(@bohring - Bot) Mit Fluid
(@bohring - Bot) Mit Fluid
(@bohring - Bot) Mit Fluid
Chapter 6
Fluid Mechanics
So far, our examples of mechanical systems have all been discrete, with some number of
masses acted upon by forces. Even our study of rigid bodies (with a continuous mass distri-
bution) treated those bodies as single objects. In this chapter, we will treat an important
continuous system, which is that of fluids.
Fluids include both liquids and gases. (It also includes plasmas, but for them a proper
treatment requires the inclusion of electromagnetic effects, which will not be discussed here.)
For our purposes, a fluid is a material which can be treated as continuous, which has the
ability to flow, and which has very little resistance to deformation (that is, it has only a
small support for shear stress, which refers to forces parallel to an applied area). Applica-
tions include meteorology, oceanography, astrophysics, biophysics, condensed matter physics,
geophysics, medicine, aerodynamics, plumbing, cosmology, heavy-ion collisions, and so on.
The treatment of fluids is an example of classical field theory, with continuous field
variables as the generalized coordinates, as opposed to the discrete set of variables qi that we
have treated so far. Therefore the first step we have to take is understanding how to make
the transition from discrete to continuum.
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If the equilibrium separation of masses is a and the distance the i’th mass is translated
from equilibrium is ηi , then
kX mX 2
V = (ηi+1 − ηi )2 T = η̇ , (6.1)
2 i 2 i i
where V is the potential energy from the springs, and T is the kinetic energy. It is convenient
to write the Lagrangian as
2 !
1X m 2 ηi+1 − ηi
L=T −V = a η̇ − ka , (6.2)
2 i a i a
and the corresponding equations of motion obtained from the Euler-Lagrange equations as
m η − η η − η
i+1 i i i−1
η̈i − ka 2
+ ka 2
= 0. (6.3)
a a a
Technically both the Lagrangian and the equations of motion are independent of a, but we
have introduced factors of a to facilitate taking the continuous limit a → 0. In this limit
the masses become progressively more densely distributed along the line. The important
question when taking this limit is which quantities do we hold fixed.
Lets define µ ≡ ma
as the mass density and Y = ka as the Young’s modulus. Here Y is
equivalent to the spring constant for a continuous rod. (For a rod, the force F = Y ξ where
ξ is the longitudinal extension per unit length, or in other words, the strain.) We intend to
hold µ and Y fixed when taking the continuous limit.
The key change in the continuous limit is that the discrete position index i becomes a con-
tinuous position label x, so instead of ηi = ηi (t), now ηx = ηx (t), or with more conventional
notation, η = η(x, t). This also means that
η(x + a, t) − η(x, t) ∂η
→ , (6.4)
a ∂x
∂ 2η
1 η (x + a, t) − η(x, t) η(x, t) − η(x − a, t)
− → , (6.5)
a a a ∂x2
X Z
a → dx . (6.6)
i
R
Using these results in Eq. (6.2) gives L = L dx where
2 2 !
1 ∂ η(x, t) ∂η(x, t)
L= µ −Y (6.7)
2 ∂t ∂x
is the Lagrangian density. Likewise, using them in Eq. (6.3) gives the equations of motion
∂ 2η ∂ 2η
µ − Y = 0, (6.8)
∂t2 ∂x2
which we recognize as the wave equation.
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The results for the Lagrange density and Euler Lagrange equations are of course not
indepedent. We can also use
∂η ∂η
L = L η, , , x, t (6.9)
∂x ∂t
with Hamilton’s principle, Z Z t2 ∞
δS = δ L dx dt = 0. (6.10)
t1 −∞
to formulate the dynamics, and thus derive the Euler-Lagrange equations. Because η =
η(x, t) has two parameters, if we follow the standard procedure of varying the path η takes
between the two endpoints, we get variations from the dependence of the Lagrange density
on its first three arguments. Integrating by parts in each of t and x, and setting the surface
terms to zero, then yields
! !
∂ ∂L ∂ ∂L ∂L
+ − =0 (6.11)
∂t ∂ ∂η ∂η
∂t
∂x ∂ ∂x ∂η
as the continuum Euler-Lagrange equation. Recall that for N particles we expect N E-L
equations for the time dependence, but here we have just one equation. However actually
by that counting, this result corresponds to an infinite number of equations, one for each
value of x. From this point of view, the derivatives with respect to x are what couples these
equations together.
anticipated.
In our above analysis, η = η(x, t) is a continuum generalized coordinate called a classical
field. Here t is a parameter and x is a continuous label as well.
Although we have been talking about one dimension so far, it is easy to generalize the
above discussion to a higher number of dimensions. For example, in three dimensions we
simply have dependence on three continuous label parameters, η = η(x, y, z, t) or η = η(r, t).
The field η(r, t) is called a scalar field because the output is a single number. With multiple
dimensions we also have vector fields η(r, t), where the output is a vectors. An example of
vector fields that you are familiar with are the electromagnetic fields E(r, t) and B(r, t). In
fact, classical fields of exactly this sort are also the starting point for formulating quantum
field theory. One formulates a classical Lagrangian density L (that is most often Lorentz
invariant) which depends on fields like the electromagnetic scalar and vector potentials φ(r, t)
and A(r, t). Then one quantizes these fields.
