Short-Term Memory,

Working Memory,
and Attention
Lecture 17

1
 Perception and Memory

• Perception Draws on Memory

– Permanent Repository of World-Knowledge
– Momentary Expectations
• Perception Changes Memory
– Memory “Trace”
• Mental Representation of Stimulus
• Persists After Termination of Stimulus

2
The Multi-Store Model of Memory
After Waugh & Norman (1965); Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Rehearsal
Sensory Registers

Short-Term Memory
Encoding
Attention
Long-Term Memory

Retrieval

Pattern Recognition 3
 Alternative Terminologies in
the “Modal Model” of Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968); Waugh & Norman (1965), after James (1890)

• Sensory Registers
– Sensory Memory, Sensory Store
• Short-Term Memory
– Primary Memory
– Working Memory
• Long-Term Memory
– Secondary Memory

4
 Sensory Registers
• One (or More) per Sensory Modality
– Icon, Echo
• Unlimited Capacity
• Veridical Representation of Sensory Input
– Precategorical
• Transfer to Short-Term Memory
• Forgetting via Decay or Displacement

5
 The Sperling Experiment
Sperling (1960)

• Visual Presentation
• 3x4 Array of Letters
• Retention Interval X M R J

– 0-1 sec C N K P

• Whole Report V F L B
• Partial Report

6
 Retrieval from the Icon
Sperling (1960)

12
10
# Items Available

8
6
4
2
0
Before 0 0.1 0.3 1 Whole
Delay of Tone (secs)

7
 The Function of the Icon?
Haber (1983)

Iconic memory may only be useful

for reading a book in a lightning storm.

8
 Properties of Short-Term Memory
Miller (1956)

• Acoustic Recoding
– Verbal Rehearsal
• Limited Capacity
– “The Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2”
• Maintained by Rehearsal
• Transfer to Long-Term Memory
– Passive Storage
• Forgetting via Decay or Displacement
9
 Digit-Span Test

Read List of Digits

Write Them Down After I Stop

10
 Digit-Span Test

1. 590
2. 4861
3. 73094
4. 249658
5. 1468245
6. 39215760
7. 625739184
8. 0638941725
11
An Alphabetical “Digit-Span” Test

Read List of Letters

Write Them Down After I Stop

12
 Chunking
After Rado & Ragni (Hair, 1967)

YSPBCUJBLDSLBGKAICIBF
FBICIAKGBLSDLBJUCBPSY

13
 Properties of Long-Term Memory

• Passive Repository of Knowledge

– Enables Pattern Recognition
• Essentially Unlimited
• Retrieval
– Copies information into short-term store

14
 The Serial-Position Effect

• Single-Trial Free Recall

• Retention as a Function of Serial Position
– Bowed Curve
• Primacy Effect
– Retrieval from LTM

• Recency Effect
– Retrieval from STM 15
Effect of Spacing on the
Serial-Position Effect

16
Effect of Retention Interval on the
Serial-Position Effect

17
 Amnesia and Short-Term Memory
(Wickelgren, 1968)

Patient H.M.
Medial Temporal Lobes
Hippocampus, Mammillary Bodies

• Normal Digit Span

– Normal Short-Term Memory
• Impaired Free Recall After Distraction
– Impaired Long-Term Memory

18
 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
Revisited
Shallice & Warrington (1970)

Patient K.F.
Left Parieto-Occipital Area

• Impaired Digit Span

– Impaired Short-Term Memory
• Normal Free Recall of 10-Item Lists
– Normal Long-Term Memory

19
 Working Memory
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

• Not a Route to Long-Term Memory

• Maintains Item in Active State
– While Work is Being Performed

20
 Working Memory
Baddeley, 1986
Visuo-Spatial

Phonological
Sketchpad

Central

Loop
Executive

Buffer
21
 Attention
Links Perception and Memory
James (1890)

“Every one knows what attention is. It is the taking

possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of
one out of what seem several simultaneously
possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization,
concentration, of consciousness are of its
essence. It implies withdrawal from some things
in order to deal effectively with others….”

