Short-Term Memory, Working Memory, and Attention
Short-Term Memory, Working Memory, and Attention
Short-Term Memory, Working Memory, and Attention
Working Memory,
and Attention
Lecture 17
1
Perception and Memory
2
The Multi-Store Model of Memory
After Waugh & Norman (1965); Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
Rehearsal
Sensory Registers
Short-Term Memory
Encoding
Attention
Long-Term Memory
Retrieval
Pattern Recognition 3
Alternative Terminologies in
the “Modal Model” of Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968); Waugh & Norman (1965), after James (1890)
• Sensory Registers
– Sensory Memory, Sensory Store
• Short-Term Memory
– Primary Memory
– Working Memory
• Long-Term Memory
– Secondary Memory
4
Sensory Registers
• One (or More) per Sensory Modality
– Icon, Echo
• Unlimited Capacity
• Veridical Representation of Sensory Input
– Precategorical
• Transfer to Short-Term Memory
• Forgetting via Decay or Displacement
5
The Sperling Experiment
Sperling (1960)
• Visual Presentation
• 3x4 Array of Letters
• Retention Interval X M R J
– 0-1 sec C N K P
• Whole Report V F L B
• Partial Report
6
Retrieval from the Icon
Sperling (1960)
12
10
# Items Available
8
6
4
2
0
Before 0 0.1 0.3 1 Whole
Delay of Tone (secs)
7
The Function of the Icon?
Haber (1983)
8
Properties of Short-Term Memory
Miller (1956)
• Acoustic Recoding
– Verbal Rehearsal
• Limited Capacity
– “The Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2”
• Maintained by Rehearsal
• Transfer to Long-Term Memory
– Passive Storage
• Forgetting via Decay or Displacement
9
Digit-Span Test
10
Digit-Span Test
1. 590
2. 4861
3. 73094
4. 249658
5. 1468245
6. 39215760
7. 625739184
8. 0638941725
11
An Alphabetical “Digit-Span” Test
12
Chunking
After Rado & Ragni (Hair, 1967)
YSPBCUJBLDSLBGKAICIBF
FBICIAKGBLSDLBJUCBPSY
13
Properties of Long-Term Memory
14
The Serial-Position Effect
• Recency Effect
– Retrieval from STM 15
Effect of Spacing on the
Serial-Position Effect
16
Effect of Retention Interval on the
Serial-Position Effect
17
Amnesia and Short-Term Memory
(Wickelgren, 1968)
Patient H.M.
Medial Temporal Lobes
Hippocampus, Mammillary Bodies
18
Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
Revisited
Shallice & Warrington (1970)
Patient K.F.
Left Parieto-Occipital Area
19
Working Memory
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
20
Working Memory
Baddeley, 1986
Visuo-Spatial
Phonological
Sketchpad
Central
Loop
Executive
Buffer
21
Attention
Links Perception and Memory
James (1890)
22
Dichotic Listening
Cherry (1953)
23
Filter Model of Attention
After Broadbent (1958)
Effectors
Output System
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term Memory
24
Problems with the Filter Model
• Moray (1952)
– Attention to One’s Own Name
• Treisman (1960)
– Shift Shadowed Message Between Ears
• Preattentive Semantic Analysis
– Can Go Beyond Physical Structure
25
Late- and Early Selection Compared
S1
S2 Semantic
Analysis
Physical
A S3
Analysis
S4
Early Selection
S5
S1
S2
Physical Semantic
B S3
Analysis Analysis
S4
Late Selection
S5
26
Persisting Problem:
Extent of Preattentive Processing
27
Capacity Theory of Attention
Kahneman (1973)
30
Automatic vs. Controlled Processes
After LaBerge & Samuels (1974); Posner & Snyder (1975);
Schneider & Shiffrin (1977); Schiffrin & Schneider (1977)
• Inevitable Evocation
• Incorrigible Completion (Ballistic)
• Efficient Execution
• Parallel Processing
• Unconscious in the Strict Sense of the Term
– Operate Outside Phenomenal Awareness
– Operate Outside Voluntary Control
31
Memory: Encoding Processes
Lecture 18
1
Taxonomy of Knowledge
Stored in Memory
Declarative
Procedural
Directions for Action Factual Statements
2
Declarative Knowledge
• Episodic
– Autobiographical Memory
– Factual Knowledge About Personal Experiences
• Spatio-Temporal Context
• Self-Reference
• Semantic
– Mental “Dictionary” or “Encyclopedia”
– Abstract, Conceptual Knowledge about the World
5
Taxonomy of Knowledge
Stored in Memory
Declarative
Procedural
Directions for Action Factual Statements
6
Stage Analysis of Memory
Anger Mountain
Bread Needle
Cold Rough
Foot Slow
Girl Spider
King Thief
11
Research Strategy
for the Study of Memory
• Each List, and Each Word on the List,
Represents an Episode of Experience
• Vary Conditions at Some Stage of
Processing
– Encoding
– Storage
– Retrieval
• Observe Effects on Subject’s Ability to
Remember the List Items 12
The Encoding Phase
of Memory Processing
• Assume that a Subject has Just
Experienced an Event
• How Does a Mental Representation of
that Event get Stored in Memory?
