney U test to
understand whether salaries, measured on a continuous scale, differed based on educational level (i.e.,
your dependent variable would be "salary" and your independent variable would be "educational
level", which has two groups: "high school" and "university"). The Mann-Whitney U test is often
considered the nonparametric alternative to the independent t-test although this is not always the case.
Unlike the independent-samples t-test, the Mann-Whitney U test allows you to draw different
conclusions about your data depending on the assumptions you make about your data's distribution.
These conclusions can range from simply stating whether the two populations differ through to
determining if there are differences in medians between groups. These different conclusions hinge on
the shape of the distributions of your data, which we explain more about later.

C - DATA ANALYSIS
Analysis of data Mean’s critical examination of the data for studying the characteristics of the object,
under study and for determining the patterns of relationship among the variables relating to it’s using
both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a computer :

• Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small,
and there are not many variables to analyse •
• Data Analysis Using a Computer:-If you want to analyse data using computer, you should be
familiar with the appropriate program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics
plays an important role. The most common software is SPSS for windows

D- Quantitative Analysis Techniques

Quantitative analysis is the process of collecting and evaluating measurable and verifiable data such
as revenues, market share, and wages in order to understand the behavior and performance of a
business. In the past, business owners and company directors relied heavily on their experience and
instinct when making decisions. However, with data technology, quantitative analysis is now
considered a better approach to making informed decisions.
 Regression Analysis. Regression analysis is a common technique that is not only
employed by business owners but also by statisticians and economists. ...
 Linear Programming.
 Data Mining.
 Project Management.
 Production Planning.
 Marketing.
 Finance.
 Purchase and Inventory.
E- Need for Research Design
The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct of the
various stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus yielding the
maximum information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A research design helps to plan in
advance, the methods to be employed for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be adopted
for their analysis. This would help in pursuing the objectives of the research in the best possible
manner, provided the available staff, time and money are given. Hence, the research design should be
prepared with utmost care, so as to avoid any error that may disturb the entire project. Thus, research
design plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained, which forms the strong
foundation of the entire process of the research work.
Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times. This is because
it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many researchers are not able to
achieve the purpose for which the research designs are formulated, due to which they end up arriving
at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of the research project tends to render the
research exercise meaningless. This makes it imperative that an efficient and suitable research design
must be planned before commencing the process of research. The research design helps the researcher
to organize his/her ideas in a proper form, which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the
inadequacies and faults in them

Name-
Enrolment No
Subject - Business Research Methodology
Course-MBA
Semester -2
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT – 2

Q2 (A)Define Research along with the process

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. There are practical steps through which you
must pass in your research journey in order to find answers to your research questions.
Steps in Research Process:
1. Selection and formulation of a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the
best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be
attained optimally in the context of a given environment It is the first and most crucial step in the
research process is a researcher has to formulate the problem related to his research work. The
sources of research problems in social sciences revolves around four Ps:
• People- Study of population, a group of individuals, organizations, groups, communities •
Problems- issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles examine the existence of certain issues
or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• Programs- content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service providers,
etc to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• Phenomena- cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself to establish the
existence of regularity.

Considerations in selecting a research problem are:  Interest,  Magnitude,  Level of

