Chapter Four

Survey Research

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 Contents
• Descriptive and analytical survey
• Advantage and disadvantages SR
• Questioners design
• Gathering survey data
• General problems in SR

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 Descriptive and Analytical Surveys
At least two major types of surveys are used by researchers:
descriptive and analytical.
• A descriptive survey attempts to picture or document
current conditions or attitudes, that is, to describe what
exists at the moment.
• Analytical surveys attempt to describe and explain why
certain situations exist. In this approach two or more
variables are usually examined to test research
hypotheses. The results allow researcher to examine the
interrelationships among variables and to draw explanatory
inferences.

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 Advantages of Survey Research
First, they can be used to investigate problems in realistic
settings. Newspaper reading, television viewing and consumer
behavior patterns can be examined where they happen, rather
than in the laboratory or screening room under artificial
conditions.
Second, the cost of surveys is reasonable considering the amount
of information gathered. In addition, researchers can control
expenses by selecting from four major types of surveys: mail,
telephone, personal interview and group administration.
Finally, data helpful to survey research already exist. Data
archives, government documents, census materials, radio and
television rating books and voter registration lists can be used as
primary sources (main sources of data) or as secondary sources
(supportive data) of information.
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 Disadvantages of Survey Research:
Independent variables cannot be manipulated as in laboratory
experiments. Without control of independent variable
variation, the researcher cannot be certain whether the
relations between independent and dependent variables are
causal or non-causal.
A second disadvantage is that inappropriate wording and
placement of questions within a questionnaire can bias
results. The questions must be worded and placed to
unambiguously elicit the desired information.
A third disadvantage of survey research, especially in
telephone studies, is the potential problem of talking to the
wrong people.

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 Constructing Questions
• Two basic considerations apply to the construction of good
survey questions:
1. The questions must clearly and unambiguously convey
the desired information to the respondent
2. The question should be worded to allow accurate
transmission of respondents answer to researchers.
• Questionnaire design depends on choice of data collection
technique.
• The design of a questionnaire must always reflect the basic
purpose of the research.

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 Cont…
Types of Questions:
• Open-ended : An open-ended question requires respondents
to generate their own answers.
• (For example: What type of television program do you
prefer?)
• Disadvantage: t a lot of time needed to collect, analyze the
responses, & for interviewers to write down the answer.
• Closed-ended: respondents select an answer from a list
provided by the researcher. These questions are popular
because they provide greater uniformity of response, because
the answers are easily quantified.
• Disadvantage: researchers often fail to include some
important responses.
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 Cont…
General Guidelines for Question Preparation
• Make questions clear
• Keep questions short
• Remember the purposes of the research
• Do not ask double-barreled questions
• Avoid biased words or terms
• Avoid leading question: A leading question is one that
suggests a certain response which contains a hidden premise.
• Do not use questions that ask for highly detailed information
• Avoid potentially embarrassing questions unless absolutely
necessary
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 Questionnaire Design
The goal in questionnaire design is to avoid bias in answers.
Question wording, length, style and order may affect a respondent’s answers.
Extreme care must be taken when questions are developed to ensure that they are
neutral.
Introduction: Should be short, realistically worded, nonthreatening, serious, neutral
and pleasant but firm.
Instructions: Should clearly stated for respondents or interviewers but it may vary
depending on the type of survey conducted.
Question Order: It is better when the initial questions are simple and easy to
answer. The questionnaire should be organized in a logical sequence, proceeding
from the general to the specific. Poor question order may bias a respondent’s
answers.
Layout: The physical design of the questionnaire is another important factor in
survey research. A badly typed, poorly reproduced questionnaire is not likely to
attract many responses in a mail survey.
Questionnaire Length: Long questionnaires cause fatigue and respondent mortality
and low completion rates. Shorter questionnaires guarantee higher completion rates.
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 Pretesting
• Conduct a mini-study with a small sample to
determine if the study approach is correct and
for refining questions. Areas of
misunderstanding or confusion can be easily
corrected without wasting time or money.

