Srinivasa Ramanujan

Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS (/ˈsriːnɪvɑːsə

Srinivasa Ramanujan
rɑːˈmɑːnʊdʒən/ SREE-nih-vah-sə rah-MAH-nuuj-ən;[1]
FRS
born Srinivasa Ramanujan Aiyangar, Tamil:
[sriːniʋaːsa ɾaːmaːnud͡ʑan ajːaŋgar]; 22 December
1887 – 26 April 1920)[2][3] was an Indian mathematician.
Though he had almost no formal training in pure
mathematics, he made substantial contributions to
mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and
continued fractions, including solutions to mathematical
problems then considered unsolvable.

Ramanujan initially developed his own mathematical

research in isolation. According to Hans Eysenck, "he
tried to interest the leading professional mathematicians in
his work, but failed for the most part. What he had to
show them was too novel, too unfamiliar, and
additionally presented in unusual ways; they could not be
bothered".[4] Seeking mathematicians who could better
understand his work, in 1913 he began a postal Born Srinivasa Ramanujan Aiyangar
correspondence with the English mathematician G. H. 22 December 1887
Hardy at the University of Cambridge, England. Erode, Mysore State, British
Recognising Ramanujan's work as extraordinary, Hardy India (now in Tamil Nadu, India)
arranged for him to travel to Cambridge. In his notes,
Hardy commented that Ramanujan had produced Died 26 April 1920 (aged 32)
groundbreaking new theorems, including some that Kumbakonam, Tanjore District,
"defeated me completely; I had never seen anything in Madras Presidency, British
the least like them before",[5] and some recently proven India (now Thanjavur district,
but highly advanced results. Tamil Nadu, India)

During his short life, Ramanujan independently compiled Citizenship British Indian
nearly 3,900 results (mostly identities and equations).[6] Education Government Arts College
Many were completely novel; his original and highly Pachaiyappa's College
unconventional results, such as the Ramanujan prime, the
Ramanujan theta function, partition formulae and mock Trinity College, Cambridge (BA)
theta functions, have opened entire new areas of work Known for Ramanujan's sum
and inspired a vast amount of further research.[7] Of his
Landau–Ramanujan constant
thousands of results, all but a dozen or two have now
been proven correct.[8] The Ramanujan Journal, a Mock theta functions
scientific journal, was established to publish work in all Ramanujan conjecture
areas of mathematics influenced by Ramanujan,[9] and Ramanujan prime
his notebooks—containing summaries of his published
Ramanujan–Soldner constant
and unpublished results—have been analysed and studied
for decades since his death as a source of new Ramanujan theta function
mathematical ideas. As late as 2012, researchers Rogers–Ramanujan identities
continued to discover that mere comments in his writings Ramanujan's master theorem
about "simple properties" and "similar outputs" for
certain findings were themselves profound and subtle Hardy–Ramanujan asymptotic
number theory results that remained unsuspected until formula
nearly a century after his death.[10][11] He became one of Ramanujan–Sato series
the youngest Fellows of the Royal Society and only the
Awards Fellow of the Royal Society
second Indian member, and the first Indian to be elected a
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Of his original (1918)
letters, Hardy stated that a single look was enough to Scientific career
show they could have been written only by a Fields Mathematics
mathematician of the highest calibre, comparing
Ramanujan to mathematical geniuses such as Euler and Institutions University of Cambridge
Jacobi. Thesis Highly Composite Numbers (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/2018
In 1919, ill health—now believed to have been hepatic
0809110104/http://math.univ-ly
amoebiasis (a complication from episodes of dysentery
on1.fr/~nicolas/ramanujanNR.p
many years previously)—compelled Ramanujan's return
to India, where he died in 1920 at the age of 32. His last df) (1916)
letters to Hardy, written in January 1920, show that he Academic G. H. Hardy
was still continuing to produce new mathematical ideas advisors J. E. Littlewood
and theorems. His "lost notebook", containing
discoveries from the last year of his life, caused great Signature
excitement among mathematicians when it was
rediscovered in 1976.