Our description of fluids will make use of classical field variables in 3-dimensions without
considering quantization.
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P
P
Next we balance forces for the wedge at rest. Gravity pulls down, and the volume of the
wedge is dxdydz/2 so the force of gravity is
dx dy dz
Fg = ρg . (6.13)
2
Also by simple trigonometry the area dA of the slanted face can be written in two different
ways
dz dx
dA = dy = dy .
sin(θ) cos(θ)
P1 = P3 . (6.16)
Thus, pressure is the same in all directions. Even if the fluid is moving or even accelerating
we would come to the same conclusion. For example, if we had to balance the force against
acceleration this would lead to adding term
ρa dx dy dz (6.17)
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for acceleration a, which again drops out for an infinitesimal fluid element just like the
gravitational force did.
Time Derivatives:
The total time derivative dtd tells us the rate at which a quantity changes as we move
∂
with a fluid element. The partial time derivative ∂t tells us the rate of change of a quantity
at a fixed position r. We can work out a relation between them.
Example For P
dP ∂P ∂P ∂P ∂P
= + ẋ + ẏ + ż (6.18)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P
= + v · ∇P.
∂t
In general, the time derivative acts as
d ∂
= +v·∇ (6.19)
dt ∂t
on any fluid field (scalar, vector, or tensor) that is a function of (x, y, z, t).
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This means that the change in volume can be determined by adding up all the changes
from integrating over the entire surface
Z Z
dV
= v · dS = ∇ · v dV . (6.21)
dt ∂V V
This result becomes even simpler if we consider an infinitesimal volume δV over which ∇ · v
does not vary, then we can pull ∇ · v outside the integral to obtain simply
dδV
= δV ∇ · v. (6.22)
dt
Thus the divergence of the velocity, ∇ · v, controls how the fluid volume expands with time.
If ∇ · v = 0 everywhere then we say the fluid is incompressible because for every volume
element dV
dt
= 0.
Even if the volume changes, the mass of the fluid element will not,
dδm d
= (ρδV ) = 0. (6.23)
dt dt
∂ρ
+ v · ∇ρ + ρ∇ · v = 0, (6.26)
∂t
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Z Z
∂
dV ρ = − dS n̂ · (ρv) . (6.28)
∂t V ∂V
∂
R R
Here ∂t V
dV ρ is the increase of mass in the volume V , while ∂V dSn̂ · (ρv) is the outflow of
mass through the surface surrounding this volume (which becomes an inflow with the minus
sign).
We’ve talked about ∇ · v thus far, so it’s natural to ask: is there a physical interpretation
to ∇ × v? There is indeed.
The quantity Ω = ∇ × v is the vorticity. If the velocity
is constant or uniform in a single direction ~v = vx (x)x̂,
then its obvious that Ω = 0. To consider what it mea-
sures we can use Stoke’s theorem for the velocity vector
field, Z I
(∇ × v) · n̂ dS = v · dl, (6.29)
S ∂S
where S is now an open surface and ∂S is its closed
boundary curve. We can use this result to determine
when Ω = ∇ × v is non-zero.
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2
v
2. We can use v × Ω = v × (∇ × v) = ∇ 2
− v · ∇v. This gives
∂v v2 ∇P
+∇ +Φ + −v×Ω=0 (6.35)
∂t 2 ρ
as another rewriting of the Euler equation. For constant ρ, we can take the curl and
use the fact that ∇ × (∇h) = 0 for any h to obtain
∂Ω
=∇× v×Ω . (6.36)
∂t
We will have occasion to use this result later on.
To solve the Euler and continuity partial differential equations we need boundary condi-
tions. The boundary conditions for ideal fluids are simply that they cannot penetrate solid
surfaces, so if a surface with normal vector n̂ is stationary then
v · n̂ surface
= 0. (6.37)
If the surface does move then
v · n̂ surface
= vsurface . (6.38)
So far we have four equations (continuity for the scalar density ρ, and the Euler equation
for the vector velocity v) for five unknowns. For an ideal fluid the 5th equation,
dS
= 0, (6.39)
dt
is the statement that the entropy S is conserved, so there is no heat exchange. Effectively,
this provides a relationship between pressure and density through P = P(ρ, S). A simple
example is an ideal gas at constant temperature, where P = ρ R0 T .
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which gives the momentum flux density (which is to say, the density of momentum in the
direction ei flowing in the direction of ej ). Note that Tij is symmetric. Then, in vector form,
the equation above becomes
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · T = f . (6.43)
∂t
This describes the conservation of linear momentum density with sources given by the exter-
nal force densities f . Comparing to the continuity equation where the density ρ is a scalar
so its flux ρv is a vector, here the momentum density ρv is a vector so its flux T is a tensor.
