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    Wuolah Free TEMA 10 HIGIENE 1

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    Wuolah Free TEMA 10 HIGIENE 1

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    Wuolah Free TEMA 10 HIGIENE 1

    Uploaded by

    Antonio

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    of 4

    LESSON 10.

    MYCOTOXIN
    DEFINITION

    Mycotoxins are toxic chemical compounds (secondary metabolites) produced by certain fungi
    (molds) growing as contaminants on some food crops (either in the field or during post-harvest
    storage), in particular cereals, nuts and fruit.
    They have a number of adverse effects on health, both in humans and animals, representing a
    serious concern.

    HISTORICAL REPORTS

    - Middle Ages. Ergotism in Europe (St. Anthony's fire, France).


    - XX Century. Alimentary Toxic Aleukia. (Russia, second world war). Yellow rice disease
    in Japan. Balkan endemic nephropathy.
    - 1960s. Severe turkey outbreak in England (>100.000 affected animals). Aspergillus
    flavus produced this mycotoxin and they called it aflatoxin.

    PROPERTIES. MYCOTOXICOSES VS POISONING

    Mold disease (mycotoxicoses): Microscopic fungi (molds): mycotoxins are extracellular toxins
    (exotoxins) produced in contaminated foods which are consumed by humans and animals.

    Poisoning: Poisonous macroscopic fungi (mushrooms): intoxication produced by the


    consumption of mushrooms with intracellular toxins.

    Properties:
    - Mycoses (colonization of living tissues); allergies (direct contact or inhalation of spores)
    - Fungal spores or stipe (stem) can contain mycotoxins.
    - They can be produced during the fungal growth.
    - Thermoresistance (>90ºC): low molecular weight, better diffusion in the mold’s growth
    substrate.
    - Termosensitive (although it is almost impossible to inactivate them completely by means
    of common heat treatments).
    - Chemical compounds of low molecular weight ( 700 g/mol)
    - Highly ionizable and therefore very reactive molecules, producing different toxic,
    mutagenic and carcinogenic effects.
    - Aflatoxins are among the most carcinogenic substances known

    CLASIFICATION

    - Different criteria: biosynthetic origins, chemical structures, their main biological effects…
    - According to their chemical structure,they can be classified in four groups:
    1. Coumarins: Alotoxins and esterigmatocistin.
    2. Lactones: Ochratoxins, patulin and zearalenone.
    3. Sesquiterpenes: Nivalenol, deoxinivalenol, tricotecenes and diacetoxycirpanol.
    4. Polyhydroy amines: Fumonisins.
    INFLUENCING FACTORS:

    - High temperatures (24-30˚C) and humidity (60-90%).


    - Inadequate (poor) hygienic conditions during harvesting, processing, storage and
    distribution of the products.
    - INTRINSIC FACTORS: pH, food composition, activity water.
    - EXTRINSIC FACTORS: type of field, environmental humidity, storage temperature and
    microbial competition.
    Mycotoxin-producing fungi are common in the environment and are frequently present in
    the land and in the air.

    MICROTOXIN-PRODUCING GENERA

    Between30 and 40% of the known fungi are able to produce myctotoxins. Aspergillus,
    Fusarium and Penicillium.

    AFFECTED FOODSTUFF:

    Mycotoxins can enter the food chain in the field, during storage, or at later points. They
    contaminate raw or unprocessed feed and food as well as processed foods.
    Some unprocessed foods susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins are: cereals, oilseeds,
    fruits, vegetables, nuts, dried fruits, coffee beans, cocoa beans and spices.
    Mycotoxins are not destroyed during food processing. For this reason, processed food such
    as cereal-based products (bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, etc.), beverages (wine, coffee,
    beer, juices, etc.), food of animal origin (milk, cheese) and baby foods are important sources
    of exposure to mycotoxins

    MAIN MYCOTOXINS IN FOODS

    - Aflatoxins: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillusparasiticus.


    Aspergillus flavus can grow in foods with aw >0.85. Aflatoxins can be produced between
    12 and 40ºC, being the optimal temperature around 27ºC. Resistance to pasteurization.
    Aflatoxins have been classified by IARC1 as carcinogenic in humans (Group 1). Aflatoxin
    B1 can cause liver cancer. Degree of toxicity and carcinogenicity of aflatoxins: B1> G1>
    B2> G2.
    The estructure: difuran ring and coumarin nucleus.

