Chapter Five:

The Sources and Method of Data Collection

5.1 Meaning and Need for Data
Data collection is a process of gathering data systematically for a particular purpose from
various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and
electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data. It is,
therefore, the information collected from various sources, which can be expressed in quantitative
form, for a specific purpose, which is called data. The rational decision maker seeks to evaluate
information in order to select the course of action that maximizes objectives. For decision
making, the input data must be appropriate. This depends on the appropriateness of the method
chosen for data collection.

5.1 Types and Sources of Data

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the
study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The
primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
The choice between primary and secondary data mainly depends upon the nature, objectives, and
scope of enquiry, availability of time & money; degree of accuracy desired the status of the
investigator. Data can also be obtained from secondary sources, as for example, company records
or achieves, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the
internet, and so on.

5.1 Methods of Primary Data collection

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through
questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods.

Observation method

Observation involves the recording of the respondent’s behavior: it is the process of recognizing
and recording the behavior of people, objects, and events. It is used to evaluate the overt
behavior of individuals in controlled and uncontrolled situations. Observational methods have
 occupied an important place in descriptive research. As good research too, observation needs
proper planning, expert execution and adequate recording and interpretation.

This method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded
and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method,
the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from
the respondent.
Advantages of observation

1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately;

2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening;
3. Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond;
4. Suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
Limitations of observation

1. Expensive method
2. Information provided by this method is very limited
3. Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
4. Some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.

In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the
selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured
observation. But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of
in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered
appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is
most likely to be relatively unstructured.
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing
so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as
the participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this
type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing; such an observation is
described as disguised observation.)

There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) the researcher is enabled to
record the natural behavior of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher can
even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a
schedule. But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may
lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control
is not solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Sometimes it is classified as controlled and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes

place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation
takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same
is then termed controlled observation.

2. Interview

The interview is the process of communication or interaction in which the subject or interviewee
gives the needed information verbally in the face-to-face situation or through telephone.
Although the interview is generally associated with counseling, it can be used effectively to
collect useful information about individuals in many research situations.

Interview can be structured or unstructured. Structured interview involves the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording and it follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed. The interviewer has no
freedom to rephrase the questions also. Whereas, unstructured interview does not follow a
system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a
non- structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of
need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. Unstructured interview is the central technique of collecting information in case of
exploratory or formulative research studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use
the technique of structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe
basis for generalization and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.

a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the

interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or
persons. This can be direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation. In the
former case, the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned and it is suitable for intensive investigations. Whereas, indirect oral
examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees
appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of this method.

b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting

respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important
part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.

Interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every effort should be made to
create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while
talking to and discussing with the interviewer. The interviewer must ask questions properly and
intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely. At the same time, the
interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must clear
any doubt that the latter has. The interviewers’ approach must be friendly, courteous,
conversational and unbiased. The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a
respondent’s answer but he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging
irrelevant conversation and must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

3. Questionnaires

It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as;

“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of

population from which information is desired.”

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form

or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. Questioners can
be used to measure: 1) past behavior; 2) attitudes; and 3) respondents’ characteristics.

The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices. It is easy
to prepare and to administer.

Questioners can either be close-ended or open-ended questionnaire.

Close-ended questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardization to ensure that all
respondents reply to the same set of questions. The form of the question may be either closed

(i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in
advance and not constructed during questioning. Structured questionnaires may also have fixed
alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives.
Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze. The
provision of alternative replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly.
But it have also limitations like, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own words
cannot be obtained with structured questionnaires.

In open-ended questioners, questions and answers are not specified and comments in the
respondent’s own words are not held to the minimum. And there is a use open ended questions
like unstructured interview.
 Merits of Questionnaire Method:
1. It’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
Demerits of Questionnaire Method:
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.

Questionnaire Design
Questionnaire design forms the central role in the data collection process as the questionnaire is
often the first point of contact with the respondent. Good questionnaire design is crucial in terms
of:
• encouraging the respondent to participate in the data collection; and
• Eliciting the required information from the respondent in a valid way.
The main objectives of a questionnaire are to:
• obtain accurate information from respondents;
• provide a logical structure to the questionnaire/ interview so that it flows smoothly;
• provide a standard form on which responses can be recorded; and
• Facilitate data entry and processing through the use of coding.