Early life
Ramanujan (literally, "younger brother of Rama", a Hindu deity)[12] was
born on 22 December 1887 into a Tamil Brahmin Iyengar family in Erode,
in present-day Tamil Nadu.[13] His father, Kuppuswamy Srinivasa Iyengar,
originally from Thanjavur district, worked as a clerk in a sari shop.[14][2]
His mother, Komalatammal, was a housewife and sang at a local temple.[15]
They lived in a small traditional home on Sarangapani Sannidhi Street in
the town of Kumbakonam.[16] The family home is now a museum. When
Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son,
Sadagopan, who died less than three months later. In December 1889,
Ramanujan contracted smallpox, but recovered, unlike the 4,000 others
who died in a bad year in the Thanjavur district around this time. He moved
with his mother to her parents' house in Kanchipuram, near Madras (now
Chennai). His mother gave birth to two more children, in 1891 and 1894, Ramanujan's birthplace on
18 Alahiri Street, Erode, now
both of whom died before their first birthdays.[12]
in Tamil Nadu
On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school.[17] After
his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram,[18]
Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam, and he was enrolled in Kangayan Primary
School.[19] When his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to his maternal grandparents, then living
in Madras. He did not like school in Madras, and tried to avoid attending. His family enlisted a local
constable to make sure he attended school. Within six months, Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam.[19]
Since Ramanujan's father was at work most of the day, his mother took care
of the boy, and they had a close relationship. From her, he learned about
tradition and puranas, to sing religious songs, to attend pujas at the temple,
and to maintain particular eating habits—all part of Brahmin culture.[20] At
Kangayan Primary School, Ramanujan performed well. Just before turning
10, in November 1897, he passed his primary examinations in English,
Tamil, geography, and arithmetic with the best scores in the district.[21] That
year, Ramanujan entered Town Higher Secondary School, where he
encountered formal mathematics for the first time.[21]

A child prodigy by age 11, he had exhausted the mathematical knowledge

of two college students who were lodgers at his home. He was later lent a
book written by S. L. Loney on advanced trigonometry.[22][23] He
Ramanujan's home on
mastered this by the age of 13 while discovering sophisticated theorems on Sarangapani Sannidhi
his own. By 14, he received merit certificates and academic awards that Street, Kumbakonam
continued throughout his school career, and he assisted the school in the
logistics of assigning its 1,200 students (each with differing needs) to its
approximately 35 teachers.[24] He completed mathematical exams in half the allotted time, and showed a
familiarity with geometry and infinite series. Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902.
He would later develop his own method to solve the quartic. In 1903, he tried to solve the quintic, not
knowing that it was impossible to solve with radicals.[25]

In 1903, when he was 16, Ramanujan obtained from a friend a library copy of A Synopsis of Elementary
Results in Pure and Applied Mathematics, G. S. Carr's collection of 5,000 theorems.[26][27] Ramanujan
reportedly studied the contents of the book in detail.[28] The next year, Ramanujan independently
developed and investigated the Bernoulli numbers and calculated the Euler–Mascheroni constant up to 15
decimal places.[29] His peers at the time said they "rarely understood him" and "stood in respectful awe" of
him.[24]

When he graduated from Town Higher Secondary School in 1904, Ramanujan was awarded the K.
Ranganatha Rao prize for mathematics by the school's headmaster, Krishnaswami Iyer. Iyer introduced
Ramanujan as an outstanding student who deserved scores higher than the maximum.[30] He received a
scholarship to study at Government Arts College, Kumbakonam,[31][32] but was so intent on mathematics
that he could not focus on any other subjects and failed most of them, losing his scholarship in the
process.[33] In August 1905, Ramanujan ran away from home, heading towards Visakhapatnam, and stayed
in Rajahmundry[34] for about a month.[33] He later enrolled at Pachaiyappa's College in Madras. There, he
passed in mathematics, choosing only to attempt questions that appealed to him and leaving the rest
unanswered, but performed poorly in other subjects, such as English, physiology, and Sanskrit.[35]
Ramanujan failed his Fellow of Arts exam in December 1906 and again a year later. Without an FA degree,
he left college and continued to pursue independent research in mathematics, living in extreme poverty and
often on the brink of starvation.[36]

In 1910, after a meeting between the 23-year-old Ramanujan and the founder of the Indian Mathematical
Society, V. Ramaswamy Aiyer, Ramanujan began to get recognition in Madras's mathematical circles,
leading to his inclusion as a researcher at the University of Madras.[37]

Adulthood in India
On 14 July 1909, Ramanujan married Janaki (Janakiammal; 21 March 1899 – 13 April 1994),[38] a girl his
mother had selected for him a year earlier and who was ten years old when they married.[39][40][41] It was
not unusual then for marriages to be arranged with girls at a young age. Janaki was from Rajendram, a
village close to Marudur (Karur district) Railway Station. Ramanujan's father did not participate in the
marriage ceremony.[42] As was common at that time, Janaki continued to stay at her maternal home for
three years after marriage, until she reached puberty. In 1912, she and Ramanujan's mother joined
Ramanujan in Madras.[43]

After the marriage, Ramanujan developed a hydrocele testis.[44] The condition could be treated with a
routine surgical operation that would release the blocked fluid in the scrotal sac, but his family could not
afford the operation. In January 1910, a doctor volunteered to do the surgery at no cost.[45]

