BIC401Notes SudhakaraH.M.

A.I.E.T.Mijar

Elements of Cyber Security and IoT

Module-4
Syllabus: Introduction to IoT: Genesis of IoT, IoT and Digitization, IoT Impact, Convergence of IT and
OT, IoT challenges, Smart Objects: Sensors, Actuators, Micro-Electro-Mechanical systems (MEMS),
Smart Objects, Trends in smart objects. Sensor Networks

Introduction to IoT

Internet of Things(IoT).
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects—“things”—that are embedded with
sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices
and systems over the internet.

Basic goal of IoT : “connect the unconnected.”

This means that objects not currently joined to the Internet will be connected so that they can communicate
and interact with people and other objects.
 IoT allow to sense and control the physical world by making objects smarter and connecting them
through an intelligent network.
 Integration between the physical world and computers allows for improvements in efficiency,
accuracy, automation, and the enablement of advanced applications.

GENESIS OF IOT
The IoT started between the years 2008 and 2009. “Internet of Things” is invented by Kevin Ashton. Kevin
quoted as saying: “In the 20th century, computers were brains without senses—they only knew what we told
them.” Computers depended on humans to input data and knowledge. But in the 21st century, computers are
sensing things also.
The evolution of the Internet can be categorized into four phases:

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IOT AND DIGITIZATION

IoT is focused on connecting “things” to Internet.

Example:Wi-Fi location tracking in shopping mall

“things” Wi-Fi devices

Operation Tracking consumer location to understand how much time they

spend in different parts of a mall or store through their smart
phone.
Advantages Changing locations of product displays and advertising, shops,
rent to charge and security positions

Digitization is the conversion of information into a digital format. It is focused on connecting “things” with
its data and business result.

Example: Digitization of Photography

“things” Digital camera

Operation Taking photography of persons, objects and sceneries

Advantages No need retailer to develop film and better capturing of images.

IOT IMPACT
IoT will fundamentally shift the way people andbusinesses interact with their surroundings. Managing
and monitoring smart objectsusing real-time connectivity enables a whole new level of data-driven
decision making. The following figure shows growth in number bof devices connected to the
internet.

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The following examples illustrate some of the benefits of IoT and their impact.
Connected roadways

Transportation challenges can be classified into the three categories:

Challenges IoT enabled technologies enable drivers to avoid crashes.

Reduce number of lives lost each year
Safety IoT enabled technologies enable drivers to avoid crashes.
Reduce number of lives lost each year
Mobility Enable operators and drivers to make informed decisions Reduce travel delays
Communication between vehicles and traffic management optimize routing of
vehicles
Environment Reduces CO2 emissions by reducing travel times
Provides real-time information

Benefits of connected roadways :

i. reduced traffic jams and urban congestion
ii. decreased casualties and fatalities
iii. increased response time for emergency vehicles
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iv. reduced vehicle emissions
IoT applications in connected roadways-
a) Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) - warns a driver (or a self-driving car) when it is not safe to enter an
intersection due to a high probability of a collision.
b) Automated vehicle tracking - a vehicle’s location is used for notification of arrival times, theft prevention,
or highway assistance.
c) Cargo management- provides precise positioning of cargo as it is enroute so that notification alerts can be
sent to a dispatcher and routes can be optimized for congestion and weather.
d) Road weather communications- use sensors and data from satellites, roads, and bridges to warn vehicles of
dangerous conditions or inclement weather on the current route.

A connected car is capable of generating continuous data related to location, performance, driver behavior,
and much more, which will be generated and sent to the cloud.

Fig—connected car
car sensors will be able to interact with third-party applications, such as GPS/maps, to enable dynamic
rerouting to avoid traffic, accidents, and other hazards. Similarly, Internet-based entertainment, including
music, movies, and other streamings or downloads, can be personalized and customized to optimize a road
trip.