Next consider Conservation of Energy. Conservation of energy can be said to arise from
the Euler equation dv/dt + ∇P/ρ + ∇Φ = 0. Note that here we are switching back to the
total time derivative since this is more useful for our discussion of energy. For a volume
element δV , we take the inner product of the Euler equation with ρvδV to obtain
dv
δV ρ v · + δV v · ∇P + δV ρ v · ∇Φ = 0 . (6.44)
dt
Given that dtd (ρδV ) = 0 by the conservation of mass we can move this combination inside of
total time derivatives. Also recall that v · ∇ = d/dt − ∂/∂t. Using these two facts we obtain
d 1 2 d ∂Φ
ρv δV + (v · ∇P)δV + (ρΦδV ) − ρ δV = 0. (6.45)
dt 2 dt ∂t
Next we try to convert the second term to time derivatives. Consider using
d ∂P
(PδV ) = δV + (v · ∇P)δV + P(∇ · v)δV, (6.46)
dt ∂t
where we recalled that dδV /dt = (∇ · v)δV . Using this to eliminate (v · ∇P)δV gives
d 1 2 ∂P ∂Φ
ρv δV + ρΦδV + PδV = +ρ δ V + P∇ · vδV, (6.47)
dt 2 ∂t ∂t
where 21 ρv2 δV is the kinetic energy, ρΦδV is the external potential energy, and PδV is the
internal potential energy due to pressure. The terms with partial time derivatives act like
sources. Unfortunately there is still a term without a total or partial time derivative, however
this term is easier to interpret. It is related to the work Wu done by δV when it expands
and exerts pressure on the surrounding fluid. In particular
dWu d(δV ) d
=P = P∇ · v δV ≡ − (U δm) (6.48)
dt dt dt
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where in the last step we have defined the work as a negative potential energy U (per unit
mass). If the equation of state is given, this U can be calculated either as an integral in
density or pressure,
Z ρ 0 Z P
P 0 P(ρ )
Z
0 1 dρ
U = d(δV ) = dρ 02
= P 2 dP 0
(P 0 ) dP 0 (6.49)
δm ρ0 ρ P0 ρ
where we used the fixed δm = δV ρ to switch variables between δV and ρ. Using Eq. (6.48)
means we can now write everything in terms of time derivatives,
d 1 2 ∂P ∂Φ
ρv + ρΦ + P + ρU δV = +ρ δV (6.50)
dt 2 ∂t ∂t
This is the equation for energy conservation in an ideal fluid. If P and Φ are not explicitly
dependent on time at any point in space (which is often the case), then any fluid element
has a constant total energy as it moves along (recall that this is the meaning of d/dt). For
applications to fluids it is more convenient to divide this result by δm = ρδV to give
d v2
P 1 ∂ρ ∂Φ
+Φ+ +U = + . (6.51)
dt 2 ρ ρ ∂t ∂t
This is Bernoulli’s equation.
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Example let us pretend the atmosphere is an ideal gas at a uniform constant temperature
T . As P = ρR0 T , then
∂P g
= − 0 P, (6.54)
∂z RT
so gz
P(z) = P0 e− R0 T , (6.55)
and the pressure falls exponentially.
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Example for a horizontal pipe filled with an incompressible fluid (which is approximately
true of water at room temperature) of constant density ρ.
Lets consider the two ends to be at approximately at the same height so we can drop the
term Φ = gz. At the hatched areas shown we know that the flow must be tangential to the
edge of the pipe, so a valid solution is to simply consider the velocities to be uniform and
tangential to the enclosing pipe across each of these areas. Using Bernoulli this implies that
ρv12 ρv 2
+ P1 = 2 + P2 . (6.59)
2 2
Furthermore, the continuity equation for the enclosed areas shown (some sides being those of
the pipe) implies that the flux in at one end must equal the flux out at the other A1 v1 = A2 v2 .
Together this gives
2 !
1 2 A2
P1 = P2 + ρv2 1 − . (6.60)
2 A1
Since A1 > A2 we have v2 > v1 , and this implies P1 > P2 .
Example let us consider a water tank filled to a height z1 with a hole at height z2 < z1 that
produces a jet of water.
Let us assume v1 ≈ 0 (so the tank is much larger than
the hole). Then
1 2
ρv + P2 + ρgz2 = P1 + ρgz1 . (6.61)
2 2
Additionally, P2 = P1 = Patmosphere , so the pressure
terms cancel out, and we can solve for the v2 velocity
to give p
v2 = 2g(z1 − z2 ) . (6.62)
This is the same velocity as that for any mass falling
from rest through a height z1 − z2 . Of course a key
difference for the jet of water is that this velocity is
horizontal rather than vertical.
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Lets discuss two common ways to picture flows. One is through stream lines, which are
lines that are everywhere tangent to the instantaneous velocity, meaning
dx(s)
×v =0 (6.63)
ds
for some parameter s that determines the distance along the streamline. These lines are
drawn at some fixed time and never cross since there is a unique velocity at every point.
When we use the equations in this form we would need to be able to switch from s to the
variable x to uniquely parameterize the curve.
Another method of picturing the flow is through flow lines, which are paths that are
followed by fluid elements, meaning
dx
= v(x, t). (6.65)
dt
Since flow lines are time dependent, they can in general cross since the path a fluid element
takes through a point may differ at a later time.
For a steady flow, the lines are time independent, and stream lines and flow lines are
identical. To prove this we consider the flow line equations dx/dt = vx , dy/dt = vy , and note
that since the velocities are time independent that we can eliminate time through the ratio
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dy/dx = vy /vx (and similar for other directions), which is the equation for the stream lines.