After his successful surgery, Ramanujan searched for a job. He stayed at a friend's house while he went
from door to door around Madras looking for a clerical position. To make money, he tutored students at
Presidency College who were preparing for their Fellow of Arts exam.[46]

In late 1910, Ramanujan was sick again. He feared for his health, and told his friend R. Radakrishna Iyer to
"hand [his notebooks] over to Professor Singaravelu Mudaliar [the mathematics professor at Pachaiyappa's
College] or to the British professor Edward B. Ross, of the Madras Christian College."[47] After
Ramanujan recovered and retrieved his notebooks from Iyer, he took a train from Kumbakonam to
Villupuram, a city under French control.[48][49] In 1912, Ramanujan moved with his wife and mother to a
house in Saiva Muthaiah Mudali street, George Town, Madras, where they lived for a few months.[50] In
May 1913, upon securing a research position at Madras University, Ramanujan moved with his family to
Triplicane.[51]

Pursuit of career in mathematics

In 1910, Ramanujan met deputy collector V. Ramaswamy Aiyer, who founded the Indian Mathematical
Society.[52] Wishing for a job at the revenue department where Aiyer worked, Ramanujan showed him his
mathematics notebooks. As Aiyer later recalled:

I was struck by the extraordinary mathematical results contained in [the notebooks]. I had no
mind to smother his genius by an appointment in the lowest rungs of the revenue
department.[53]

Aiyer sent Ramanujan, with letters of introduction, to his mathematician friends in Madras.[52] Some of
them looked at his work and gave him letters of introduction to R. Ramachandra Rao, the district collector
for Nellore and the secretary of the Indian Mathematical Society.[54][55][56] Rao was impressed by
Ramanujan's research but doubted that it was his own work. Ramanujan mentioned a correspondence he
had with Professor Saldhana, a notable Bombay mathematician, in which Saldhana expressed a lack of
understanding of his work but concluded that he was not a fraud.[57] Ramanujan's friend C. V.
Rajagopalachari tried to quell Rao's doubts about Ramanujan's academic integrity. Rao agreed to give him
another chance, and listened as Ramanujan discussed elliptic integrals, hypergeometric series, and his
theory of divergent series, which Rao said ultimately convinced him of Ramanujan's brilliance.[57] When
Rao asked him what he wanted, Ramanujan replied that he needed work and financial support. Rao
consented and sent him to Madras. He continued his research with Rao's financial aid. With Aiyer's help,
Ramanujan had his work published in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society.[58]

One of the first problems he posed in the journal[30] was to find the value of:
He waited for a solution to be offered in three issues, over six months, but failed to receive any. At the end,
Ramanujan supplied an incomplete[59] solution to the problem himself. On page 105 of his first notebook,
he formulated an equation that could be used to solve the infinitely nested radicals problem.

Using this equation, the answer to the question posed in the Journal was simply 3, obtained by setting
x = 2 , n = 1 , and a = 0 .[60] Ramanujan wrote his first formal paper for the Journal on the properties of
Bernoulli numbers. One property he discovered was that the denominators (sequence A027642 in the
OEIS) of the fractions of Bernoulli numbers are always divisible by six. He also devised a method of
calculating Bn based on previous Bernoulli numbers. One of these methods follows:

It will be observed that if n is even but not equal to zero,

Bn
1. Bn is a fraction and the numerator of n in its lowest terms is a prime number,
2. the denominator of Bn contains each of the factors 2 and 3 once and only once,
Bn
3. 2 n(2 n − 1) n is an integer and 2(2 n − 1)Bn consequently is an odd integer.

In his 17-page paper "Some Properties of Bernoulli's Numbers" (1911), Ramanujan gave three proofs, two
corollaries and three conjectures.[61] His writing initially had many flaws. As Journal editor M. T.
Narayana Iyengar noted:

Mr. Ramanujan's methods were so terse and novel and his presentation so lacking in clearness
and precision, that the ordinary [mathematical reader], unaccustomed to such intellectual
gymnastics, could hardly follow him.[62]

Ramanujan later wrote another paper and also continued to provide problems in the Journal.[63] In early
1912, he got a temporary job in the Madras Accountant General's office, with a monthly salary of 20
rupees. He lasted only a few weeks.[64] Toward the end of that assignment, he applied for a position under
the Chief Accountant of the Madras Port Trust.