expertise,  Relevance,  Availability of data,  Ethical issues. For selecting the correct
problem researcher may contact expert, refer library books, discuss with teachers etc. After
selecting the correct problem the researcher has to formulate the problem. The Steps in
formulation of a research problem are- • Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
• Dissect the broad area into sub areas. Select what is of most interest to you. • Raise research
questions
2. Extensive Literature Survey Before formulating the research it is desirable that researcher
examines all available literature, both conceptual and empirical.  The conceptual literature -is
one which deals with concepts and theories.  Empirical literature is that which contains studies
made earlier and so it consists of many facts and figures observed in the earlier studies. The
source literature are- books, journals, articles and the like, and  Identified the gap of research for
future study
3. Developing the objectives Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. They
inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. Each objective should contain only one
aspect of the Study. Objective must contain the main associations and relationships that you seek
to discover or establish. The objectives should start with words such as  ‘To determine’,  ‘To
find out’,  ‘To ascertain’,  “To describe ‘  “To measure’,  ‘To explore’ etc
4. Indentifying and Labelling Variables and measurements scale… • The variables whose change
has affected the other variable, is called independent variable. Therefore there is a cause and
effect relation between the variables. The research problem must be formulated in such a manner
that it highlights the nature, extent and implications of relation existing between the variables. It is
only through this process of establishing the effective relation between variables that meaningful
conclusions are derived from the study e.g. age, (years/months), gender,(male or female) weight,
heights, income, religion etc
5. Measurement scale the unit of measurement of a variable. S.S. Stevens has classified the different
types of scale into four categories: • Nominal or classificatory scale- the classification of
individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or
characteristic e.g. ’water’ or ‘tree’ have only one subgroup, whereas the variable “gender” can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female • Ordinal or ranking scale- it ranks the
subgroups in a certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according
to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable. E.g. ‘income’ can
be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or qualitatively using subcategories ‘above
average’, ‘average’ and ‘below average ( this is also called likert pointing scale 5 points or 3
points ) • Interval scale-An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition,
it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points. E.g. Celsius scale:
0 oC to 100oC, Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30, 31-40 etc • Ratio scale- A ratio scale has all the
properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio
scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. E.g 40%, 20% etc
6. Setting Up Of Hypothesis • Hypotheses is a assumption, assertion or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A
hypothesis is a tentative conclusion logically drawn. The research work is conducted to test the
truth of this hypothesis
7. Writing a Primary Synopsis • After formulating the problems a brief summary of it should be
written down on the topic selected for research work mentioning the summary of what is going to
be done under his research
8. Preparing the Research Design • Research design is the conceptual structure or blue print within
which research would be conducted. The function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The
preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following : Method of Data Collection to be adopted-There are two types of
data 1) Primary Data— Data collected for the first time &original in nature 2) Secondary Data—
those which have already been collected and analysed by someone else Source of secondary data
are published source books, journals, records etc • Source of information—Sample Design- A
sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given universe. Sample design refers to the technique or the procedure which the
researcher would adopt in selecting some samplingg/representing/ units from the universe for
drawing inferences about the universe.
9. Collecting the Data Instruments/tools/methods used for collecting data are (1)Observation
method. (2) Direct personal interview method. (3) Telephone interview method. (4) Questionnaire
method. (5) Schedule method. A choice of one of these methods
10. Processing, Analysis and Interpretation of Data by Statistical MethodsThe processing of data
consists of  Classification and tabulation.-By classification and tabulation the unwieldy data can
be condense into few manageable and purposeful groups and tables so that further analysis
becomes simple.  Coding -converts the data into symbols and small figures so that the data can
be dealt with in an easy manner.  Editing -improves the quality of the data since it is at this
stage that data which is irrelevant can be dropped.  Analysis and interpretation of data- results in
observation, analysis, conclusion, induction and deduction. For this various statistical measures
are computed like  Descriptive statistics,  correlation,  regression,  Ratios etc
11. Testing of Hypothesis • Depending upon the nature of data and conclusions to be arrived one or
two of these tests can be applied like ANOVA, T-test, F-test, Chi Square test etc. Testing
of hypothesis will results in either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis
will result in contribution to existing theory or the generation of a new theory
12. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results/thesis • A report is a detailed description of
what has been done and how it has been done with respect to a particular area or topic. The report
should contain the preliminary section, the main body and the end matter. The preliminary section
contains only titles, data, acknowledgement foreword and table of contents. The important section
of a report is its main body. It carries introduction, methodology, and statements of findings,
conclusions and recommendations. The end matter includes appendix, literature selected and
bibliography. The appendix includes letters, questions or other tools used. Bibliography is the list
of books, journals. Reports, bulletins etc. used for reference.