To go the opposite direction we simply pick s = t to parameterize the streamline, and note
that v × v = 0. Furthermore, for a steady fluid we have Bernoulli’s law
v2 P
+Φ+ +U =B (6.66)
2 ρ
Now let us consider a Pitot tube, which is a device used to measure velocity (for example
on airplanes).
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O
a
h
l
If the density is ρa in the air and ρl in the liquid, we can write down the Bernoulli equations
obtained by comparing the air and liquid flows at ∞, the stagnation point o, at the point
s near the surface (where the air velocity is the same as at ∞ and liquid is at rest), and at
the point m at the top of the liquid inside the column. This gives:
1 2
Po = P∞ + ρa v∞
2
1
Ps = P∞ + ρa g(zo + zs )
2
Pm = Po + ρa g(z0 + zs + ∆h)
= Ps + ρl g∆h
Subtracting the 2nd equation from the 1st , subtracting the 4th equation from the 3rd , and
then adding these two results cancels all the pressure terms, and leaves
1 2
ρa v∞ = g(ρl − ρa )∆h. (6.67)
2
This can be rearranged to write
2 ρl ρl
v∞ = 2g − 1 ∆h ≈ 2g ∆h (6.68)
ρa ρa
allowing us to determine the velocity of the air v∞ in terms of the known ratio of densities
ρl
ρa
1 and simply the measured height between the liquid on each side, ∆h.
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which depends only on the endpoints of the integration, and not the path taken between
them, such that
v = ∇φ (6.70)
Since ∇ · v = 0 for an incompressible fluid, then φ must solve Laplace’s equation
∇2 φ = 0 . (6.71)
Solving for the scalar φ (with suitable boundary conditions), then immediately gives v.
We can then use the Euler equation to immediately get the pressure. For Ω = 0 one
form of the Euler equation was
2
∂v v ∇P
+∇ +Φ + = 0. (6.72)
∂t 2 ρ
If ρ is constant, then
∂φ v2
P
∇ + +Φ+ = 0, (6.73)
∂t 2 ρ
so
∂φ v2 P
+ + Φ + = b(t) (6.74)
∂t 2 ρ
for some function b. For each tR we can pick the zero of φ so that b(t) is constant. (This is
t
equivalent to shifting φ → φ + b(t0 ) dt0 , where adding this constant that is independent of
x gives a solution that is equally valid.) The remaining constant b be fixed by a boundary
condition on the pressure. Thus the full pressure as a function of x and t is determined by
P ∂φ v2
=− − − Φ + b, (6.75)
ρ ∂t 2
where in principal the first three terms on the right hand side carry both spatial and time
dependence. Often we are interested in a steady flow, in which case the term ∂φ/∂t = 0.
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Example Consider a sphere of radius R moving with constant velocity u through an incom-
pressible ideal fluid and find its velocity by solving for its velocity potential. Equivalently we
can consider the problem of finding the velocity when a sphere is held at rest and the fluid
flows in from far away with uniform velocity −u at infinity. The first situation is shown in
figure a) and the second as figure b).
a) b)
We use coordinates centered on the sphere, and define the axes so that u = ux̂. The
problem is spherically symmetric other than the directionality from u, so its natural to expect
v ∝ u. Since ∇φ = v this means that we expect φ ∝ u. (Effectively the boundary condition
is linear in u and the equation ∇2 φ = 0 is linear. We could also explicitly demonstrate the
proportionality v ∝ u using dimensional analysis, as we will discuss in more detail later in
this chapter.)
It is actually easier to consider the sphere being at rest with the fluid moving past it as
in b), so lets start with this case. Since ∇2 φ = 0 is linear, we can solve using superposition.
The velocity potential
φ(x) = −ux + φ0 (x) (6.77)
has a term −ux giving the correct uniform flow far away from the sphere. Therefore, with
r the distance from the center of the sphere, we have
Another way to see this is that taking the gradient of Eq. (6.77) gives
v = −ux̂ + v0 , (6.79)
which is simply the translation between the velocity field v for b) and the velocity field v0 for
a). For the situation a) we would anticipate Eq. (6.78) as the correct boundary condition,
since the fluid is at rest at infinity when it is infinitely far away from the disturbance caused
by dragging the sphere. We can look for a solution for φ0 .
As ∇2 φ0 = 0 with limr→∞ φ0 = 0, one option could be φ0 = 1r in 3 dimensions, but this
would give a point source solution with velocity moving radially outward from our sphere
and hence make it impossible to satisfy the appropriate boundary condition on the sphere
(its also not ∝ u). Instead, let us consider a dipole source
0 1
φ = Au · ∇ (6.80)
r
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for some constant A. This proposal is linear in u, and satisfies ∇2 φ0 = 0 for r > 0 since
the derivatives commute: ∇2 φ0 = A(u · ∇)∇2 (1/r) = 0. It remains to compute φ0 and v
explicitly and check that we can satisfy the boundary conditions (and proper dimensions)
with this solution. Since
1 r
∇ = − 3, (6.81)
r r
we have
Au · r
φ0 = − . (6.82)
r3
Moreover,
∇(u · r) = u, ∇r−n = −nr−(n+2) r, (6.83)
so the solution for v0 is
0 A0 3(u · r)r
v = ∇φ = 3 −u + (6.84)
r r2
and we then also have obtained v = −u + v0 . The boundary condition on the surface of the
sphere (which is r = R for case b) where the sphere is at rest) is v · r̂ = 0. This means
Au · rˆ 3Au · r̂
0 = −u · r̂ − + , (6.85)
R3 R3
R3
which has the solution A = 2
. Thus,
R3
3(u · r)r
v = −u + 3 −u . (6.86)
2r r2
This solution has the right dimensions and satisfies the boundary conditions on the sphere
and at infinity.