In a letter dated 9 February 1912, Ramanujan wrote:

Sir,
I understand there is a clerkship vacant in your office, and I beg to apply for the same. I
have passed the Matriculation Examination and studied up to the F.A. but was prevented from
pursuing my studies further owing to several untoward circumstances. I have, however, been
devoting all my time to Mathematics and developing the subject. I can say I am quite confident
I can do justice to my work if I am appointed to the post. I therefore beg to request that you
will be good enough to confer the appointment on me.[65]

Attached to his application was a recommendation from E. W. Middlemast, a mathematics professor at the
Presidency College, who wrote that Ramanujan was "a young man of quite exceptional capacity in
Mathematics".[66] Three weeks after he applied, on 1 March, Ramanujan learned that he had been accepted
as a Class III, Grade IV accounting clerk, making 30 rupees per month.[67] At his office, Ramanujan easily
and quickly completed the work he was given and spent his spare time doing mathematical research.
Ramanujan's boss, Sir Francis Spring, and S. Narayana Iyer, a colleague who was also treasurer of the
Indian Mathematical Society, encouraged Ramanujan in his mathematical pursuits.

Contacting British mathematicians

In the spring of 1913, Narayana Iyer, Ramachandra Rao and E. W. Middlemast tried to present
Ramanujan's work to British mathematicians. M. J. M. Hill of University College London commented that
Ramanujan's papers were riddled with holes.[68] He said that although Ramanujan had "a taste for
mathematics, and some ability", he lacked the necessary educational background and foundation to be
accepted by mathematicians.[69] Although Hill did not offer to take Ramanujan on as a student, he gave
thorough and serious professional advice on his work. With the help of friends, Ramanujan drafted letters to
leading mathematicians at Cambridge University.[70]

The first two professors, H. F. Baker and E. W. Hobson, returned Ramanujan's papers without
comment.[71] On 16 January 1913, Ramanujan wrote to G. H. Hardy.[72] Coming from an unknown
mathematician, the nine pages of mathematics made Hardy initially view Ramanujan's manuscripts as a
possible fraud.[73] Hardy recognised some of Ramanujan's formulae but others "seemed scarcely possible to
believe".[74]: 494 One of the theorems Hardy found amazing was on the bottom of page three (valid for
0 < a < b + 12 ):

Hardy was also impressed by some of Ramanujan's other work relating to infinite series:

The first result had already been determined by G. Bauer in 1859. The second was new to Hardy, and was
derived from a class of functions called hypergeometric series, which had first been researched by Euler and
Gauss. Hardy found these results "much more intriguing" than Gauss's work on integrals.[75] After seeing
Ramanujan's theorems on continued fractions on the last page of the manuscripts, Hardy said the theorems
"defeated me completely; I had never seen anything in the least like them before",[76] and that they "must
be true, because, if they were not true, no one would have the imagination to invent them".[76] Hardy asked
a colleague, J. E. Littlewood, to take a look at the papers. Littlewood was amazed by Ramanujan's genius.
After discussing the papers with Littlewood, Hardy concluded that the letters were "certainly the most
remarkable I have received" and that Ramanujan was "a mathematician of the highest quality, a man of
altogether exceptional originality and power".[74]: 494–495 One colleague, E. H. Neville, later remarked that
"not one [theorem] could have been set in the most advanced mathematical examination in the world".[63]
On 8 February 1913, Hardy wrote Ramanujan a letter expressing interest in his work, adding that it was
"essential that I should see proofs of some of your assertions".[77] Before his letter arrived in Madras during
the third week of February, Hardy contacted the Indian Office to plan for Ramanujan's trip to Cambridge.
Secretary Arthur Davies of the Advisory Committee for Indian Students met with Ramanujan to discuss the
overseas trip.[78] In accordance with his Brahmin upbringing, Ramanujan refused to leave his country to
"go to a foreign land".[79] Meanwhile, he sent Hardy a letter packed with theorems, writing, "I have found
a friend in you who views my labour sympathetically."[80]

To supplement Hardy's endorsement, Gilbert Walker, a former mathematical lecturer at Trinity College,
Cambridge, looked at Ramanujan's work and expressed amazement, urging the young man to spend time at
Cambridge.[81] As a result of Walker's endorsement, B. Hanumantha Rao, a mathematics professor at an
engineering college, invited Ramanujan's colleague Narayana Iyer to a meeting of the Board of Studies in
Mathematics to discuss "what we can do for S. Ramanujan".[82] The board agreed to grant Ramanujan a
monthly research scholarship of 75 rupees for the next two years at the University of Madras.[83]

While he was engaged as a research student, Ramanujan continued to submit papers to the Journal of the
Indian Mathematical Society. In one instance, Iyer submitted some of Ramanujan's theorems on summation
of series to the journal, adding, "The following theorem is due to S. Ramanujan, the mathematics student of
Madras University." Later in November, British Professor Edward B. Ross of Madras Christian College,
whom Ramanujan had met a few years before, stormed into his class one day with his eyes glowing, asking
his students, "Does Ramanujan know Polish?" The reason was that in one paper, Ramanujan had
anticipated the work of a Polish mathematician whose paper had just arrived in the day's mail.[84] In his
quarterly papers, Ramanujan drew up theorems to make definite integrals more easily solvable. Working off
Giuliano Frullani's 1821 integral theorem, Ramanujan formulated generalisations that could be made to
evaluate formerly unyielding integrals.[85]