Principles of Questionnaire Design

When designing a questionnaire there are some general principles that should be considered.

I. Establishing the objectives of the data collection

When researchers design a data collection the first step that they will take is to decide what they
want to learn from the data collection as this will determine the objectives of the data collection.
The objectives help researchers decide who they need to collect data from and the data required.
If data collection objectives are unclear it is highly likely the data collected with be unclear. The
more specific the objectives, the more usable the data collected.
When we establish our objectives, we should list them, split them into topic areas and then
design questions based on these topics.

II. Overall layout of the questionnaire: Before you start to think about the questions that you
will ask it is important to consider what the overall layout of the questionnaire will be. Ideally
you want to ensure that the questionnaire is kept short and simple. This can be achieved by:
a. Minimizing Clutter: All questionnaires should be kept as uncluttered as possible.
Nearly all aspects of the questionnaire will require some response from the
respondent. This might simply be that they have to read the instructions or
questions, or they may have to assimilate what is needed in a response box. The
more cluttered a questionnaire is with text, graphics and symbols, the greater the
burden on the respondent. White space within a questionnaire should be
maximized; not only does it make the questionnaire easier to read but it is thought
that it will also help to relax the respondent.

b. Questionnaire/Section Title: The first thing that the respondent will read is the
questionnaire title. It will set the tone of the questionnaire and inform the
respondent of its relevance to them. Titles should also be used throughout the

questionnaire, in order for respondents to distinguish one section from the

next. All titles should be clear and easily understood.
c. Accessibility and clarity: We all have a different perception of what we see;
therefore, we should consider this within our questionnaire design and ensure that
it is accessible/easy to understand for all respondents. We often assume the level
of comprehension of our respondents and that all are at the same level. This is
often not the case and care must be taken to ensure that all respondents can
understand what is being asked of them.
d. Wording: The major problem faced when designing questionnaires is designing
questions that the respondent can understand and interpret in the way in which we
desire them to. The following should all be considered:
e. Terminology: When designing a questionnaire, you should always use language
and terminology that the respondent is familiar with. Therefore, you should look
 to:
• avoid jargon, shorthand or uncommon words;
• avoid ambiguous words that do not have a specific meaning, for example the words
‘often’, ‘usually’ and ‘frequently’ have no specific meaning and should be made more
specific;
• avoid words which can be misinterpreted;

III. Question Structure: As well as considering the terminology of questions we should also
consider their structure.

 ‘Least Read’ – respondents only read as much of the question as they think is necessary.
It is therefore important that questions are structured so respondents are more likely to
read the whole question before they answer it. As a guide, keep questions short and
concise.

 Multi-part questions will only lead to confusion. Even though they may appear to save
space they should be avoided.

 Double-hollowed questions that ask the respondent for two pieces of information at the
same time may confuse respondents. Some respondents may only answer one part of the
question whilst others will answer the other part.

 Leading or biased questions will force a respondent to answer in a certain way thus
biasing the response. Questions should be worded in a neutral and balanced way to guard
against response bias.

IV. Layout of the Questionnaires: The layout of the questionnaire should be inviting and
interesting and should provide a clear and logical path for the eye to follow. Throughout the
questionnaire this layout should stay consistent to help respondents navigate through the
questionnaire. Much of this can be achieved through the effective use of blank space so that
it is clear and easy to read. There should be more space between the questions than there is
within them (this helps the respondent to group question parts together). Questions, response
options, response boxes and instructions should be laid out in a standard format. Where
appropriate there should be enough space made available for the respondent to write their
responses.

V. The order of Questions: The questions and sections within a questionnaire should be
 ordered in a logical manner that makes sense to the respondent. For example, all
demographic questions such as age and sex should be contained within the same section.
The respondent should be able to work through the questionnaire without having to look
back or forwards for references. It is also sensible to ensure that questions are ordered in a
way that minimizes the need for routing or filtering to other questions. You should ensure
that the questionnaire starts with easy or less sensitive questions to encourage the
respondent to participate. Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive questions, for
example, those relating to income or alcohol consumption, if they are placed towards the
end of the questionnaire rather than at the beginning. As a whole, the questions should be
grouped into topics in a logical sequence and should flow easily.