    - Fusarium toxins: Fusarim graminearum.


    The biotransformation of ZEA in animals involves the formation of two major
    metabolites, α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol (α-ZOL and β-ZOL), α-ZOL shows higher
    estrogenicity than ZEA, but β-ZOL is less estrogenic. ZEA is commonly found in corn but
    can also be found in other cereals such as wheat, barley, sorghum and rye. Whole grains
    appear to be the main source of ZEA metabolites in food and feed.
     DEOXINIVALENOL (DON)
    It is a non-estrogenic toxins (belonging to the group of trichothecenes), the most
    important and frequent is DON, also known as "vomitoxin", which has been associated
    with acute gastrointestinal adverse effects such as vomiting in humans and animals.
    DON levels are significantly higher in wheat bran than in other products derived from
    wheat milling. In processed cereals, DON levels are lower than in unprocessed or semi-
    processed grains (flours).
    The main effects on animals by long-term exposure to DON through diet are nutritional
    disorders and anorexia.
    DON does not appear to be carcinogenic in experimental animals, being classified as
    Group 3 by IARC.
     NIVALENOL
    It belongs to the group of trichothecenes (type B).
    The most important effects of this mycotoxin are immunotoxicity and hematotoxicity,
    although it has not been classified by the IARC as carcinogenic (Group 3).
    Important contributors of nivalenol in the diet are bread, flour products, pasta, bakery
    products and breakfast cereals.

    - Ochratoxin: Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium.


    Group of 10 mycotoxins. Only two of them (A and B) have been isolated from foodstuffs.
    Ochratoxin A: very toxic except for ruminants who metabolize it in alpha-Ochratoxin.
    Temperatures >250ºC and some minutes are needed to reduce their content in foods.
    Classified by IARC as a possible carcinogen in humans (group 2B). It is associated with
    nephrotoxic, teratogenic, immunotoxic and possible neurotoxic properties.
    Long persistence in humans.

    - Patulin: Aspergillus, Penicillium expansum and Byssochylamys.


    It was found while looking for antibiotics. It is an effective antibiotic against gram + and -
    bacteria, but it causes skin irritations, vomiting and diarrhea.
    Not accumulated in the organism, but its consumption in high amount due to the
    consumption of contaminated apple or cider juices can produce acute gastrointestinal
    effects (hyperemia, distension, hemorrhage and ulcer)

    REGULATIONS

    - European Union:
    o Comission Regulation (EC) 1881/2006 setting maximum levels for certain
    contaminants in foodstuffs.This regulation has been amended.
    o Comission Regulation (EC) 401/2006 laying down the methods of sampling and
    analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs
    - International: In addition to the establishment of maximum limits for some mycotoxins,
    there is a Code of Hygienic Practice in the Codex Alimentarius
    - National regulation:
    o RD 475/1988 por el que se establecen los límites máximos permitidos de las
    aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1 y G2 en alimentos para consumo humano.
    o RD 90/2001 métodos de toma de muestra y análisis.

    MECHANISMS OF ACTION

    Mycotoxins can exert multiple actions:


    - Cell wall modifications
    - Inhibition of the respiratory chain
    - Chelation phenomena
    - Inhibition of protein synthesis (more serious consequences)
    CONTROL AND PREVENTION

    1. Prevention of contamination
    – Use of proper agricultural practices; early harvesting (optimal maturation)
    – Temperature (opt 24-30ºC,11-41ºC).
    – Humidity (opt HR=85%, aw min 0.83)
    – Oxygen/agitation (increase mold’s growth)
    – pH=7, min=4
    – Growth substrate: carbohydrates favor mold’s growth.
    – Microbial interactions
    2. Mold destruction
    – Irradiation
    A. flavus does not resist 45 seg with UV light
    Sensitivity to gamma radiations
    – Heat treatments (D60 = 3 min for A. flavus)
    – Antifungal agents: Organic acids and Antibiotics (pimaricin)
    3. Mycotoxins detoxification:
    - Physical degradation
    High temperatures and long treatment periods
    – Chemical degradation
    Ammonia vapours in contaminated cereal grains
    Sodium bisulfite
    – Biological degratation • Aflatoxins: Flavobacterium aurantiacum • Patulin: yeasts

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