Hardy's correspondence with Ramanujan soured after Ramanujan refused to come to England. Hardy
enlisted a colleague lecturing in Madras, E. H. Neville, to mentor and bring Ramanujan to England.[86]
Neville asked Ramanujan why he would not go to Cambridge. Ramanujan apparently had now accepted
the proposal; Neville said, "Ramanujan needed no converting" and "his parents' opposition had been
withdrawn".[63] Apparently, Ramanujan's mother had a vivid dream in which the family goddess, the deity
of Namagiri, commanded her "to stand no longer between her son and the fulfilment of his life's
purpose".[63] On 17 March 1914, Ramanujan traveled to England by ship,[87] leaving his wife to stay with
his parents in India.

Life in England
Ramanujan departed from Madras aboard the S.S. Nevasa on 17 March 1914.[88] When he disembarked in
London on 14 April, Neville was waiting for him with a car. Four days later, Neville took him to his house
on Chesterton Road in Cambridge. Ramanujan immediately began his work with Littlewood and Hardy.
After six weeks, Ramanujan moved out of Neville's house and took up residence on Whewell's Court, a
five-minute walk from Hardy's room.[89]

Hardy and Littlewood began to look at Ramanujan's notebooks. Hardy had already received 120 theorems
from Ramanujan in the first two letters, but there were many more results and theorems in the notebooks.
Hardy saw that some were wrong, others had already been discovered, and the rest were new
breakthroughs.[90] Ramanujan left a deep impression on Hardy and Littlewood. Littlewood commented, "I
can believe that he's at least a Jacobi",[91] while Hardy said he "can compare him only with Euler or
Jacobi."[92]
Ramanujan spent nearly five years in Cambridge
collaborating with Hardy and Littlewood, and published
part of his findings there. Hardy and Ramanujan had
highly contrasting personalities. Their collaboration was
a clash of different cultures, beliefs, and working styles.
In the previous few decades, the foundations of
mathematics had come into question and the need for
mathematically rigorous proofs recognised. Hardy was
an atheist and an apostle of proof and mathematical
rigour, whereas Ramanujan was a deeply religious man
who relied very strongly on his intuition and insights.
Ramanujan (centre) and his colleague G. H.
Hardy tried his best to fill the gaps in Ramanujan's
Hardy (rightmost), with other scientists, outside
education and to mentor him in the need for formal
the Senate House, Cambridge, c.1914–19
proofs to support his results, without hindering his
inspiration—a conflict that neither found easy.

Ramanujan was awarded a Bachelor of Arts by Research degree[93][94] (the

predecessor of the PhD degree) in March 1916 for his work on highly
composite numbers, sections of the first part of which had been published
the preceding year in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.
The paper was more than 50 pages long and proved various properties of
such numbers. Hardy disliked this topic area but remarked that though it
engaged with what he called the 'backwater of mathematics', in it
Ramanujan displayed 'extraordinary mastery over the algebra of
inequalities'.[95]

On 6 December 1917, Ramanujan was elected to the London Mathematical

Society. On 2 May 1918, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,[96]
Whewell's Court, Trinity
the second Indian admitted, after Ardaseer Cursetjee in 1841. At age 31,
College, Cambridge
Ramanujan was one of the youngest Fellows in the Royal Society's history.
He was elected "for his investigation in elliptic functions and the Theory of
Numbers." On 13 October 1918, he was the first Indian to be elected a
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.[97]

Illness and death

Ramanujan had numerous health problems throughout his life. His health worsened in England; possibly he
was also less resilient due to the difficulty of keeping to the strict dietary requirements of his religion there
and because of wartime rationing in 1914–18. He was diagnosed with tuberculosis and a severe vitamin
deficiency, and confined to a sanatorium. In 1919, he returned to Kumbakonam, Madras Presidency, and in
1920 he died at the age of 32. After his death, his brother Tirunarayanan compiled Ramanujan's remaining
handwritten notes, consisting of formulae on singular moduli, hypergeometric series and continued
fractions.[43]

Ramanujan's widow, Smt. Janaki Ammal, moved to Bombay. In 1931, she returned to Madras and settled in
Triplicane, where she supported herself on a pension from Madras University and income from tailoring. In
1950, she adopted a son, W. Narayanan, who eventually became an officer of the State Bank of India and
raised a family. In her later years, she was granted a lifetime pension from Ramanujan's former employer,
the Madras Port Trust, and pensions from, among others, the Indian National Science Academy and the
state governments of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. She continued to cherish Ramanujan's
memory, and was active in efforts to increase his public recognition; prominent mathematicians, including
George Andrews, Bruce C. Berndt and Béla Bollobás made it a point to visit her while in India. She died at
her Triplicane residence in 1994.[42][43]