13
The Role of Rehearsal
in Encoding Long-Term Memory
• Memory as a Product of Perception
• Traditional Associationism
– Thorndike (1898)
• Law of Exercise
– Stimulus-Response Associations Strengthened by Use
– Ebbinghaus (1885)
• Law of Repetition
– Retention a Function of Repetition
14
Nonsense-Syllable Paradigm
Ebbinghaus (1885)
1600
Relearning Time (secs)
1200
800
400
0
0 8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Repetitions at Original Encoding
16
The Role of Rehearsal
Craik & Watkins (1975)
17
Study List
Craik & Watkins (1975)
peas punt
chair radio
potato music
book spiral
egg position
cat bell
window parking
18
Repetition and Recall
Craik & Watkins (1972, Exp. 1)
30
25
% Recalled
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 12
Number of Repetitions During Encoding
19
Two Types of Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal
– Rote rehearsal
– Maintains representation in highly active
state
– Maintains representation in short-term
primary/working) memory
• Elaborative Rehearsal
– Links representation to other knowledge
– Encodes representation in long-term
(secondary) memory
20
“Depth of Processing” Paradigm
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Target: TROUT
• Structural (Orthographic)
– Is the word printed in capital letters?
– Does the word contain the letter “e”?
– How many vertical lines are in the word?
• Phonemic (Acoustic)
– Does the word rhyme with weight?
• Semantic (Conceptual)
– Is the word a type of fish?
• Sentence (Linguistic)
– Would the word fit the sentence:
21
He met a man in the _____?
The Depth of Processing Effect
Craik & Tulving (1975), Exp. 1
100
Proportion Recognized
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Structural Phonemic Category Sentence
Orienting Task
22
The Elaboration Principle
Memory is a function of
the degree to which an event
is related to pre-existing knowledge.
23
Two Modes of Processing
at Encoding
• (Rote) Rehearsal
– Recirculating/Refreshing items
– Primary/Short-Term Memory
• Elaboration
– Processing individual items
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory
Foot Elephant
Lion Amber
Blouse Mouth
Orange Rat
Finger Tie
Coat Purple
25
Category Clustering in Free Recall
Bousfield & Cohen (1953)
6 40
35
5
30
25
Clustering
3 20
Recall
15
2
10
1
5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Trial
26
A List of Associates
Promoting Associative Clustering
Boy Chair
Black Short
Table Girl
Long White
Eagle Blossom
Flowers Bird
27
A List of ‘Unrelated” Words
Promoting Subjective Organization
After Tulving (1962)
IRON
TABLE
DOG
PEPPER
BLUE
WINDOW
BOY
STARS
28
The Organization Principle
Memory is a function of
the extent to which
individual events are related to each other.
29
Organization and Elaboration
Compared
• Elaboration
– Item-Specific (Intra-Item) Processing
• Organization
– Relational (Inter-Item) Processing
• Both reflect “Effort after meaning”
• F.C.Bartlett (1932)
– Make sense of what is happening
– Relate what is new to what is already known
30
Three Modes of Processing
at Encoding
• Rote Rehearsal
– Recirculating/Refreshing Items
– Primary/Short-Term Memory
• Elaboration
– Processing Individual Items
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory
• Organization
– Relating Items to Each Other
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory 31
Memory:
Storage and Retrieval
Lecture 19
1
The Storage Phase
of Memory Processing
Forgetting
2
Retention as a Function of Time
Ebbinghaus (1885)
100
Savings in Relearning (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0.33 1 8.8 24 48 144 744
3
The Time-Dependency Principle
Setting Aside…
Reminiscence
Hypermnesia
4
Four Hypotheses Concerning
Time-Dependency
• Decay
– Memories “Fade” with Time
• Displacement
– Loss from Storage
• Consolidation
– Encoding Takes Time
• Interference
– Failure of Retrieval
5
Four Factors in Time-Dependency
• Decay
– Sensory Registers
• Displacement
– Sensory Registers
• Masking in “Subliminal” Perception
– Short-Term Memory
• Consolidation
– Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
• Interference
– Long-Term Memory (Episodic or Semantic) 6
Law of Regression
Ribot (1882)
7
Memory Temporal Gradient in Memory
Time
8
Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
Following “Cerebral Shock”
Memory
Time
9
ECT and Retrograde Amnesia
Squire & Chase (1975)
80
70
60
% Correct
50
ECT
40
No ECT
30
20
10
0
57-64 65-66 67-68 69-70 71-72
Time Period
11
Recovery from
Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
Memory
Time
12
“Final” Residual Amnesia
Following Recovery
Memory
Time
13
Two Kinds of Consolidation?