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 Gathering Survey Data
Survey research is an important and useful method of data
collection.
Data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/plan chalked out.
The method of data collection used for the study can be
two types, primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh
and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which
have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.
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 Cont…
We collect primary data through experiments in an
experimental research.
In the case of the descriptive research type whether
sample surveys or census surveys, we can obtain primary
data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents through personal
interviews.
The methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
I. Observation method,
II. Interview method,
III. Through questionnaires.
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 1. OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of
data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and
recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity
and reliability.
The information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.
The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias
is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
The degree of validity in an observation method depends
upon the degree of its structuredness, the condition under
which it is carried on and also the efficiency of the observer.
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 Cont…
Secondly, the information obtained under this method
relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’
willingness to respond.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which
deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable
of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason
or the other.

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 Cont…
Various Limitations of Observation Method
It is an expensive method.
The information provided by this method is very
limited.
Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to
direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.

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 Cont…
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind
things like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded? or
 How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition
of the units to be observed, the style of recording the
observed information, standardized conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the
observation is called as structured observation. But when
observation is to take place without these characteristics to be
thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation here things to be observed are not prefixed. The
observer is more or less in a free situation.
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 Cont…
Structured observation is one in which the observer knows
in advance as the what aspect of behavior or activities of the
people are relevant for his research work and, therefore, he
plans the manner of observing and recording of the events
much before the actual data collection begins.
The things to be observed, the steps of observation, the
conditions under which the observation is to be made, the
manner of recording and the items under which the
observations is to be recorded, etc are prefixed.
Structured observation method is used when the researcher is
well acquainted with the problem under investigation and
also the population which is to be studied.
It is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,
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 Cont…
In unstructured observation the observer decide in the field, at the
spot of observation, about the things to be observed. This gives him
the opportunity of decision making.
Opportunities of decision making makes the role of observer more
significant.
Hence the success of investigation depends upon the quality of the
observer i.e. his capability of understanding the situation and
observing.
This capacity or capability, he develops through training and
experience that is why observers are not born but made.
It is considered as uncontrolled method because there is no
restriction over the observer as what to observe, how to observe,
how to record, and so on. The observers are allowed to act or
behave according to their own wishes.
It is considered appropriate in exploratory studies, 18
 Cont…
Unstructured and uncontrolled observation may further be
divided into three sub types,
a) Non-participant observation method.
b) Participant observation method.
c) Quasi- participant observation method.
Participant Type of Observation:

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 Cont…
There are several merits of the participant type of
observation:
I. The researcher is enabled to record the natural
behavior of the group.
II. The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained if he observes in a
disinterested fashion.
III. The researcher can even verify the truth of
statements made by informants in the context of a
questionnaire or a schedule.

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 Cont…
Demerits of this participant type of observation viz.,
The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally; the problem of observation-
control is not solved.
Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled
observation. If the observation takes place in the natural
setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation,
but when observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure,
the same is then termed controlled observation. In non-
controlled observation, no attempt is made to use
precision instruments.

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 Cont…
The major aim of this type of observation is to
get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. It
has a tendency to supply naturalness and
completeness of behavior, allowing sufficient time
for observing it. But in controlled observation,
we use precision instruments as aids to accuracy
and standardization. Such observation has a
tendency to supply formalized data upon which
generalizations can be built with some degree of
assurance.

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 Cont…
The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is
that of subjective interpretation. There is also the
danger of having the feeling that we know more
about the observed phenomena than we actually
do. Generally, controlled observation takes place
in various experiments that are carried out in a
laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas
uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of
exploratory researches.

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 INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through
personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method
requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other
person or persons. This sort of interview may be in the
form of direct personal investigation or it may be
indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal
investigation the interviewer has to collect the
information personally from the sources concerned.
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 Cont…
He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from
whom data have to be collected. This method is
particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in
certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to
contact directly the persons concerned or on account of
the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal
investigation technique may not be used.
In such cases an indirect oral examination can be
conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-
examine other persons who are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem under investigation and the
information, obtained is recorded.