A 1994 analysis of Ramanujan's medical records and symptoms by Dr. D. A. B. Young[98] concluded that
his medical symptoms—including his past relapses, fevers, and hepatic conditions—were much closer to
those resulting from hepatic amoebiasis, an illness then widespread in Madras, than tuberculosis. He had
two episodes of dysentery before he left India. When not properly treated, amoebic dysentery can lie
dormant for years and lead to hepatic amoebiasis, whose diagnosis was not then well established.[99] At the
time, if properly diagnosed, amoebiasis was a treatable and often curable disease;[99][100] British soldiers
who contracted it during the First World War were being successfully cured of amoebiasis around the time
Ramanujan left England.[101]

Personality and spiritual life

Ramanujan has been described as a person of a somewhat shy and quiet
While asleep, I had an
disposition, a dignified man with pleasant manners.[103] He lived a unusual experience. There
simple life at Cambridge.[104] Ramanujan's first Indian biographers was a red screen formed by
describe him as a rigorously orthodox Hindu. He credited his acumen to flowing blood, as it were. I
his family goddess, Namagiri Thayar (Goddess Mahalakshmi) of was observing it. Suddenly
Namakkal. He looked to her for inspiration in his work[105] and said he a hand began to write on the
dreamed of blood drops that symbolised her consort, Narasimha. Later screen. I became all
he had visions of scrolls of complex mathematical content unfolding attention. That hand wrote a
before his eyes.[106] He often said, "An equation for me has no number of elliptic integrals.
meaning unless it expresses a thought of God."[107] They stuck to my mind. As
soon as I woke up, I
Hardy cites Ramanujan as remarking that all religions seemed equally committed them to writing.
true to him.[108] Hardy further argued that Ramanujan's religious belief
had been romanticised by Westerners and overstated—in reference to
his belief, not practice—by Indian biographers. At the same time, he —Srinivasa
remarked on Ramanujan's strict vegetarianism.[109] Ramanujan[102]

Similarly, in an interview with Frontline, Berndt said, "Many people

falsely promulgate mystical powers to Ramanujan's mathematical
thinking. It is not true. He has meticulously recorded every result in his three notebooks," further
speculating that Ramanujan worked out intermediate results on slate that he could not afford the paper to
record more permanently.[8]

Mathematical achievements
In mathematics, there is a distinction between insight and formulating or working through a proof.
Ramanujan proposed an abundance of formulae that could be investigated later in depth. G. H. Hardy said
that Ramanujan's discoveries are unusually rich and that there is often more to them than initially meets the
eye. As a byproduct of his work, new directions of research were opened up. Examples of the most
intriguing of these formulae include infinite series for π , one of which is given below:
This result is based on the negative fundamental discriminant d = −4 × 58 = −232 with class number
h(d) = 2. Further, 26390 = 5 × 7 × 13 × 58 and 16 × 9801 = 3962 , which is related to the fact that

This might be compared to Heegner numbers, which have class number 1 and yield similar formulae.

Ramanujan's series for π converges extraordinarily rapidly and forms the basis of some of the fastest
algorithms currently used to calculate π . Truncating the sum to the first term also gives the approximation
9801√ 2
4412 for π , which is correct to six decimal places; truncating it to the first two terms gives a value correct
to 14 decimal places. See also the more general Ramanujan–Sato series.

One of Ramanujan's remarkable capabilities was the rapid solution of problems, illustrated by the following
anecdote about an incident in which P. C. Mahalanobis posed a problem:

Imagine that you are on a street with houses marked 1 through n . There is a house in between
(x) such that the sum of the house numbers to the left of it equals the sum of the house numbers
to its right. If n is between 50 and 500, what are n and x?' This is a bivariate problem with
multiple solutions. Ramanujan thought about it and gave the answer with a twist: He gave a
continued fraction. The unusual part was that it was the solution to the whole class of
problems. Mahalanobis was astounded and asked how he did it. 'It is simple. The minute I
heard the problem, I knew that the answer was a continued fraction. Which continued fraction,
I asked myself. Then the answer came to my mind', Ramanujan replied."[110][111]

His intuition also led him to derive some previously unknown identities, such as

for all θ such that and , where Γ(z) is the gamma function, and related to a special
value of the Dedekind eta function. Expanding into series of powers and equating coefficients of θ0, θ4,
and θ8 gives some deep identities for the hyperbolic secant.