VI. Routing or Filtering: Routing questions can be used to guide respondents to questions that
are applicable to them and to ensure that they do not respond to questions that are not
applicable. The use of routing should be kept to a minimum, respondents can find them
difficult to follow and they can disrupt a respondent’s flow through the questionnaire.
Where routing is used, instructions should be included that aid the respondent and these
should be placed with the appropriate questions rather than with the general instructions for
the questionnaire.

VII. Front Page: The front page of a questionnaire should contain all of the information that
the respondent will need to know to complete the questionnaire. However, we should
ensure that respondents are not overloaded with information as this can be confusing.

The front page should act as an introduction or covering letter and should inform the
respondent of: Who is conducting the data collection activities; Why they have been
selected to take part; Whether the data collection is compulsory; Confidentiality; Who
should complete the questionnaire; How and when they should return the questionnaire;
What the data collected will be used for, i.e. the objectives of the data collection; and

Contact details for advice and further information. Where possible, questionnaires should
be personalized. This can be done by using the name and address of the respondent and
including a signature of the person responsible for the data collection.

VIII. Instructions for the Respondents: A respondent needs to know how to complete a
questionnaire. As such, the questionnaire should include some clear guidance on how to
complete it. Instructions should be presented where they are needed and before the
 respondent is required to put pen to paper. For example, where a question requires a tick or
cross in a box the respondent should be informed of this. Instructions that are presented
away from the questionnaire, for example in a booklet or on a separate page, can confuse
respondents and will often be forgotten. Instructions should also be repeated throughout the
questionnaire to remind the respondent.

There may be cases where specific instructions are needed for a particular question. Where
this is the case, the instructions should be integrated into the question. If this is not possible,
they should be placed immediately after the question but before the respondent is required to
respond.

IX. Question Styles: There are many types of questions available for a questionnaire. Two such
types are open and closed questions. The type of question used depends on the data
required. By using a variety of question styles the respondent will become more interested
and engaged in the data collection.
a) Open-ended Questions

Open questions require the respondent to produce their own answers. In a self-completion
questionnaire respondent write in their own answers constrained only by the space available. In
an interview, the interviewer writes down the respondent’s answer verbatim.
Open questions are used when rich, detailed information is required from the respondent. They
provide a source of qualitative data, where qualitative data refers to descriptive rather than
numeric data.
Let’s assume that a theatre director wants to know what the audience thought of his latest play.
He designs a questionnaire and distributes them to the audience to complete. An open question
that he could have asked is: What did you think of tonight’s show?

b) Closed-Ended Questionnaires

Closed questions offer respondents a choice of answers, or response categories. Some closed
questionnaires require ‘yes/no’ answers; others provide a list of possible choices. Closed
questionnaires tend to be used when high level, quantifiable data is required. Quantifiable refers
to data that is numeric or can be summarized in numeric form.
In relation to the theatre director’s questionnaire above the question, “What did you think of
tonight’s show?”, can be changed into a closed question by offering the audience a set of
 response categories and asking them to choose one. For example:

What did you think of tonight’s show? (Please tick one box only)
a) Very good 
b) Good 
c) Poor 
d) Very poor 
e) No opinion 
The advantages and disadvantages of open-ended and closed-ended questions should be balanced
against the response that we require before we decide which type of question to use.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Questions

Advantages Disadvantages
 They allow an unlimited  Different respondents give different degrees of detail in
number of possible answers. their answers making them difficult to compare.
 Respondents can answer in  Responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless detail.
detail and can clarify
 Comparisons and statistical analysis can be difficult
responses.
and indeed there is a methodological argument against
 Unanticipated responses can converting qualitative data into a quantifiable form.
be discovered.
 Coding of responses can be time consuming and
 They enable adequate answers to difficult especially where responses are incomplete or
be given to complex unclear. Questions may be too general causing
issues/questions. They respondents to lose focus.
encourage creativity, self-
 A large amount of respondent time, effort and energy is
expression and richness of detail.
required to answer open questions Response boxes for
 They reveal a respondent’s logic, open questions often take up a lot of space on a
thinking process and frame of questionnaire.
reference
 Articulate and highly literate respondents have an
advantage over those who are less literate
Advantages Disadvantages

 Misinterpretation of a question may go unnoticed.