For steady flow, we can then use Bernoulli’s equation to get the pressure on the sphere,
constant = (P + 21 ρv 2 )r=R = (P + 12 ρv 2 )r=∞ . Squaring our result for the velocity on the
sphere, setting u · r = ur cos θ, and simplifying we find
ρu2
9 cos2 θ − 5 .
P = P∞ + (6.87)
8
This result for the pressure says that it is the same on the front and back of the sphere, since
its unchanged by taking θ → π/2 − θ. This is quite counterintuitive, since we expect a force
on the sphere in b) that would try to push it downstream. This actually results from our
approximation that the fluid is ideal (viscosity can not be neglected when trying to answer
questions near surfaces).
Another possibility is that our approximation of potential flow is suspect. To explore
this, lets ask how common is potential flow? Consider
d dv ∂v
(∇ × v) = ∇ × =∇× + v · ∇v , (6.88)
dt dt ∂t
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The correct treatment of boundary layers near objects and of wakes, does not require
discontinuous solutions of this sort, but instead simply requires the inclusion of viscosity,
which we will turn to shortly, after treating one final important example from ideal fluids.
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from the Euler equation. Now lets add disturbances P 0 and ρ0 to this system
P = P0 + P 0 , (6.92)
ρ = ρ0 + ρ0 , (6.93)
with P 0 P0 and ρ0 ρ0 . These disturbances will induce a velocity field as well, v(r, t),
which we will also assume is small, so that perturbation theory applies. We will therefore
drop terms that are second order or higher in any of {P 0 , ρ0 , v}. Using perturbation theory
on the Euler equation, that is
∂v ∂v
0=ρ + ρ(v · ∇)v + ∇p − f0 = ∇P0 − f0 + ρ0 + ∇P 0 + . . . (6.94)
∂t ∂t
where we have dropped terms ρv · ∇v = O(ρ0 v2 ) and O(ρ0 v). Using f0 = ∇P0 then gives
∂v ∇P 0
=− (6.95)
∂t ρ0
as the Euler equation to 1st order in perturbations. To the same order, continuity says
∂ρ0
= −∇ · (ρv) = −ρ0 ∇ · v. (6.96)
∂t
where we have again dropped second order terms. Finally the appropriate thermodynamic
equation of state is
ρ0
ρ0 = P 0 (6.97)
B
where B is a constant known as the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus describes a substance’s
0
resistance to compression, and this formula arises from B = ρ ∂P∂ρ
≈ ρ0 Pρ0 . Using this result
we can eliminate density ρ0 to get a second equation involving only the pressure and velocity
disturbances,
∂P 0 B ∂ρ0
= = −B∇ · v (6.98)
∂t ρ0 ∂t
Combining Eq. (6.95) and Eq. (6.98) we can derive a differential equation for the pressure
disturbance
∂ 2P 0 ∂v B
2
= −B∇ · = ∇2 P 0 , (6.99)
∂t ∂t ρ0
which can be written more simply as
∂ 2P 0
− c2S ∇2 P 0 = 0 (6.100)
∂ t2
q
which is a wave equation for P 0 , whose solutions move at a velocity cS = ρB0 which is known
as the speed of sound. Due to the simple proportionality from the equation of state we also
immediately know that
∂ 2 ρ0
− c2S ∇2 ρ0 = 0 (6.101)
∂t2
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This means ∇ × v does not explicitly depend on time, so we can conveniently take ∇ × v = 0
initially everywhere, and hence for all times. Using Eq. (6.95) and Eq. (6.98) now gives
0
∂ 2v 1 ∂P B
2
=− ∇ = ∇(∇ · v) (6.103)
∂t ρ0 ∂t ρ0
B
= ∇2 v − ∇ × (∇ × v)
ρ0
B
= ∇2 v ,
ρ0
P 0 = P 0 (r · n̂ − cS t) (6.105)
v0
M= , (6.106)
cS
since the scaling of terms involving ∇ · v will be determined by this ratio. If M 1 then
we can treat flow as approximately incompressible, with ∇ · v = 0.
Considering flows with large values of M leads to the concept of shock waves. Consider a
flow with initial velocity v0 in which there is a disturbance. If M < 1 then the flow is said to
be subsonic, and the perturbation spreads everywhere, because the speed of the perturbation
is larger than that of the flow.
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On the other hand if M > 1, then the disturbance is swept downstream to the right by
the flow, and actually propagates downstream within a cone of angle γ defined by sin(γ) =
cs /v0 = M1 , as shown below.
If we consider a supersonic plane, then we should view this picture the other way around,
where the fluid is static and the disturbance (plane) moves through it, traveling to the left
at faster than the speed of sound. This causes a sonic boom, which is the air pressure wave
given by the dashed lines trailing the plane, which moves at speed cS . (Another example is
thunder, where the rapid increase in temperature of plasma of ions causes rapid air expansion,
making a shockwave.)