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 Cont…
The method of collecting information through personal
interviews is usually carried out in a structured way. As
such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such
interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined
questions and of highly standardized techniques of
recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a
rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form
and order prescribed.

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 Cont…
Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility
of approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do
not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information. In a
non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary
questions or at times he may omit certain questions if
the situation so requires. He may even change the
sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom
while recording the responses to include some aspects
and exclude others.

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 Cont…
But this sort of flexibility results in lack of
comparability of one interview with another and the
analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more
difficult and time-consuming than that of the structured
responses obtained in case of structured interviews.
Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and
greater skill on the part of the interviewer. Unstructured
interview, however, happens to be the central technique
of collecting information in case of exploratory research
studies.

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 Cont…
(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,
but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of
such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of
obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here
the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
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 Cont…
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have
in mailing method; the non-response is generally very
low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment
to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who
otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is
possible.

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 Cont…
Some of demerits of telephone interview are;
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered
answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five
minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are
difficult to handle.
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 QUESTIONNAIRES METHOD
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly
in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private
individuals, research workers, private and public
organizations and even by governments. In this method a
questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions and
return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a
number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on
a form or set of forms.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are
expected to read and understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself.
The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
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 Cont…
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to
respondents is most extensively employed in various economic
and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this
method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is
widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out
answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results
can be made more dependable and reliable.
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 Cont…
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due
to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission
of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of
omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
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 Cont…
Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct
‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing the questionnaires. In
a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt
very much. Pilot survey is in fact the replica and
rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being
conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses
(if any) of the questionnaires and also of the survey
techniques. From the experience gained in this way,
improvement can be effected.

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 Cont…
Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often
questionnaire is considered as the heart of a
survey operation. Hence it should be very
carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up,
then the survey is bound to fail. This fact
requires us to study the main aspects of a
questionnaire viz., the general form, question
sequence and question formulation and wording.
Researcher should note the following with regard
to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

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 Cont…
1. General form: So far as the general form of
a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be
structured or unstructured questionnaire.
Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires
in which there are definite, concrete and pre-
determined questions. The questions are presented
with exactly the same wording and in the same
order to all respondents. The form of the
question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’
or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but
should be stated in advance and not constructed
during questioning.
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 Cont…
When these characteristics are not present in a
questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or
non-structured questionnaire. More specifically,
we can say that in an unstructured questionnaire,
the interviewer is provided with a general guide
on the type of information to be obtained, but
the exact question formulation is largely his own
responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in
the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in
some situations tape recorders may be used to
achieve this goal.
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 Cont…
2. Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire
effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in
preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions
reduces considerably the chances of individual questions
being misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear
and smoothly-moving. The following type of questions should
generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

1. Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or

intellect of the respondent;
2. Questions of a personal character;
3. Questions related to personal wealth, etc.
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 Cont…
3. Question formulation and wording: Each question
must be very clear from any sort of misunderstanding
which leads to irreparable harm to a survey. Question
should also be impartial in order not to give a biased
picture of the true state of affairs. In general, all
questions should meet the following standards :
a. should be easily understood;
b. should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought
at a time;
c. should be concrete and should conform as much as
possible to the respondent’s way of thinking.

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 Cont…
Researcher must pay proper attention to the wordings of
questions. Since words are likely to affect responses,
they should be properly chosen.
Simple words, which are familiar to all respondents
should be employed.
Words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided.
Similarly, danger words, catch-words or words with
emotional connotations should be avoided. Caution must
also be exercised in the use of phrases which reflect
upon the prestige of the respondent. Question wording,
in no case, should bias the answer. In fact, question
wording and formulation is an art and can only be learnt
by practice.
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 Cont…
Essentials of a good questionnaire:
1) To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively
short and simple.
2) The size of the questionnaire should be kept to the
minimum.
3) Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving
from easy to more difficult questions.
4) Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
5) Technical terms and vague expressions capable of
different interpretations should be avoided.
6) Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
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Cont…

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