 They are easy and quick to answer.  They force respondents to give simplistic answers to
 The answers of different respondents potentially complex questions.
are comparable  It can be confusing for the respondent if many
 Responses are easier to code and response categories are offered (especially where the
analyze compared to open questions. categories are read by an interviewer).

 Response categories can clarify the  The response categories can suggest ideas that
question meaning to respondents respondents would not otherwise have considered
thereby influencing their response.
 Respondents are more likely to
respond to closed questions that  Respondents with no opinion or knowledge may just
relate to a sensitive topic than they choose a category anyway.
are to an open question on the same  A respondent’s desired answer may not be listed and
topic. as such they may feel forced to choose an available
 Less articulate or less literate people category instead of their preferred option. (This
are not disadvantaged by closed problem should not occur if an ‘Other’ category is
questions. provided.)

4. Focus group discussion

Focus group discussion is an important, yet, structured discussion in which a small number of
participants (usually six to twelve), guided by a moderator or facilitator, talk about topics of
special importance to a particular research issue participants are selected from a narrowly
defined population whose opinions and ideas are relevant to the research. The discussion is
observed and recorded and provided the basis from which information and recommendations are
obtained, unlike interview focus group discussion helps to get an in-depth data since participants’
interaction with each other is common feature of focus group discussion.

In focus group discussion participants should not be too large or too small (the optimum No. of
participant is 10 - 12) but if participants are 6 or 7 it would be better. Social, intellectual and
educational homogeneity are important for effective participation of all group members.

When selecting respondents careful screening is essential to the success of the focus group
discussion. So group members must have had adequate experience with the object or issue being
 discussed. The group members should be allowed to contain relatives, neighbor or friends. The
typical focus group discussion lasts 11/2 to 2 hours.

Role of the moderator

The selection of and role played by the moderator are critical. The moderator introduces the
topic, observes, and takes notes and or tapes the discussions. The moderator never becomes an
integral part of the discussions, but merely steers the group persuasively to obtain all the relevant
information and helps the group members to get through any impasse that might occur. The
moderator also ensures that all members participate in the discussion and that no member
dominates the group. Someone from the research team may also observe the proceedings through
a one-way mirror, listening to the verbal statements and noticing the non-verbal cues of the
members.

The nature of data obtained through focus groups

It should be noted that though data obtained through these homogeneous group members are the
least expensive of the various data collection methods, and also lend themselves for quick
analysis, the content analysis of the data so obtained provides only qualitative and not
quantitative information. Also, since the members are not selected scientifically to reflect the
opinions of the population at large (see the next chapter on sampling for more details on this),
their opinions cannot be considered to be truly representative. However, when exploratory
information is collected as a basis for further scientific research, focus groups serve an important
function. Consider for example, the value of focus groups in exploring the concept of
“intellectual Property”. When animated discussions take place, there is a serendipitous flow of
new ideas among the group members who discuss the nuances of each thought process.
Researchers are thereby helped to obtain valuable insights from the snowballing effects of the
discussions.

In sum, focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on
the information generated by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys. Focus groups have been
credited with enlightening investigators as to why certain products are not doing well, why
certain advertising strategies are effective, why specific management techniques do not work,
and the like.
Video-conferencing

If regional variations in responses are expected, several focus groups could be

formed including trained moderators at different locations. This process is
easily facilitated through videoconferencing. By zooming in on a particular
member the non-verbal cues and gestures of that individual can be captured, as
and when desired. This also obviates the need for an observer looking through a
one-way mirror.

With the great strides in technological advancement, and with the facility for
communication with the moderator by relaying instant messages,
videoconferencing as a means of gathering information from different groups in
distant locations is indeed a promising prospect for the future.

It should be noted that online focus groups are also common. Email, web sites,
and internet chat rooms facilitate focus group sessions as well.

5.1 Methods of Secondary Data collection

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data
which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the
researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from
where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the
problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. There are
several sources of secondary data, including books and periodicals, government
publications of economic indicators, census data, statistical abstracts, databases,
the media, annual reports of companies, etc.
 obsolete and very old
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For
using secondary data, a special care is required to am3end or modify
for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.