Connected Factory
The main challenges facing manufacturing in a factory:
 Accelerating new product and service introductions to meet customer and market opportunities
 Increasing plant production, quality, and uptime while decreasing cost
 Mitigating unplanned downtime (which wastes, on average, at least 5% of production)
 Securing factories from cyber threats
 Decreasing high cabling and re-cabling costs (up to 60% of deployment costs)
 Improving worker productivity and safety

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A convergence of factory-based operational technologies and architectures with global IT networks is
referred to as the connected factory.
Sensors communicate using the Internet Protocol (IP) over an Ethernet infrastructure. They transmit and
receive large quantities of real-time informational and diagnostic data. More IP-enabled devices such as
video cameras, diagnostic smart objects, and even personal mobile devices, are being added to the
manufacturing environment.
For example, a smelting facility extracts metals from their ores. The facility uses both heat and chemicals to
decompose the ore, leaving behind the base metal. This is a multistage process, and the data and controls are
all accessed via various control rooms in a facility.
Example: real-time location system (RTLS).
An RTLS utilizes small and easily deployed Wi-Fi RFID tags that attach to virtually any material and
provide real-time location and status. These tags enable a facility to track production as it happens. These
IoT sensors allow components and materials on an assembly line to “talk” to the network. If each assembly
line’s output is tracked in real time, decisions can be made to speed up or slow production to meet targets,
and it is easy to determine how quickly employees are completing the various stages of production.
Bottlenecks at any point in production and quality problems are also quickly identified.

The IoT wave of Industry 4.0 takes manufacturing from a purely automated assembly line model of
production to a model where the machines are intelligent and communicate with one another. IoT in
manufacturing brings with it the opportunity for inserting intelligence into factories. This starts with creating
smart objects, which involves embedding sensors, actuators, and controllers into just about everything related
to production.

Smart Connected Buildings

Another place IoT is making a disruptive impact is in the smart connected buildings space. In the past several
decades, buildings have become increasingly complex, with systems overlaid one upon another, resulting in
complex intersections of structural, mechanical, electrical, and IT components. Over time, these operational
networks that support the building environment have matured into sophisticated systems; however, for the
most part, they are deployed and managed as separate systems that have little to no interaction with each
other
The function of a building is to provide a work environment that keeps the workers comfortable, efficient,
and safe. Work areas need to be well lit and kept at a comfortable temperature. To keep workers safe, the fire

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alarm and suppression system needs to be carefully managed, as do the door and physical security alarm
systems.
Motion detection occupancy sensors work great if everyone is moving around in a crowded room and can
automatically shut the lights off when everyone has left, but what if a person in the room is out of sight of the
sensor? It is a frustrating matter to be at the mercy of an unintelligent sensor on the wall that wants to turn off
the lights on you.
Similarly, sensors are often used to control the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.
Temperature sensors are spread throughout the building and are used to influence the building management
system’s (BMS’s) control of air flow into a room.

Smart Creatures

One of the most well-known applications of IoT with respect to animals focuses on what is often referred to
as the “connected cow.” Sparked, a Dutch company, developed a sensor that is placed in a cow’s ear. The
sensor monitors various health aspects of the cow as well as its location and transmits the data wirelessly for
analysis by the farmer.
The data from each of these sensors is approximately 200 MB per year, and you obviously need a network
infrastructure to make the connection with the sensors and store the information. Once the data is being
collected, however, you get a complete view of the herd, with statistics on every cow. You can learn how
environmental factors may be affecting the herd as a whole and about changes in diet. This enables early
detection of disease as cows tend to eat less days before they show symptoms. These sensors even allow the
detection of pregnancy in cows.
Another application of IoT to organisms involves the placement of sensors on roaches. cockroaches with
smart devices help emergency personnel rescue survivors after a disaster. An electronic backpack attaches
to a roach. This backpack communicates with the roach through parts of its body. Low-level electrical pulses
to an antenna on one side makes the roach turn to the opposite side because it believes it is encountering an
obstacle.

1.5 CONVERGENCE OF IT AND OT

IT supports connections to the Internet along with related data and technology systems and is focused on the
secure flow of data across an organization.
OT monitors and controls devices and processes on physical operational systems. These systems include
assembly lines, utility distribution networks, production facilities, roadway systems, and many more.

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Differences between IT and OT networks and their various challenges.