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friction terms changes some of our fluid equations. In particular, the continuity equation re-
mains unchanged, while the Euler equations along with the conservation laws for momentum,
energy, and entropy must be modified.
∂vi
To consider this friction we will work to first order in the ∂x j
partial derivatives, treating
these as the most important terms. These derivatives can be arranged into
∂vi ∂vj 2
σij = η + − δij ∇ · v + ζδij ∇ · v (6.107)
∂xj ∂xi 3
to define the viscous stress tensor with elements σij . The constant coefficients of the two
terms are the shear viscosity η and the bulk viscosity ζ, where η > 0 & ζ > 0. The form of
the viscous stress tensor σij is dictated by the fact that it must vanish for constant v and for
uniform rotation v = ω × r where there is no friction. Writing out v = ωx (yẑ − zŷ) + . . . we
see that ∇ · v = 0 and ∂v∂y
z
+ ∂v
∂z
y
= 0, etc., for the uniform rotation, dictating the symmetric
form of the terms in σij . The remaining organizational choice is to let η multiply a traceless
tensor.
Momentum conservation still comes from
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · T = f (6.108)
∂t
where now we include a friction term in the stress tensor to account for the viscous transfer
of momentum. Thus
Tij = Pδij + ρvi vj − σij (6.109)
is the new total stress tensor.
A simple rule for incorporating σij is simply to replace Pδij → Pδij − σij . With this we
can add friction to the Euler equation. In particular we have
∂ ∂
(∇P)i = δki P → δki P − σki , (6.110)
∂xk ∂xk
where we can compute that
∂ ∂ 2v ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
i
σki = η + ∇·v− ∇·v +ζ ∇·v
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xi 3 ∂xi ∂xi
η ∂
= η∇2 vi + ζ + ∇·v. (6.111)
3 ∂xi
Plugging this into the Euler equation yields
∂v ∇P η 2 1 η f
+ (v · ∇)v + − ∇ v− ζ+ ∇(∇ · v) = (6.112)
∂t ρ ρ ρ 3 ρ
which is the Navier-Stokes equation.
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A common case we will study is when f = 0 & ∇ · v = 0, which reduces the Navier-Stokes
equation to
∂v ∇P
+ v · ∇v = − + ν ∇2 v (6.113)
∂t ρ
where
η
ν≡ (6.114)
ρ
is the kinematic viscosity, and the bulk viscosity term has dropped out. The dimensions of
the kinematic viscosity are [ν] = m2 /s, which is simpler than [η] = kg/(ms).
Other useful equations can be derived for the situation where ∇ · v = 0 & ρ is constant.
Taking the divergence of the Navier-Stokes equation removes both the ∂v/∂t term, and the
ν∇2 v term, leaving ρ∇ · [(v · ∇)v] = −∇2 P. Writing this out in components we find
∂ ∂ ∂vi ∂vj
∇2 P = −ρ vi vj = −ρ , (6.115)
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
since ∂vj /∂xj = ∇ · v = 0. This equation can be used to compute the pressure if the velocity
is determined, since it simply acts like a source term. Taking the curl of the Navier-Stokes
equation, and recalling that Ω = ∇ × v we find
∂Ω
− ∇ × (v × Ω) = ν∇2 Ω , (6.116)
∂t
where the algebra to arrive at the terms on the LHS was consider earlier in our discussion
of the Euler equation, and the new pieces is the term on the RHS.
In the presence of viscosity the boundary conditions change from what we had previously.
Molecular forces between the viscous fluid & any surface mean that the fluid adheres to the
surface, and hence that the velocity of the fluid and surface must be the same for both the
tangential and longitudinal components. Therefore the boundary condition for a moving
wall is v = vwall , which also covers the case v = 0 for a wall at rest.
Another important concept is the force exerted by the fluid on a surface. This has a
contribution both from the pressure as well as from the friction. The force per unit area Fi
is given by
Fi = −nj (Pδji − σji ) = −Pni + σij nj , (6.117)
where n̂ is the normal vector pointing out of the surface, and the first term is the pres-
sure acting along this normal vector, while the second is the friction that has tangential
components.
Starting with the Navier-Stokes equation we can also derive a modified form for energy
conservation. Rather than carrying out this derivation explicitly, we will just examine the
final result in integral form, which is a bit more intuitive:
Z I 2
P
Z
∂ 1 2 v ∂ vi
ρv dV = − ρ + vi − vj σji dSi − σij dV . (6.118)
∂t V 2 ∂V 2 ρ V ∂xj
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Here the term on the LHS is the change of the kinetic energy in the volume V with time.
The first integral on the RHS is the energy flux through the closed bounding surface ∂V ,
and the second integral is the decrease in energy that is caused by dissipation. To see this
even more clearly we can consider integrating over the whole fluid with v = 0 at ∞ (or on
∂V ). This removes the flux term and leaves
Z Z 2
∂E ∂ vi ∂vj ∂vi η ∂ vi ∂vj
=− η + dV = − + dV < 0 . (6.119)
∂t V ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj 2 V ∂xj ∂ xi
where we can check the second equality by squaring and manipulating the summed over
dummy indices i and j. Thus we see that friction causes energy to dissipate just as we would
expect (and this also justifies our sign choice of η > 0).