Q1-C What is Primary Data? Distinguish between Primary Data and Secondary Data.
Data: data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as basis for study
and analysis •
Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources through
interviews, surveys, experiments, etc. Primary data are usually collected from the source—where the
data originally originates from and are regarded as the best kind of data in research.
The sources of primary data are usually chosen and tailored specifically to meet the demands or
requirements of particular research. Also, before choosing a data collection source, things like the aim
of the research and target population need to be identified.
For example, when doing a market survey, the goal of the survey and the sample population need to
be identified first. This is what will determine what data collection source will be most suitable—
an offline survey will be more suitable for a population living in remote areas without an internet
connection compared to online surveys. This data are also called first hand information
Difference between Primary data and Secondary data
Primary sources are firsthand, contemporary accounts of events created by individuals during that
period of time or several years later (such as correspondence, diaries, memoirs and personal histories).
These original records can be found in several media such as print, artwork, and audio and visual
recording. Examples of primary sources include manuscripts, newspapers, speeches, cartoons,
photographs, video, and artifacts. Primary sources can be described as those sources that are closest to
the origin of the information. They contain raw information and thus, must be interpreted by
researchers.

In-depth interviews present the opportunity to gather detailed insights from leading industry
participants about their business, competitors and the greater industry. When you approach a company
contact from a position of knowledge — thanks to all that secondary data you’ve already collected —
you can have a free-flowing conversation about the topics of interest. You can guide the conversation
toward your research objectives, but also allow yourself to be led down unexpected paths by
interviewees — some of the most valuable insights are the ones you didn’t know you should be
looking for.
Surveys are an excellent way to collect a large amount of information from a given population.
Surveys can be used to describe a population in terms of who they are, what they do, what they like
and if they’re happy. You can then forecast the population’s future behavior in light of these identified
characteristics, behavior, preferences and satisfaction. Surveys yield the most meaningful data when
they ask the right questions of the right people in the right way, so care should be taken both to
develop survey questions respondents will find relevant and interesting, and to determine which
method of conducting the survey (online, telephone or in-person) is most appropriate.
Looking to get consumers’ thoughts on a new product or service offering idea when you’re in the
early stages of the development process?
A focus group can get a small group of people that fit your target demographic in a room to discuss
what they like, dislike, are confused by, would do differently — whatever. The group’s leader
encourages honest, open discussion among participants, collecting opinions that can further direct
your development efforts.
Social media monitoring can help you keeps tabs on candid conversations about your industry, your
company and your competitors. How much are people talking about your brand compared to
competitive brands? Is what they’re saying positive or negative? Is the public clamoring for
something the industry currently doesn’t provide? How are your competitors portraying themselves
via social media, and what does that say about their strategy? Social media monitoring shows that you
don’t always need to participate in the conversation to learn from it

Secondary sources are closely related to primary sources and often interpret them. These sources are
documents that relate to information that originated elsewhere. Secondary sources often use
generalizations, analysis, interpretation, and synthesis of primary sources. Examples of secondary
sources include textbooks, articles, and reference books.

Sources of secondary data include (but are not limited to):

Government statistics are widely available and easily accessed online, and can provide insights
related to product shipments, trade activity, business formation, patents, pricing and economic trends,
among other topics. However, data is often not presented explicitly for the subject you are interested
in, so it can take some manipulation and cross-checking of the data to get it as narrowly focused as
you’d like.

Industry associations typically have websites full of useful information — an overview of the
industry and its history, a list of participating companies, press releases about product and company
news, technical resources, and reports about industry trends. Some information may be accessible to
members only (such as member directories or market research), but industry associations are a great
place to look when starting to learn about a new industry or when looking for information an industry
insider would have.

Trade publications, such as periodicals and news articles, most of which make their content
available online, are an excellent source of in-depth product, industry and competitor data related to
specific industries. Oftentimes, news articles include insights obtained directly from executives at
leading companies about new technologies, industry trends and future plans.

Company websites can be virtual goldmines of information. Public companies will have investor
relations sections full of annual reports, regulatory findings and investor presentations that can
provide insights into both the individual company’s performance and that of the industry at large.
Public and private companies’ websites will typically provide detail around product offerings,
industries served, geographic presence, organizational structure, sales methods (distribution or direct),
customer relationships and innovations.

Q2 Short Notes
A. Sampling size determination –
A larger sample will be a better depiction of the target group. Sample size estimates are based upon
assumptions that might not always be correct. The numbers collected need to be tested statistically
once the sample is completed by comparing sample variables. To make sure you have covered the
right sample size for your research, it is advisable to get professional advice. Our research services
help you get the optimum sample size, which would give you accurate results, without putting excess
burden for collection and management of data

Of the factors that influence the magnitude of sample, the main ones are motive of research, size of
the total population and the study tools used. Latest statistical rules about sample size and selection
are complicated and we provide detailed and expert solutions on such cases as well.