Criterion Industrial OT Network Enterprise IT Network

Operational Keep the business operating 24x7 Manage the computers, data, and
focus employee communication system in a
secure way
Priorities 1. Availability 1. Security
2. Integrity 2. Integrity
3. Security 3. Availability
Types of Monitoring, control, Voice, video, transactional, and
data and supervisory data bulk data

Security Controlled physical Devices and users authenticated to

access to devices the network
Implication OT network disruption directly Can be business impacting, depending
of failure impacts business on industry, but workarounds may be
possible
Network Only during operational maintenance Often requires an outage window
upgrades when workers are not onsite
(software or
hardware)

With the rise of IoT and standards-based protocols, the IT and OT worlds are converging or, more
accurately, OT is beginning to adopt the network protocols, technology, transport, and methods of the IT
organization, and the IT organization is beginning to support the operational requirements used by OT. When
IT and OT begin using the same networks, protocols, and processes, there are clear economies of scale. Not
only does convergence reduce the amount of capital infrastructure needed but networks become easier to
operate, and the flexibility of open standards allows faster growth and adaptability to new technologies.
With the merging of OT and IT, improvements are being made to both systems. OT is looking more toward
IT technologies with open standards, such as Ethernet and IP. At the same time, IT is becoming more of a
business partner with OT by better understanding business outcomes and operational requirements.
The overall benefit of IT and OT working together is a more efficient and profitable business due to reduced
downtime, lower costs through economy of scale, reduced inventory, and improved delivery times. When
IT/OT convergence is managed correctly, IoT becomes fully supported by both groups.
IOT CHALLENGES
Table highlights a few of the most significant challenges and problems that IoT is currently facing.
Challenge Description
Scale While the scale of IT networks can be large, the scale of OT can
be severalorders of magnitude larger. Scalability refers to the
ability of a system to handle increasing workloads or numbers of
users without a significant decline in performance. In the context
of the Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge as
the number of connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to
an increased volume of data and communication.
Security With more “things” becoming connected with other “things” and

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people,security is an increasingly complex issue for IoT.
If a device gets hacked, its connectivity is a major
Concern. Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper
measures to protect electronic devices such as computers,
smartphones, and IoT devices from cyber attacks, hacking, data
theft, and unauthorized access. This can happen due to outdated
software, weak passwords, unpatched vulnerabilities, lack of
encryption, and other security risks. It is important to regularly
update the software and implement strong security measures to
ensure the security
Privacy As sensors become more prolific in our everyday lives, much of
the datathey gather will be specific to individuals and their
activities. This datacan range from health information to shopping
patterns and transactionsat a retail establishment. For businesses,
this data has monetary value.To address privacy concerns,
individuals and organizations need to implement appropriate
security measures to protect personal information, be transparent
about how it is being used, and respect individuals’ rights to
control their own information..
Big data and The data generated by IoT devices is also known as big data,
data analytics which comprises both structured and unstructured data. It is
challenging to handle and analyze large data to uncover significant
information that can aid in decision-making because of the
complexity of the data

Interoperability Various protocols and architecturesare used and standardization is

done within IoT. Some ofthese protocols and architectures are
based on proprietary elements, andothers are open. Interoperability
refers to the ability of different IoT systems and devices to
communicate, exchange, and interpret shared data with one
another, regardless of the manufacturer, model, or operating
system

Smart Objects: The “Things” in IoT

Sensors are fundamental building blocks of IoT networks, they are the foundational elements found in smart
objects—the “things” in the Internet of Things. Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded
technology to sense and/or interact with their environment in a meaningful way by being interconnected and
enabling communication among themselves or an external agent.
2.1 Sensors
A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses. More specifically, a sensor measures some physical
quantity and converts that measurement reading into a digital representation. That digital representation is
typically passed to another device for transformation into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent
devices or humans. Naturally, a parallel can be drawn with humans and the use of their five senses to learn
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about their surroundings. Human senses do not operate independently in silos. Instead, they complement
each other and compute together, empowering the human brain to make intelligent decisions. The brain is the
ultimate decision maker.
There are different types of sensors available to measure virtually everything in the physical world and they
are categorized as following:
 Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and
typically require an external power supply (active).or whether they simply receive energy and typically
require no external power supply (passive). Microphone in a cell phone: (Active) and Thermostat in a car:
(Passive) .
 Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part of the
environment it is measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).
 Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require physical contact with
what they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).
 Absolute or relative: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an absolute scale
(absolute) or based on a difference with a fixed or variable reference value (relative).
 Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical where they are
being used.
 How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism used to measure
sensory input (for example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic,
photoelastic).
 What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what physical variables
they measure.