Entropy conservation is modified at temperature T to ρT S˙ = σij ∂x
∂vi
j
, where the left-hand
side of the equation is the heat gain per unit volume, and the right-hand side of the equation
is the energy dissipated by viscosity. (If we allow thermal conduction (from temperature
gradients) in the fluid, then there is another term on the right-hand side that appears as
∇ · (κ∇T ) for conductivity κ.)
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This can be approximated by infinite parallel plates, taking w → ∞ and holding h fixed.
Here
v = vx (y) x,
ˆ (6.121)
∂P ∂P
= = 0. (6.122)
∂y ∂z
Thus the pressure P = P(x) and can have a gradient only in the x̂ direction. Taking the
inner product of Eq.(6.120) with x̂ gives
∂P ∂ 2 vx
= ρν ∇2 vx = η 2 = k , (6.123)
∂x ∂y
2
where we have introduced a constant k. Since ∂P ∂x
only depends on x, while η ∂∂yv2x only
depends on y, they must both be equal to a constant. Let us say ∂P ∂x
= k < 0, so that the
pressure drops as we move in the x̂ direction. (In the Navier-Stokes equation, this pressure
drop balances the viscous stress term.) Then integrating the equation for vx (y) gives
k 2
vx (y) = y + ay + b , (6.124)
2η
where we have introduced two integration constants a and b. To solve for a and b we impose
the boundary conditions that the velocity must vanish at y = 0 and y = h, giving
(−k )
vx (y) = y(h − y) . (6.125)
2η
Recalling that k < 0 we see that vx (y) > 0, flowing down the pipe. (If we had reversed k
the flow would be in the opposite direction.) The velocity field we have derived flows in the
pipe with a parabolic profile with its maximum in the center:
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Lets also calculate the friction force per unit area that the fluid exerts on the pipe wall.
The bottom plate at y = 0 has a unit vector n̂ = ŷ, so from Eq. (6.117) the force along x̂ is
∂vx hk
Fx = σyx = η |y=0 = − > 0. (6.126)
∂y 2
Intuitively this is the direction we expect, the fluid tries to drag the pipe along with it.
Example Lets now consider the same example of fluid between infinite parallel plates, but
now with no pressure gradient. Instead we take the top plate to move with velocity u = ux̂.
Here P = P0 is constant and uniform with k = 0, so the second derivative of vx (y) is zero,
∇2 vx = 0, and the solution for vx (y) can at most be linear. The solution for this case is
vx (y) = uyh
, which satisfies the boundary conditions vx (0) = 0 and vx (h) = u. Thus the
fluids velocity field is linear for this case:
Example Next consider a long cylindrical pipe of radius L, oriented along x̂, again with a
pressure gradient along the pipe. We will approximate the pipe as being infinitely long so
there is a translational symmetry along x.
Due to the translational symmetry we know that v = v(y, z). To fully exploit the conse-
quences of the symmetry it is useful to use cylindrical coordinates (x, r, θ) so we can also
easily impose the rotational symmetry about x̂ to conclude v = v(r). The fact that there is
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r dependence makes sense since we know that v must vanish at the edge of the pipe, r = L,
but we do not want it to vanish everywhere. Continuity and symmetry also imply that the
velocity is only in the x̂ direction, so in fact
v = vx (r)x̂ . (6.127)
For example, consider an annulus shaped closed surface formed by the region between two
cylinders cocentric with the pipe. The flow into and out of this surface must be balanced
by continuity. The flow on the ends of the surface automatically balance each other since v
is independent of x. But since v is r dependent, the only way the flow through the circular
sides can balance each other is if there is no flow in the r̂ direction.
∂
With this setup we can again confirm that (v · ∇)v = vx (r) ∂x vx (r)x̂ = 0, leaving
2
∇P = η∇ v from the Navier-Stokes equation. Taking the inner product with ŷ and ẑ
we see that ∂P
∂y
= ∂∂zP = 0, so P = P(x). Taking the inner product with x̂ gives
∂P(x)
= η ∇2 vx (r) = k (6.128)
∂x
where since ∂P
∂x
depends only on x while η∇2 vx (r) is independent of x, the two must be equal
to a constant k. Again we choose k < 0 to have a pressure gradient that pushes the fluid
down the pipe in the x̂ direction (k > 0 would simply reverse the flow). For the velocity this
gives
1 ∂ ∂ vx k
r = , (6.129)
r ∂r ∂r η
and integrating this gives
k r
vx (r) = r2 + a ln +b (6.130)
4η r0
for some constants a and b. (The constant r0 is introduced to make the equation dimension-
fully correct, but is not independent, since any change to r0 can be compensated by a change
to b). Since vx (r) has to be finite at r = 0 we must have a = 0 (if the geometry excluded
the region at the middle ). The condition vx = 0 at r = L fixes b so that
(−k ) 2
L − r2 .
vx (r) = (6.131)
4η
Lets calculate the discharge rate of fluid in such a pipe, as mass per unit time. This is given
by
Z L
πkL4
discharge rate = ρ 2πrvx (r) dr = − > 0. (6.132)
0 8ν
Note that this rate is quite sensitive to the radius, being proportional to L4 . This is why
you don’t want narrow blood vessels.