• Short-Term
– Byproduct of Encoding
– Occurs within Seconds of Event
– Disruption Causes Anterograde Amnesia
• Long-Term
– Persists After Initial Encoding
– Transpires Over Longer Periods of Time
• Facilitated by Sleep
– Disruption Causes Retrograde Amnesia
14
Interference
1.6
Response Latency (secs)
True False
1.2 Facts
1
0.8 2
3
0.4
0
Targets Locations Targets Locations
Item Type
17
The Time-Dependency Principle
Restated
Retroactive
Proactive
18
Availability vs. Accessibility
• Availability of memory
– In Storage
– Impaired by Decay, Displacement,
Consolidation Failure
• Accessibility of memory
– At Retrieval Attempt
– Impaired by Interference
19
Availability vs. Accessibility
20
The Retrieval Phase
of Memory Processing
21
Memory Tests
• Free Recall
– Query Specifies Spatiotemporal Context
• What were the words on the last list studied in class?
• Cued Recall
– Query Adds Information About Target
• What were the color words on that list?
• Recognition
– Query Contains a Copy of the Target
• Was orange one of the words on that list ?
22
Free Recall, Cued Recall,
and Recognition
Tulving & Watkins (1975)
100
80
% Remembered
60
40
20
0
Free Cued Recognition
Type of Test
23
The Cue-Dependency Principle
24
Interactions Between
Encoding and Retrieval Processes
Foot Elephant
Lion Amber
Blouse Mouth
Orange Rat
Finger Tie
Coat Purple
26
The Encoding Specificity Principle
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
27
State-Dependent Memory
Overton (1964)
28
State-Dependent Memory Paradigm
After Overton (1964)
Retrieval Condition
Encoding No Drug Drug
Condition
No Drug +++ -
Drug - +
29
Ritalin Drug-Dependent Memory
in Children with ADHD
Swanson & Kinsbourne (1976)
% Errors During Relearning
25
20
Learning
15 Drug
No Drug
10
0
Drug No Drug
Relearning Condition
30
Magnitude of Drug-Induced
State-Dependent Memory in Humans
Eich (1980)
25
20
Test
% Correct
15 Happy
10 Sad
5
0
Happy Sad
Encoding Mood
32
Environment-Dependent Memory
Godden & Baddeley (1975)
40
30 Study
% Recalled
Land
20
Water
10
0
Land Water
Retrieval Condition
33
Context-Dependent Memory
• Episodic Context
– Time, Place
– Features of External Environment
– Features of Internal Environment
• Physiological State
• Emotional State
• Motivational State?
• Psychoactive Drugs Impair Cognition
• Context Effects are Cue-Dependent
– Overshadowed by Other Cues 34
Context-Dependency
and Encoding Specificity
• Encoding
– Sets the Stage for Retrieval
• Retrieval
– Recapitulates Encoding Processes
• Congruent Conditions
– Facilitates Match with Trace
• Incongruent Conditions
– Cue Information Mismatches Trace
– Forgetting as Failure of Access 35
The Reconstruction
of the Past
Lecture 20
1
Knowledge and Memory
• Semantic Memory
– Generic Knowledge, Beliefs
• Abstract
• Episodic Memory
– Particular Experiences and Behaviors
• Specific Events
3
Phase 1:
Study Trait Ensemble
Judy is:
• Intelligent
• Intellectually Sophisticated
• Artistically Sensitive
• Refined
• Imaginative
• Witty
4
Unitary Impression as Schema
Bartlett (1932)
5
Phase 2: Study Behaviors
• Schema-Congruent
– p(behavior | schema) > p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy won the chess tournament.
• Judy attended the symphony concert.
• Schema-Incongruent
– p(behavior | schema) < p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy made the same mistake three times.
• Judy was confused by the daytime television show.
• Schema-Irrelevant
– p(behavior | schema) = p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy ordered a sandwich for lunch.
• Judy took the elevator to the third floor. 6
Schema-Congruence and Memory
Hastie & Kumar (1979)
0.6
Proportion Recalled
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Congruent Irrelevant Incongruent
7
The Schematic Processing Principle
8
Two Processes in Schema-Dependency
• Schema-Congruent Behaviors
– Easily Encoded
– Schema Provides Retrieval Cues
• Cue-Dependency
• Schema-Incongruent Behaviors
– Must Be Explained
– Explanation Requires Processing
• Elaboration
• Schema-Irrelevant Behaviors
– Receive Neither Benefit 9
The Schematic Processing Principle
Expanded
12
Memory as Reproduction
(ever since Ebbinghaus)
13
Memory as Narrative
Bartlett (1932)
15
The War of the Ghosts
Native American Folktale Collected by Franz Boas
Bartlett (1932)
One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt
seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm.
Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: “Maybe this is a war-party”.
They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log.
Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one
canoe coming up to them.
There were five men in the canoe, and they said: “What do you think? We
wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the
people”.
One of the young men said: “I have no arrows”.
“Arrows are in the canoe”, they said.
“I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I
have gone. But you”, he said, turning to the other, “may go with them”.
So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. 16
The War of the Ghosts, continued
And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of
Kalama. The people came down to the water, and they began to fight,
and many were killed.
But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: “Quick, let us
go home: that Indian has been hit”.
Now he thought: “Oh, they are ghosts”. He did not feel sick, but they said
he had been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his
house, and made a fire.
And he told everybody and said: “Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and
we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those
who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel
sick”.
He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down.
Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted.
The people jumped up and cried.
He was dead. 17
Memory Errors
in The War of the Ghosts
Bartlett (1932)
• Errors of Omission
– Progressive Forgetting
• Gist vs. Minor Details
– Unexpected Details
• Errors of Commission
– Rationalization
– Transformation of Detail
– Transformation of Order
18
Memory as Reconstruction
Bartlett (1932)
20
Eyewitness Memory Paradigm
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
21
Imagine That You’re a Bystander
Watching the Following Scenes
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Now, For Some Questions
50
Visual Recognition Test
51
What Did You See?
52
What Did You See?
53
What Did You See?
Correct
B
54
What Did You See?
Correct
A
55
Post-Event Misinformation Effect
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
Question
Stimulus Yield Sign Stop Sign
Yield Sign Nonleading Misleading
Stop Sign Misleading Nonleading
57
Correct Recognition of Sign
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
100
90
80
% of Subjects
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Nonleading Misleading
Wording of Question
58
Post-Event Misinformation Effect
59
The “Needle” List
Roediger & McDermott (1995), after Deese (1959)
Thread
Pin Haystack
Eye Thorn
Sewing Hurt
Sharp Injection
Point Syringe
Prick Cloth
Thimble Knitting
60
The Associative Memory Illusion
Roediger & McDermott (1995)
1
Proportion Recognized
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Studied Items Critical Lures Unrelated Lures
Item Type
61
Semantic Associates of Needle
Thread
Pin
Eye
Sewing
Sharp
Point
Needle Prick
Thimble
Haystack
Thorn
Hurt
“Forward” Injection
Associations Syringe
Cloth
Knitting
62
Inducing the Associative Memory Illusion
Thread
Pin
Eye
Sewing
Sharp
Point
Needle
Prick
Thimble
Haystack
Thorn
Hurt
Injection
“Backward”
Syringe
Associations
Cloth
Knitting
63
Illusions in Perception and Memory
• Perceptual Illusions
– Perceive the Present Inaccurately
• Systematic Distortion, Bias
– Product of Constructive Activity
• “Going Beyond the Information Given” in Stimulus
• Memory Illusions
– Remember the Past Inaccurately
• Systematic Distortion, Bias
– Product of Reconstructive Activity
• “Going Beyond the Information Given” in Trace
64
Implications of the
Reconstruction Principle
65
Seven (Plus or Minus Two)
Principles of Memory
• Encoding • Retrieval
– Elaboration – Cue-Dependency
– Organization • Availability vs. Accessibility
• Explicit Memory
– Conscious Recollection of Past Event
• Recall, Recognition
• Implicit Memory
– Change in Experience, Thought, Action
• Attributable to Past Event
• Dissociation
– Explicit Memory Impaired
– Implicit Memory Spared
67
“Guessing Game”
• Word-Stem Completion
I’m thinking of a word that begins with these three
letters. Can you fill in the blanks?
Ash_____ Bel_____
Cle_____ Exp_____
• Word-Fragment Completion
I’m thinking of a word that has these letters in it.
Can you fill in the blanks?
D___k F_l__w
68
Memory in the Amnesic Syndrome
After Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)
1
Proportion of Targets
0.9
0.8
0.7 Group
0.6 Controls
0.5
Amnesics
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Free Recall Recognition Completion
Memory Test
69
Priming as Implicit Memory
70
Unified View of Perception, Memory
• Constructive Activity in Conscious Cognition
– Perceptual Construction
• Builds Up Representation of Present Experience
– Memory Reconstruction
• Builds Up a Representation of Past Experience
• Unconscious Cognition
– Implicit Perception
• “Subliminal” Perception
– Implicit Memory
• Priming Effects in Amnesia
– and “Subliminal” Perception 71