22
 Dichotic Listening
Cherry (1953)

• The “Cocktail-Party” Phenomenon

• Shadowing
• Memory for Unattended Channel
– Switch in Language
– Switch Between Forwards and Backwards
+ Switch Between Male and Female Voice

23
Filter Model of Attention
After Broadbent (1958)
Effectors

Output System

Short-Term
Memory

Long-Term Memory

24
 Problems with the Filter Model

• Moray (1952)
– Attention to One’s Own Name
• Treisman (1960)
– Shift Shadowed Message Between Ears
• Preattentive Semantic Analysis
– Can Go Beyond Physical Structure

25
 Late- and Early Selection Compared
S1

S2 Semantic
Analysis
Physical
A S3
Analysis
S4
Early Selection
S5

S1

S2
Physical Semantic
B S3
Analysis Analysis
S4
Late Selection
S5
26
 Persisting Problem:
Extent of Preattentive Processing

• Analysis Without Conscious Attention

– Limited to Physical Structure?
– Extends to Semantic Meaning?
• Debate over Subliminal Perception
– Is Subliminal Perception Limited to
Analyses of Physical Structure?

27
 Capacity Theory of Attention
Kahneman (1973)

• Attention = Mental Effort

– Arousal
• Cognitive Resources are Limited
• Attention and Task Demands
– Demanding: Controlled Processing
• Require Allocation of Attentional Resources
– Undemanding: Automatic Processing
• Require No Attentive Effort
• Result of Extensive Practice
28
 Views of Attention and Automaticity
• Traditional “Filter” View
– Elementary Processes are Preattentive
• Physical/Spatial Analyses
– Complex Processes Must be Post-Attentive
• Meaning Analysis/Categorization
• Revisionist “Capacity” View
– Elementary Processes Typically Preattentive
• Performed Automatically
– Complex Processes can be Preattentive Too
• Once Automatized through Practice
29
 The
Stroop
Interference
Experiment
Stroop (1935)

30
 Automatic vs. Controlled Processes
After LaBerge & Samuels (1974); Posner & Snyder (1975);
Schneider & Shiffrin (1977); Schiffrin & Schneider (1977)

• Inevitable Evocation
• Incorrigible Completion (Ballistic)
• Efficient Execution
• Parallel Processing
• Unconscious in the Strict Sense of the Term
– Operate Outside Phenomenal Awareness
– Operate Outside Voluntary Control
31
Memory: Encoding Processes

Lecture 18

1
 Taxonomy of Knowledge
Stored in Memory

Declarative
Procedural
Directions for Action Factual Statements

Mental Behavioral Episodic Semantic

2
 Declarative Knowledge

• Factual Statements A bicycle is a two-

wheeled vehicle
– About World, Past with seat and
• Sentence Format handles, propelled
by pedaling.
– Propositions
• Subject - Verb – Object A bicycle looks
• Types of Representations like this:
– Meaning-Based
• Verbal Description
– Perception-Based
Strand Theatre, Shelbyville IN
• Mental Image 3
 Procedural Knowledge
• Directions for Goal-Directed Action
• “If-Then” Format (Productions)
– Goal - Condition – Action
– Production System
• Motor
– Actions Take Form of Overt Behavior Scouthelper

• Alter Objective, Publicly Observable World

• Mental X + 6 = 38
– Actions Take Form of Mental Transformation
• Alter Internal, Private Mental Representations
4
 Types of Declarative Knowledge

• Episodic
– Autobiographical Memory
– Factual Knowledge About Personal Experiences
• Spatio-Temporal Context
• Self-Reference
• Semantic
– Mental “Dictionary” or “Encyclopedia”
– Abstract, Conceptual Knowledge about the World