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Most significant accelerator for sensor deployments is mobile phones. More than a billion smart phones are
sold each year, and each one has well over a dozen sensors inside it (see Figure)

Actuators
Actuators are natural complements to sensors. Figure a demonstrates the symmetry and complementary
nature of these two types of devices. Actuators receive some type of control signal (commonly an electric
signal or digital command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion, force, and so on.

Fig a
Humans use their five senses to sense and measure their environment. The sensory organs convert
this sensory information into electrical impulses that the nervous system sends to the brain for processing.
Likewise, IoT sensors are devices that sense and measure the physical world and (typically) signal their
measurements as electric signals sent to some type of microprocessor or microcontroller for additional
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processing. The human brain signals motor function and movement, and the nervous system carries that
information to the appropriate part of the muscular system. Correspondingly, a processor can send an electric
signal to an actuator that translates the signal into some type of movement (linear, rotational, and so on) or
useful work that changes or has a measurable impact on the physical world. This interaction between sensors,
actuators, and processors and the similar functionality in biological systems is the basis for various technical
fields, including robotics and biometrics. This is shown in fig B

Actuators vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on. Some common ways that they can be
classified include the following:
 Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for example,
linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes).
 Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power, low power,
micro power)
 Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state outputs.
 Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical where they are
used.
 Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.

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Whereas sensors provide the information, actuators provide the action. The most interesting use cases for IoT
are those where sensors and actuators work together in an intelligent, strategic, and complementary fashion.
This powerful combination can be used to solve everyday problems by simply elevating the data that sensors
provide to actionable insight that can be acted on by work- producing actuators.

Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform everyday objects
into a network of intelligent objects that are able to learn from and interact with their environment in a
meaningful way. It can’t be stressed enough that the real power of smart objects in IoT comes from being
networked together rather than being isolated as standalone objects. This ability to communicate over a
network has a multiplicative effect and allows for very sophisticated correlation and interaction between
disparate smart objects
The term smart object, despite some semantic differences, is often used interchangeably with terms such as
smart sensor, smart device, IoT device, intelligent device, thing, smart thing, intelligent node, intelligent
thing and intelligent product. A smart object, is described as a device that has, at a minimum, one of the
following four defining characteristics

 Processing unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data, processing and
analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any
actuators, and controlling a variety of functions on the smart object, including the communication
and power systems. The most common is a microcontroller because of its small form factor,
flexibility, programming simplicity, ubiquity, low power consumption, and low cost.
 Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the physical world
through sensors and actuators. A smart object does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In
fact, a smart object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending upon the
application.
 Communication device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object with
other smart objects and the outside world (via the network). Communication devices for smart
objects can be either wired or wireless. Overwhelmingly, in IoT networks smart objects are
wirelessly interconnected for a number of reasons such as cost, limited infrastructure availability
etc.

 Power source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered. Interestingly, the most
significant power consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart object.
Typically, smart objects are limited in power, are deployed for a very long time, and are not easily
accessible. For long-term deployments where smart objects are, for all practical purposes,
inaccessible, power is commonly obtained from scavenger sources (solar, piezoelectric, and so on) or
is obtained in a hybridized manner, also tapping into infrastructure power.

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Trends in Smart Objects

Smart objects vary wildly in function, technical requirements, form factor, deployment conditions, and so on.
There are certain important macro trends that can be infered from recent and planned future smart object
deployments. Of course, these do not apply to all smart objects because there will always be application-
dependent variability, but these are broad generalizations and trends impacting IoT:
 Size is decreasing: As discussed earlier, in reference to MEMS, there is a clear trend of ever- decreasing
size. Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the naked eye. This reduced size makes
smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects.
 Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart object continually
consume less power. This is especially true for sensors, many of which are completely passive. Some
battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years without battery replacement.
 Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller. This is a
key advancement for smart objects, as they become increasingly complex and connected.
 Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that wireless speeds are continually
increasing, but they are also increasing in range. IoT is driving the development of more and more
specialized communication protocols covering a greater diversity of use cases and environments.
 Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the industry to develop
open standards for IoT communication protocols. In addition, there are more and more open source efforts to
advance IoT.