In 1918, Hardy and Ramanujan studied the partition function P(n) extensively. They gave a non-
convergent asymptotic series that permits exact computation of the number of partitions of an integer. In
1937, Hans Rademacher refined their formula to find an exact convergent series solution to this problem.
Ramanujan and Hardy's work in this area gave rise to a powerful new method for finding asymptotic
formulae called the circle method.[112]

In the last year of his life, Ramanujan discovered mock theta functions.[113] For many years, these functions
were a mystery, but they are now known to be the holomorphic parts of harmonic weak Maass forms.

The Ramanujan conjecture

Although there are numerous statements that could have borne the name Ramanujan conjecture, one was
highly influential on later work. In particular, the connection of this conjecture with conjectures of André
Weil in algebraic geometry opened up new areas of research. That Ramanujan conjecture is an assertion on
the size of the tau-function, which has a generating function as the discriminant modular form Δ(q), a
typical cusp form in the theory of modular forms. It was finally proven in 1973, as a consequence of Pierre
Deligne's proof of the Weil conjectures. The reduction step involved is complicated. Deligne won a Fields
Medal in 1978 for that work.[7][114]

In his paper "On certain arithmetical functions", Ramanujan defined the so-called delta-function, whose
coefficients are called τ(n) (the Ramanujan tau function).[115] He proved many congruences for these
numbers, such as τ(p) ≡ 1 + p 11 mod 691 for primes p . This congruence (and others like it that
Ramanujan proved) inspired Jean-Pierre Serre (1954 Fields Medalist) to conjecture that there is a theory of
Galois representations that "explains" these congruences and more generally all modular forms. Δ(z) is the
first example of a modular form to be studied in this way. Deligne (in his Fields Medal-winning work)
proved Serre's conjecture. The proof of Fermat's Last Theorem proceeds by first reinterpreting elliptic
curves and modular forms in terms of these Galois representations. Without this theory, there would be no
proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.[116]

Ramanujan's notebooks

While still in Madras, Ramanujan recorded the bulk of his results in four notebooks of looseleaf paper. They
were mostly written up without any derivations. This is probably the origin of the misapprehension that
Ramanujan was unable to prove his results and simply thought up the final result directly. Mathematician
Bruce C. Berndt, in his review of these notebooks and Ramanujan's work, says that Ramanujan most
certainly was able to prove most of his results, but chose not to record the proofs in his notes.

This may have been for any number of reasons. Since paper was very expensive, Ramanujan did most of
his work and perhaps his proofs on slate, after which he transferred the final results to paper. At the time,
slates were commonly used by mathematics students in the Madras Presidency. He was also quite likely to
have been influenced by the style of G. S. Carr's book, which stated results without proofs. It is also
possible that Ramanujan considered his work to be for his personal interest alone and therefore recorded
only the results.[117]

The first notebook has 351 pages with 16 somewhat organised chapters and some unorganised material.
The second has 256 pages in 21 chapters and 100 unorganised pages, and the third 33 unorganised pages.
The results in his notebooks inspired numerous papers by later mathematicians trying to prove what he had
found. Hardy himself wrote papers exploring material from Ramanujan's work, as did G. N. Watson, B. M.
Wilson, and Bruce Berndt.[117]

In 1976, George Andrews rediscovered a fourth notebook with 87 unorganised pages, the so-called "lost
notebook".[99]

Hardy–Ramanujan number 1729

The number 1729 is known as the Hardy–Ramanujan number after a famous visit by Hardy to see
Ramanujan at a hospital. In Hardy's words:[118]

I remember once going to see him when he was ill at Putney. I had ridden in taxi cab number
1729 and remarked that the number seemed to me rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not
an unfavorable omen. "No", he replied, "it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest
 number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways."

Immediately before this anecdote, Hardy quoted Littlewood as saying, "Every positive integer was one of
[Ramanujan's] personal friends."[119]

The two different ways are:

Generalisations of this idea have created the notion of "taxicab numbers".

Mathematicians' views of Ramanujan

In his obituary of Ramanujan, written for Nature in 1920, Hardy
"Of course, we're always
observed that Ramanujan's work primarily involved fields less known
hoping. That's one reason I
even among other pure mathematicians, concluding:
always read letters that come
in from obscure places and
His insight into formulae was quite amazing, and altogether are written in an illegible
beyond anything I have met with in any European scrawl. I always hope it
mathematician. It is perhaps useless to speculate as to his might be from another
history had he been introduced to modern ideas and Ramanujan."
methods at sixteen instead of at twenty-six. It is not
extravagant to suppose that he might have become the
—Freeman Dyson on how
greatest mathematician of his time. What he actually did is another such genius might
wonderful enough… when the researches which his work
has suggested have been completed, it will probably seem a appear anywhere[120]
good deal more wonderful than it does to-day.[74]

Hardy further said:[121]

He combined a power of generalisation, a feeling for form, and a capacity for rapid
modification of his hypotheses, that were often really startling, and made him, in his own
peculiar field, without a rival in his day. The limitations of his knowledge were as startling as
its profundity. Here was a man who could work out modular equations and theorems... to
orders unheard of, whose mastery of continued fractions was... beyond that of any
mathematician in the world, who had found for himself the functional equation of the zeta
function and the dominant terms of many of the most famous problems in the analytic theory of
numbers; and yet he had never heard of a doubly periodic function or of Cauchy's theorem,
and had indeed but the vaguest idea of what a function of a complex variable was..."