Though the purpose of a sample is to represent the population from where it is extracted, the size
needs to be satisfactory to make the variable stable. A factor that must be considered here is sampling
error percentage. Our strong team of 24 PhD statisticians can help you find out the best options for
determining the best fit sample size.

Many a times, thousands of samples are collected to acquire the required data. Political telephone
surveys are an example of this approach. Alternatively, there just might be one individual sample.
This type of sample could be a case study of an organisation or a sports team. Usually, a sample lies
between these two extremes, with between 30 and 400 respondents being a part of the study.
An optimum result can be achieved by taking 30 responses in consideration. This will be sufficient for
a minor study; however this is more applicable for exploratory research or a pilot study. Small, first
research projects generally do not go beyond this size. For larger research jobs, a survey sample can
range from 30 to 400 for a population of 30 lakhs to 1 million, although samples can be bigger than
this. The determination of a sample size is dependent on the study parameters and expected
confidence with which the results need to be obtained.

B- HYPOTHESIS
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture
to guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research hypothesis is
quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific methods that
involve an independent and some dependent variables. For instance, the following statements may be
considered: i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions”
or, ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students” These two statements are
hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus, they indicate that a hypothesis states
what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine its
validity.
C- ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used by some other persons. They are
usually in the shape of finished products. They are called secondary information
• Advantages of Secondary data
 Less cost: The information can be collected by incurring least cost.
 Less time consuming: The time requires for obtaining the information is very less
 Large quantity of information: Most of the secondary data are those published by big
institutions. So they contain large quantity of information
• Disadvantages of Secondary data-
 Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s attempt, it need not be suitable for
a researcher, who makes use of it
 It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
 It may contain certain errors.

D- Techniques for Quantitative research

It involves a collection of numerical data to answer a specific research question. Quantitative
research is applicable to phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in terms of
quantity. the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents- is predetermined the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the
variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular
attitude? It may involves  Correlation Study-measuring two specific variables and attempting to
quantify the relationship that exists between these variables  Ex-post Facto- study-the investigator to
determine the specific variables for analysis after the research has been completed.  Longitudinal
study- involves choosing a single group of participants and measuring them repeatedly at a selected
time intervals to note the changes that occur over time in the specified characteristics for eg.
Collecting data with respect to Age and development of children . The investigator identify the
specific variable changes through the growth and development.  Meta-analysis- is used to synthesize
the large volume of data describing numerous independent variables and there correlation with
reference accuracy.. It is undertaken for the purpose of synthesizing extensive amounts of work on a
particular subject.  Survey- method of collecting standardized information by interviewing
representative sample

E Types of sampling
Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of an unbiased or
random subset of individual observations within a population of individuals intended to yield
some knowledge about the population of concern, especially for the purposes of making
predictions based on statistical inference. Sampling is an important aspect of data collection.
There are two basic approaches to sampling: probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling.

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance
(greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates
of population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection.
Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit
each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult
from each household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random number, generated
from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number in
each household). We then interview the selected person and find their income. People living
on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add their income to our estimate of the
total. But a person living in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of
selection. To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the selected
person’s income twice towards the total. (In effect, the person who is selected from that
household is taken as representing the person who isn’t selected.) In the above example, not
everybody has the same probability of selection; what makes it a probability sample is the
fact that each person’s probability is known. When every element in the population does have
the same probability of selection, this is known as an ‘equal probability of selection’ (EPS)
design. Such designs are also referred to as ‘self-weighting’ because all sampled units are
given the same weight.
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multistage cluster sampling

Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as ‘out of
coverage’/’undercovered’), or where the probability of selection can’t be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling
errors. These conditions place limits on how much information a sample can provide about
the population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited,
making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population. Example: We visit every
household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer the door. In any
household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some
people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of
their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at
work when the interviewer calls) and it’s not practical to calculate these probabilities. In
addition, non-response effects may turn any probability design into a non-probability design
if the characteristics of non-response are not well understood, since non-response effectively
modifies each element’s probability of being sampled.
Types of Non-probability Sampling

1. Convenience sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Snowball sampling