These trends in smart objects begin to paint a picture of increasingly sophisticated devices that are able to
perform increasingly complex tasks with greater efficiency. The power of IoT is truly unlocked when smart
objects are networked together in sensor/actuator networks.
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3.4 Sensor Networks

A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that sense and measure
their environment and/or actuators that act on their environment. The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET
are capable of communicating and cooperating in a productive manner. Effective and well-coordinated
communication and cooperation is a prominent challenge, primarily because the sensors and actuators in
SANETs are diverse, heterogeneous, and resource-constrained.
SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities. Smart homes are a type of SANET that
display this coordination between distributed sensors and actuators. For example, smart homes can have
temperature sensors that are strategically networked with heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
actuators. When a sensor detects a specified temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action and heat
or cool the home as needed.
Advantages:
 Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
 Lower implementation costs
 Easier long-term maintenance
 Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
 Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes
Disadvantages:
 Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
 Typically lower transmission speeds
 Greater level of impact/influence by environment

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

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Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are sometimes referred
to as motes. The fact that there is no infrastructure to consider with WSNs is surely a powerful advantage for
flexible deployments, but there are a variety of design constraints to consider with these wirelessly connected
smart objects. Figure 3-8 illustrates some of these assumptions and constraints usually involved in WSNs.

The following are some of the most significant limitations of the smart objects in WSNs:
 Limited processing power
 Limited memory
 Lossy communication
 Limited transmission speeds
 Limited power
These limitations greatly influence how WSNs are designed, usedd, and utilized. As the cost of sensor nodes
continues to decline, the ability to use sensors becomes increasingly feasible. Because many sensors are very
inexpensive and large number of smart objects are used to get increased accuracy.
Such large numbers of sensors help to ggregate similar sensor readings from sensor nodes that are in close
proximity to each other. Figure shows an example of such a data aggregation function in a WSN where
temperature readings from a logical grouping of temperature sensors are aggregated as an average
temperature reading.

Wirelessly connected smart objects generally have one of the following two communication patterns:

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 Event-driven: Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart object detects a
particular event or predetermined threshold.
 Periodic: Transmission of sensory information occurs only at periodic intervals.
The decision of which of these communication schemes is used depends greatly on the specific application.
For example, in some medical use cases, sensors periodically send postoperative vitals, such as temperature
or blood pressure readings. In other medical use cases, the same blood pressureor temperature readings are
triggered to be sent only when certain critically low or high readings are measured.
Micro-electromechanical system (MEMS)
A MEMS (micro-electromechanical system) is a miniature machine that has both mechanical and
electronic components. The physical dimension of a MEMS can range from several millimeters to less
than one micrometer, a dimension many times smaller than the width of a human hair. The label MEMS
is used to describe both a category of micromechatronic devices and the processes used when
manufacturing them. Some MEMS do not even have mechanical parts, yet they are classified as MEMS
because they miniaturize structures used in conventional machinery, such as springs, channels, cavities,
holes and membranes. Because some MEMS devices convert a measured mechanical signal into an
electrical or optical signal, they may also be referred to as transducer
MEMS are composed of parts such as microsensors, microprocessors, microactuators, units for data
processing and parts that can interact with exterior pieces.
MEMS are often manufactured with the same batch fabrication techniques used to create integrated
circuits (ICs) and many commercial MEMS products are integrated and packaged together with ICs.
MEMS fabrication allows micro-sensors, which gather data, and micro-actuators, which convert energy
into motion, to integrate on the same substrate.
The small system on a chip (SOC) that automatically adjusts screen orientation on a smartphone is an
example of a MEMS many people interact with each day. As MEMS become smaller, require less power
and are less expensive to manufacture, they are expected to play an important part in the wireless
internet of things. Commercial applications of MEMS include:
 Sensor-driven heating and cooling systems for building management systems.
 Micro-mirror arrays for high definition projection systems.
Applications of MEMS sensors:
MEMS pressure sensors
These sensors are used in automotive, industrial, medical, defence and aerospace applications. It also finds
useful application in Washing Machines, Industrial Machinery
MEMS gyroscopes
These detect the angular displacement of an object. MEMS gyros are used for vehicle stability control.

MEMS Accelerometers
MEMS sensors can be used to measure physical parameters such as acceleration. sensors, MEMS
sensors measure frequencies down to 0 Hz (static or DC acceleration). There are two types of MEMS
accelerometers
1.variable capacitive and piezoresistive. Variable capacitive (VC) MEMS accelerometers are lower
range, high sensitivity devices used for structural monitoring and constant acceleration measurements.
2. Piezoresistive (PR) MEMS accelerometers are higher range, low sensitivity devices used in shock and
blast applications.
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