5
 Taxonomy of Knowledge
Stored in Memory

Declarative
Procedural
Directions for Action Factual Statements

Mental Behavioral Episodic Semantic

6
 Stage Analysis of Memory

Encoding Storage Retrieval

• Encoding: Creating a Memory Trace

– Perception Leaves Representation in Memory
• Storage: Retaining Trace in Memory
– Latent, Available for Use
• Retrieval: Recovering Trace from Storage
– Activating, Accessing Available Knowledge
7
 The Verbal-Learning Paradigm
• Study Phase (Encoding)
– Present List of Familiar Words
• Episodic, not Semantic Memory
• Alternative Materials
– Nonsense Syllables, Sentences, Paragraphs, Stories
– Pictures, Scenes, Film/Video
– Sounds, Smells, Tastes, etc.

• Retention Phase (Storage)

– Interval (Distraction)
• Long-Term or Secondary Memory
• Not Short-Term, Primary, or Working Memory
• Test Phase (Retrieval)
– Remember Items of Word List
8
 Example
• I’ll read you a list of familiar words
• Listen to each one as I read it
• After I’ve finished, do “Serial Sevens” task
– I’ll give you a 3-digit number --
• Subtract 7 from that number…
• and then 7 from that result…
• and then 7 from that result…
– until you are told to stop.
Ready?
Go To the Next Slide
9
 Listen to the List

When You Hear the Number,

Begin Subtracting “7s”

Go to the Next Slide

When I Instruct You to Do So
10
 Study List

Anger Mountain
Bread Needle
Cold Rough
Foot Slow
Girl Spider
King Thief

11
 Research Strategy
for the Study of Memory
• Each List, and Each Word on the List,
Represents an Episode of Experience
• Vary Conditions at Some Stage of
Processing
– Encoding
– Storage
– Retrieval
• Observe Effects on Subject’s Ability to
Remember the List Items 12
 The Encoding Phase
of Memory Processing
• Assume that a Subject has Just
Experienced an Event
• How Does a Mental Representation of
that Event get Stored in Memory?

13
 The Role of Rehearsal
in Encoding Long-Term Memory
• Memory as a Product of Perception
• Traditional Associationism
– Thorndike (1898)
• Law of Exercise
– Stimulus-Response Associations Strengthened by Use
– Ebbinghaus (1885)
• Law of Repetition
– Retention a Function of Repetition

14
 Nonsense-Syllable Paradigm
Ebbinghaus (1885)

• Memorize List of Nonsense Syllables

– Consonant-Vowel-Consonant (e.g., TUL)
– Memorized in Strict Serial Order
DAJ - GEX - MUB - TEV - WOL
• Associations by contiguity
– Each CVC serves as stimulus for next one
– Each CVC is a response to the previous one
• Vary number of repetitions
• Savings in Relearning after 24 hours
15
Retention As a Function of Repetition
Ebbinghaus (1885)

1600
Relearning Time (secs)

1200

800

400

0
0 8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Repetitions at Original Encoding

16
 The Role of Rehearsal
Craik & Watkins (1975)

• Present List of Familiar Words

• Report Most Recent Word Meeting Criterion
– Begin with Letter P – “Critical”
– Ignore All Other Words – “Neutral”
• Vary Amount of Rehearsal Given to Each
Word
• Then Test Recall of All Critical Words

17
 Study List
Craik & Watkins (1975)

peas punt
chair radio
potato music
book spiral
egg position
cat bell
window parking

18
 Repetition and Recall
Craik & Watkins (1972, Exp. 1)

30
25
% Recalled

20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 12
Number of Repetitions During Encoding

19
 Two Types of Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal
– Rote rehearsal
– Maintains representation in highly active
state
– Maintains representation in short-term
primary/working) memory
• Elaborative Rehearsal
– Links representation to other knowledge
– Encodes representation in long-term
(secondary) memory
20
 “Depth of Processing” Paradigm
Craik & Lockhart (1972)

Target: TROUT
• Structural (Orthographic)
– Is the word printed in capital letters?
– Does the word contain the letter “e”?
– How many vertical lines are in the word?
• Phonemic (Acoustic)
– Does the word rhyme with weight?
• Semantic (Conceptual)
– Is the word a type of fish?
• Sentence (Linguistic)
– Would the word fit the sentence:
21
He met a man in the _____?
 The Depth of Processing Effect
Craik & Tulving (1975), Exp. 1

100
Proportion Recognized

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Structural Phonemic Category Sentence
Orienting Task

22
 The Elaboration Principle

Memory is a function of
the degree to which an event
is related to pre-existing knowledge.