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Here h and g are a dimensionless vector and scalar function respectively. The ratio r/L
is dimensionless, as is R, and the dimensions of u and P are compensated by u and ρu2
respectively. Note that if we consider flows that have the same R, then the properties of
those flows are related by changes to the scales associated with v, r, or P. Such flows are
called similar.
Example Consider a viscous flow past a sphere of radius a with initial velocity given by
limx→−∞ v = ux̂. Here the Reynolds number is R = ua ν. If we double ν and double u then R
is unchanged. Due to the relations in Eq. (6.134) we thus can predict that we will have the
exact same form for the solutions with v twice as large as before, and P being four times as
large as before.
Note that in general other dimensionless ratios, like the ratio of two length scales, or the
Mach number M = cuS could also appear. (For M 1 we treat the fluid as incompressible
and neglect M for the dimensional analysis.) To determine how many independent dimen-
sionless ratios can be formed for the analysis of a general dimensional analysis problem, one
counts the number of variables and subtracts the number of unrelated types of dimensions
that appear in these variables. For most fluid problems this will mean subtracting three for
kg, meters, and seconds.
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Here n = −3 is a particular solution to the full inhomogeneous equation with C−3 = k/2.
Also n = 0 and n = −5 are homogeneous solutions where the LHS vanishes, and the
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ka3 a2
g(r/a) = 1 − . (6.149)
2r3 r2
Using Eq. (6.144) and integrating once we find that
ka ka3
f (r/a) = + 3, (6.150)
2r 6r
where we have set the integration constant to zero to satisfy the boundary condition at
r = ∞. The final boundary condition, f (1) = 1 then requires us to take the constant
k = −3/2. Note that this fixes the constant k that appeared in the vorticity Ω and in the
pressure P. All together we have that the final solution for the velocity is
3a a3 3a3 r(u · r) a2
v =u 1− − 3 − 3 1 − . (6.151)
4r 4r 4r a2 r2
The flow looks like:
Next we turn to determining the drag force on the sphere. In general the drag force on
an object in the direction j is given by an integral of the force per unit area over the surface,
Z
FDj = dSi (Pδij − σij ) . (6.152)
∂V
Lets take the inflowing velocity to be in the x̂ direction, v(r → ∞) = ux̂. Then FD · x̂
will be the drag force on our sphere in the direction of the bulk fluid flow. With spherical
coordinates (r, θ, φ) where θ is the polar angle, we have dS = r̂a2 d cos θdφ with r = a, as
well as r̂ · x̂ = cos θ and θˆ · x̂ = − sin θ. Thus
Z
2
x̂ · FD = a dcos θ dφ − P cos θ + σrr cos θ − σrθ sin θ . (6.153)
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∂vr 1 ∂v
r ∂vθ vθ 3η
σrr = 2η = 0, σrθ = η + − =− u sin θ ,
∂r r=a r ∂θ ∂r r r=a 2a
3η
P = P0 − u cos θ . (6.154)
2a
3ηu Z
x̂ · FD = dcos θ dφ a2 = (6πηa)u , (6.155)
2a
which is the famous Stoke’s formula for the viscous (friction) drag force on a sphere. (Note
that we could have obtained the factor of ηau by dimensional analysis.)
In addition to drag forces like this, that point in the direction of the fluid flow, objects
may also experience lift forces that are tangential to direction of the fluid flow. Such forces
occur for wing-shaped objects and are important for many physical phenomena, including
lift on airplanes.
Dynamic Vortices and Turbulence
For our flow about the fixed sphere, lets consider what happens as we increase R. From
our analysis above it is clear that at some point the non-linear v · ∇v term we dropped
will become important. The ∂v/∂t will also become important, with flows that are more
dynamical, changing with time. Lets consider how the flow appears for various values of R:
• For R ≈ 1, the flow is still like Stokes flow, but the stream lines are no longer as
symmetric, with a more clear wake developing behind the sphere.
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• For 10 . R . 100, detached vortices called eddies form behind the sphere, though
the flow is still steady. Note that directly behind the sphere between the vortices
that the fluid is now flowing in the opposite direction to the asymptotic inflow u.
As R increases, the flow becomes looses its steady nature, with the time dependence
emerging by having through oscillations of the vortices.
• For 150 . R . 1000, vortices start to be cyclically shed and drift downstream in a
wake behind the sphere. This time dependent solution appears like it has interaction
between the eddies, where one pair pushes the next downstream.
• For 103 . R . 2 × 105 , the wake becomes highly irregular, exhibiting a phenom-
ena known as turbulence which we will discuss in more detail below. Here there are
unsteady, interacting vortices at all length scales.
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• For R & 2×105 , the turbulent wake narrows and the boundary layer around the sphere
is no longer laminar, also becoming turbulent.
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CHAPTER 6. FLUID MECHANICS
that were parabolic, while in contrast a turbulent flow will be non-uniform at small scales,
but when averaged causes a more uniform flow down the pipe at larger length scales.
In general the chaotic and irregular nature of turbulence makes it difficult to treat with
analytic methods, and a complete description of turbulence remains an unsolved problem.
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