23
 Two Modes of Processing
at Encoding
• (Rote) Rehearsal
– Recirculating/Refreshing items
– Primary/Short-Term Memory
• Elaboration
– Processing individual items
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory

But elaboration is not the only process

that occurs during encoding... 24
 A List of Category Exemplars
Promoting Category Clustering

Foot Elephant
Lion Amber
Blouse Mouth
Orange Rat
Finger Tie
Coat Purple

25
 Category Clustering in Free Recall
Bousfield & Cohen (1953)

6 40

35
5

30

Number of Items Recalled

4
Clustering Index

25

Clustering
3 20
Recall

15
2

10

1
5

0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Trial

26
 A List of Associates
Promoting Associative Clustering
Boy Chair
Black Short
Table Girl
Long White
Eagle Blossom
Flowers Bird

27
 A List of ‘Unrelated” Words
Promoting Subjective Organization
After Tulving (1962)

IRON
TABLE
DOG
PEPPER
BLUE
WINDOW
BOY
STARS
28
 The Organization Principle

Memory is a function of
the extent to which
individual events are related to each other.

29
 Organization and Elaboration
Compared
• Elaboration
– Item-Specific (Intra-Item) Processing
• Organization
– Relational (Inter-Item) Processing
• Both reflect “Effort after meaning”
• F.C.Bartlett (1932)
– Make sense of what is happening
– Relate what is new to what is already known

30
 Three Modes of Processing
at Encoding
• Rote Rehearsal
– Recirculating/Refreshing Items
– Primary/Short-Term Memory
• Elaboration
– Processing Individual Items
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory
• Organization
– Relating Items to Each Other
– Secondary/Long-Term Memory 31
 Memory:
Storage and Retrieval
Lecture 19

1
 The Storage Phase
of Memory Processing

• Assume that a Memory Trace has been

Adequately Encoded
• What Happens over the Retention Interval?

Forgetting

2
 Retention as a Function of Time
Ebbinghaus (1885)

100
Savings in Relearning (%)

80

60

40

20

0
0.33 1 8.8 24 48 144 744

Retention Interval (hrs)

3
 The Time-Dependency Principle

Memory diminishes as a function of the

length of the retention interval.

Setting Aside…
Reminiscence
Hypermnesia

4
 Four Hypotheses Concerning
Time-Dependency
• Decay
– Memories “Fade” with Time
• Displacement
– Loss from Storage
• Consolidation
– Encoding Takes Time
• Interference
– Failure of Retrieval
5
 Four Factors in Time-Dependency
• Decay
– Sensory Registers
• Displacement
– Sensory Registers
• Masking in “Subliminal” Perception
– Short-Term Memory
• Consolidation
– Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
• Interference
– Long-Term Memory (Episodic or Semantic) 6
 Law of Regression
Ribot (1882)

• Path of Dissolution of Memory

– Recent Events
– General Ideas
– Feelings
– Acts

7
Memory Temporal Gradient in Memory

Time

8
 Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
Following “Cerebral Shock”
Memory

Time

9
 ECT and Retrograde Amnesia
Squire & Chase (1975)

• Electroconvulsive Therapy for Depression

– Electrodes Placed on Scalp
• Right and Left Temples; or Temple and Vertex
– Brief Electrical Current
– Convulsive Seizure
• Between-Subjects Design
– Patients Receiving ECT
• Tested 6 Hrs. After Last ECT
– Controls
• No ECT 10
 ECT and Retrograde Amnesia
Squire & Chase (1975)

80
70
60
% Correct

50
ECT
40
No ECT
30
20
10
0
57-64 65-66 67-68 69-70 71-72

Time Period

11
 Recovery from
Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia
Memory

Time

12
 “Final” Residual Amnesia
Following Recovery
Memory

Time

13
 Two Kinds of Consolidation?

• Short-Term
– Byproduct of Encoding
– Occurs within Seconds of Event
– Disruption Causes Anterograde Amnesia
• Long-Term
– Persists After Initial Encoding
– Transpires Over Longer Periods of Time
• Facilitated by Sleep
– Disruption Causes Retrograde Amnesia
14
 Interference

Storage is Essentially Permanent

Forgetting over Time Occurs by Virtue of
Interference by Accumulated Memories

The Paradox of Interference:

The More You Know, the Harder it is
to Remember to any Particular
Item of Information.
15
 Retrieval from Episodic Memory
Anderson (1974)

• Learn Facts about People, Locations

• The doctor is in the bank (1-1)
• The fireman is in the park (1-2)
• The lawyer is in the church (2-1)
• The lawyer is in the park (2-2)
– Memorize to Criterion of Perfect Recall
– Recognition
• Studied targets
– The doctor is in the bank
• Unstudied lures
– The doctor is in the park 16
 The Fan Effect
Anderson (1974)

1.6
Response Latency (secs)

True False

1.2 Facts
1
0.8 2
3
0.4

0
Targets Locations Targets Locations

Item Type

17
The Time-Dependency Principle
Restated

Memory diminishes with time,

mostly by virtue of interference
among competing memories.

Retroactive
Proactive

18
 Availability vs. Accessibility

• Availability of memory
– In Storage
– Impaired by Decay, Displacement,
Consolidation Failure
• Accessibility of memory
– At Retrieval Attempt
– Impaired by Interference

19
 Availability vs. Accessibility

Encoded memories, available in storage,

may not be accessible
when retrieval is attempted.

20
 The Retrieval Phase
of Memory Processing

• Assume that a Memory Trace has been

Adequately Encoded...
• …and Remains Available in Storage Over
the Retention Interval…
• How Do We Gain Access to Available
Memories?
Queries and Cues

21
 Memory Tests

• Free Recall
– Query Specifies Spatiotemporal Context
• What were the words on the last list studied in class?
• Cued Recall
– Query Adds Information About Target
• What were the color words on that list?
• Recognition
– Query Contains a Copy of the Target
• Was orange one of the words on that list ?
22
 Free Recall, Cued Recall,
and Recognition
Tulving & Watkins (1975)

100

80
% Remembered

60

40

20

0
Free Cued Recognition

Type of Test

23
The Cue-Dependency Principle

Memory depends on the

informational value of the cues
provided at the time of retrieval.

24
 Interactions Between
Encoding and Retrieval Processes

• Retrieval Cues Can Compensate for

Poor Encoding
– Cued Recall, Recognition
• “Deep” Encoding Can Compensate for
Impoverished Retrieval Cues
– Elaboration, Organization
• Encoding Sets the Stage for Retrieval
– Encoding Constrains Retrieval
25
Study List from Last Lecture

Foot Elephant
Lion Amber
Blouse Mouth
Orange Rat
Finger Tie
Coat Purple

26
The Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is best when

the cue information
processed at the time of retrieval
matches the cue information
processed at the time of encoding.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

27
 State-Dependent Memory
Overton (1964)

Memory Depends on the Match Between

the Organism’s Physiological State
at the Time of Encoding
and Its Physiological State
at the Time of Retrieval

28
State-Dependent Memory Paradigm
After Overton (1964)

Retrieval Condition
Encoding No Drug Drug
Condition

No Drug +++ -

Drug - +

29
 Ritalin Drug-Dependent Memory
in Children with ADHD
Swanson & Kinsbourne (1976)
% Errors During Relearning

25

20
Learning
15 Drug
No Drug
10

0
Drug No Drug

Relearning Condition

30
 Magnitude of Drug-Induced
State-Dependent Memory in Humans
Eich (1980)

• Strong Effects • Moderate Effects

– Anesthetics – Marijuana
• Barbiturates
– Narcotics
• Ethyl Alcohol
– Hallucinogens
• Chloral Hydrate
• Weak Effects
• Ether
– Physostygmine
• Nitrous Oxide
– Chlorpromazine
– Librium
– Imipramine
– Nicotine • No Effects
– Caffeine
– Aspirin 31
– Lithium
 Mood-Dependent Memory
Eich & Metcalfe (1989)

25
20
Test
% Correct

15 Happy
10 Sad

5
0
Happy Sad
Encoding Mood

32
 Environment-Dependent Memory
Godden & Baddeley (1975)

40

30 Study
% Recalled

Land
20
Water

10

0
Land Water

Retrieval Condition

33
 Context-Dependent Memory

• Episodic Context
– Time, Place
– Features of External Environment
– Features of Internal Environment
• Physiological State
• Emotional State
• Motivational State?
• Psychoactive Drugs Impair Cognition
• Context Effects are Cue-Dependent
– Overshadowed by Other Cues 34
 Context-Dependency
and Encoding Specificity
• Encoding
– Sets the Stage for Retrieval
• Retrieval
– Recapitulates Encoding Processes
• Congruent Conditions
– Facilitates Match with Trace
• Incongruent Conditions
– Cue Information Mismatches Trace
– Forgetting as Failure of Access 35
The Reconstruction
of the Past
Lecture 20

1
 Knowledge and Memory

• Semantic Memory
– Generic Knowledge, Beliefs
• Abstract
• Episodic Memory
– Particular Experiences and Behaviors
• Specific Events

What is the Relation Between

General Knowledge and
Memory for Specific Events? 2
 Person Memory Paradigm

• Variant on Verbal-Learning Paradigm

– List Items are Behaviors, Experiences
• Rather than Words, Pictures
• Knowledge of a Person
– Generic (Semantic) Knowledge
• Traits, Attitudes
– Episodic Knowledge
• Specific Behaviors and Experiences

3
 Phase 1:
Study Trait Ensemble

Judy is:
• Intelligent
• Intellectually Sophisticated
• Artistically Sensitive
• Refined
• Imaginative
• Witty
4
 Unitary Impression as Schema
Bartlett (1932)

• Organized Knowledge Structure

– Knowledge, Beliefs
– Expectations
• Generalized, Abstract
• Cognitive Basis for Perception and Memory
• Basis for “Effort after meaning”
plural: Schemata or “Schemas”

5
 Phase 2: Study Behaviors
• Schema-Congruent
– p(behavior | schema) > p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy won the chess tournament.
• Judy attended the symphony concert.
• Schema-Incongruent
– p(behavior | schema) < p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy made the same mistake three times.
• Judy was confused by the daytime television show.
• Schema-Irrelevant
– p(behavior | schema) = p(behavior | no schema)
• Judy ordered a sandwich for lunch.
• Judy took the elevator to the third floor. 6
 Schema-Congruence and Memory
Hastie & Kumar (1979)

0.6
Proportion Recalled

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
Congruent Irrelevant Incongruent

Relation between Event and Schema

7
The Schematic Processing Principle

Memory for a specific event

is a function of the relationship between
that event and pre-existing schemata
(knowledge, expectations, beliefs).

8
Two Processes in Schema-Dependency

• Schema-Congruent Behaviors
– Easily Encoded
– Schema Provides Retrieval Cues
• Cue-Dependency
• Schema-Incongruent Behaviors
– Must Be Explained
– Explanation Requires Processing
• Elaboration
• Schema-Irrelevant Behaviors
– Receive Neither Benefit 9
 The Schematic Processing Principle
Expanded

• Memory is a function of the relationship

between an event and pre-existing
schemata.
• Schema-relevant events are remembered
better than schema-irrelevant events.
• Among schema-relevant events, schema-
incongruent events are remembered better
than schema-congruent events.
10
 Principles of Memory
• Encoding
– Elaboration
– Organization
• Storage
– Time-Dependency
• Interference
• Retrieval
– Cue-Dependency
• Availability vs. Accessibility
– Encoding Specificity
– Schematic Processing 11
 The Library Metaphor of Memory

Principles of Memory The Library Metaphor

• Encoding • Encoding
– Elaboration – Purchase a Book
– Organization – Catalog a Book
• Storage • Storage
– Time-Dependency
• Interference – Book on Shelf
• Retrieval • Retrieval
– Cue-Dependency – Look up Book in Catalog
• Availability vs. Accessibility – Get Book from Shelf
– Encoding Specificity • Dewey Decimal System
• Library of Congress
– Schematic Processing
– Read Contents

12
 Memory as Reproduction
(ever since Ebbinghaus)

• Remembering as Reproducing Event

– Encoding makes Knowledge Available
– Retrieval Gains Access to Knowledge
• Mechanisms of Forgetting
– Unavailability
• Poor Encoding
– Inaccessibility
• Poor Retrieval

13
 Memory as Narrative
Bartlett (1932)

• Objections to Verbal-Learning Paradigm

– Rote Associations
• Remembering More Like Telling Stories
• Study Memory for Stories, Not for Lists
– Method of Repeated Reproduction
• Subjects Repeat the Same story
– Method of Serial Reproduction
• Subjects Repeat Each Others’ Stories
14
 The War of the Ghosts

Native American Folktale Collected by Franz Boas

Bartlett (1932)

15
 The War of the Ghosts
Native American Folktale Collected by Franz Boas
Bartlett (1932)

One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt
seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm.
Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: “Maybe this is a war-party”.
They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log.
Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one
canoe coming up to them.
There were five men in the canoe, and they said: “What do you think? We
wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the
people”.
One of the young men said: “I have no arrows”.
“Arrows are in the canoe”, they said.
“I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I
have gone. But you”, he said, turning to the other, “may go with them”.
So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. 16
 The War of the Ghosts, continued
And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of
Kalama. The people came down to the water, and they began to fight,
and many were killed.
But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: “Quick, let us
go home: that Indian has been hit”.
Now he thought: “Oh, they are ghosts”. He did not feel sick, but they said
he had been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his
house, and made a fire.
And he told everybody and said: “Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and
we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those
who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel
sick”.
He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down.
Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted.
The people jumped up and cried.
He was dead. 17
 Memory Errors
in The War of the Ghosts
Bartlett (1932)

• Errors of Omission
– Progressive Forgetting
• Gist vs. Minor Details
– Unexpected Details
• Errors of Commission
– Rationalization
– Transformation of Detail
– Transformation of Order

18
 Memory as Reconstruction
Bartlett (1932)

• Retrieve Dominant Details

– Trace Information
• Vague,Fragmentary, Ambiguous
– General “Attitude” Toward Story
• Schema-Based Inferences
– Attitudes
– Expectations
– World Knowledge
• Coherent Story
– But May Not Be Accurate 19
 The Reconstruction Principle

Memory reflects a blend of

information contained in memory traces and
knowledge, expectations, and beliefs
derived from other sources.

20
 Eyewitness Memory Paradigm
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)

• Variant on Verbal-Learning Paradigm

– List is Continuous Scene
• Rather than Words, Pictures
– View Slide Show, Film
– Subsequent Memory Test

21
Imagine That You’re a Bystander
Watching the Following Scenes

Courtesy of Prof. Elizabeth F. Loftus

UC Irvine

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Now, For Some Questions

50
Visual Recognition Test

51
 What Did You See?

52
 What Did You See?

53
 What Did You See?

Correct
B

54
 What Did You See?

Correct
A

55
 Post-Event Misinformation Effect
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)

• Staged Traffic Accident

• Critical Question
– Nonleading
• Did you see another car pass the red Datsun
while it was stopped at the yield sign?
– Leading
• Did you see another car pass the red Datsun
while it was stopped at the stop sign?
• Recognition Tests
56
– Car at Yield Sign or Stop Sign
 Structure of the Study

Question
Stimulus Yield Sign Stop Sign
Yield Sign Nonleading Misleading
Stop Sign Misleading Nonleading

57
 Correct Recognition of Sign
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)

100
90
80
% of Subjects

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Nonleading Misleading

Wording of Question

58
 Post-Event Misinformation Effect

• Leading Questions Can Influence

Eyewitness Report
– Memory Not “Pure”
• Misinformation Gleaned from Leading
Questions Can Be Incorporated into
Memory for Event

59
 The “Needle” List
Roediger & McDermott (1995), after Deese (1959)

Thread
Pin Haystack
Eye Thorn
Sewing Hurt
Sharp Injection
Point Syringe
Prick Cloth
Thimble Knitting

60
 The Associative Memory Illusion
Roediger & McDermott (1995)

1
Proportion Recognized

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Studied Items Critical Lures Unrelated Lures

Item Type

61
 Semantic Associates of Needle

Thread
Pin
Eye
Sewing
Sharp
Point
Needle Prick
Thimble
Haystack
Thorn
Hurt
“Forward” Injection
Associations Syringe
Cloth
Knitting
62
Inducing the Associative Memory Illusion
Thread
Pin
Eye
Sewing
Sharp
Point
Needle
Prick
Thimble
Haystack
Thorn
Hurt
Injection
“Backward”
Syringe
Associations
Cloth
Knitting
63
 Illusions in Perception and Memory
• Perceptual Illusions
– Perceive the Present Inaccurately
• Systematic Distortion, Bias
– Product of Constructive Activity
• “Going Beyond the Information Given” in Stimulus
• Memory Illusions
– Remember the Past Inaccurately
• Systematic Distortion, Bias
– Product of Reconstructive Activity
• “Going Beyond the Information Given” in Trace
64
 Implications of the
Reconstruction Principle

Memory reflects a blend of

information contained in memory traces and
knowledge, expectations, and beliefs
derived from other sources.

Memories are Not Records Of the Past.

Memories are Beliefs About the Past.

65
 Seven (Plus or Minus Two)
Principles of Memory

• Encoding • Retrieval
– Elaboration – Cue-Dependency
– Organization • Availability vs. Accessibility

• Storage – Encoding Specificity

– Time-Dependency – Schematic Processing
• Interference – Reconstruction

At least so far as conscious recollection is concerned….

66
 Explicit and Implicit Memory
Schacter (1987)

• Explicit Memory
– Conscious Recollection of Past Event
• Recall, Recognition
• Implicit Memory
– Change in Experience, Thought, Action
• Attributable to Past Event
• Dissociation
– Explicit Memory Impaired
– Implicit Memory Spared
67
 “Guessing Game”

• Word-Stem Completion
I’m thinking of a word that begins with these three
letters. Can you fill in the blanks?
Ash_____ Bel_____
Cle_____ Exp_____
• Word-Fragment Completion
I’m thinking of a word that has these letters in it.
Can you fill in the blanks?
D___k F_l__w

68
 Memory in the Amnesic Syndrome
After Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)

1
Proportion of Targets

0.9
0.8
0.7 Group
0.6 Controls
0.5
Amnesics
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Free Recall Recognition Completion

Memory Test

69
 Priming as Implicit Memory

• Performance of One Task

– Studying a List of Words
• Facilitates Performance of Another Task
– Word-Stem, Word-Fragment Completion

70
 Unified View of Perception, Memory
• Constructive Activity in Conscious Cognition
– Perceptual Construction
• Builds Up Representation of Present Experience
– Memory Reconstruction
• Builds Up a Representation of Past Experience
• Unconscious Cognition
– Implicit Perception
• “Subliminal” Perception
– Implicit Memory
• Priming Effects in Amnesia
– and “Subliminal” Perception 71