When asked about the methods Ramanujan employed to arrive at his solutions, Hardy said they were
"arrived at by a process of mingled argument, intuition, and induction, of which he was entirely unable to
give any coherent account."[122] He also said that he had "never met his equal, and can compare him only
with Euler or Jacobi".[122] Littlewood reportedly said that helping Ramanujan catch up with European
mathematics beyond what was available in India was very difficult, because each new point mentioned to
Ramanujan caused him to produce original ideas that prevented Littlewood from continuing the lesson.[123]
K. Srinivasa Rao has said,[124] "As for his place in the world of Mathematics, we quote Bruce C. Berndt:
'Paul Erdős has passed on to us Hardy's personal ratings of mathematicians. Suppose that we rate
mathematicians on the basis of pure talent on a scale from 0 to 100. Hardy gave himself a score of 25, J. E.
Littlewood 30, David Hilbert 80 and Ramanujan 100.' " During a May 2011 lecture at IIT Madras, Berndt
said that over the last 40 years, as nearly all of Ramanujan's conjectures had been proven, there had been
greater appreciation of Ramanujan's work and brilliance, and that Ramanujan's work was now pervading
many areas of modern mathematics and physics.[113][125]

Posthumous recognition
The year after his death, Nature listed Ramanujan among other
distinguished scientists and mathematicians on a "Calendar of Scientific
Pioneers" who had achieved eminence.[126] Ramanujan's home state of
Tamil Nadu celebrates 22 December (Ramanujan's birthday) as 'State IT
Day'. Stamps picturing Ramanujan were issued by the government of India
in 1962, 2011, 2012 and 2016.[127]

Since Ramanujan's centennial year, his birthday, 22 December, has been

annually celebrated as Ramanujan Day by the Government Arts College,
Kumbakonam, where he studied, and at the IIT Madras in Chennai. The
International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) has created a prize in
Ramanujan's name for young mathematicians from developing countries in
cooperation with the International Mathematical Union, which nominates Bust of Ramanujan in the
members of the prize committee. SASTRA University, a private university garden of Birla Industrial &
based in Tamil Nadu, has instituted the SASTRA Ramanujan Prize of Technological Museum in
US$10,000 to be given annually to a mathematician not exceeding age 32 Kolkata, India
for outstanding contributions in an area of mathematics influenced by
Ramanujan.[128]

Based on the recommendations of a committee appointed by the University Grants Commission (UGC),
Government of India, the Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, established by SASTRA, has been declared an off-
campus centre under the ambit of SASTRA University. House of Ramanujan Mathematics, a museum of
Ramanujan's life and work, is also on this campus. SASTRA purchased and renovated the house where
Ramanujan lived at Kumabakonam.[128]

In 2011, on the 125th anniversary of his birth, the Indian government declared that 22 December will be
celebrated every year as National Mathematics Day.[129] Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
also declared that 2012 would be celebrated as National Mathematics Year and 22 December as National
Mathematics Day of India.[130]

Ramanujan IT City is an information technology (IT) special economic zone (SEZ) in Chennai that was
built in 2011. Situated next to the Tidel Park, it includes 25 acres (10 ha) with two zones, with a total area of
5.7 million square feet (530,000 m2 ), including 4.5 million square feet (420,000 m2 ) of office space.[131]

Commemorative postal stamps

Commemorative stamps released by India Post (by year):
 1962 2011

2012 2016

In popular culture
The Man Who Loved Numbers is a 1988 PBS NOVA documentary about Ramanujan (S15,
E9).[132]
The Man Who Knew Infinity is a 2015 film based on Kanigel's book of the same name.
British actor Dev Patel portrays Ramanujan.[133][134][135]
Ramanujan, an Indo-British collaboration film chronicling Ramanujan's life, was released in
2014 by the independent film company Camphor Cinema.[136] The cast and crew include
director Gnana Rajasekaran, cinematographer Sunny Joseph and editor B. Lenin.[137][138]
Indian and English stars Abhinay Vaddi, Suhasini Maniratnam, Bhama, Kevin McGowan and
Michael Lieber star in pivotal roles.[139]
Nandan Kudhyadi directed the Indian documentary films The Genius of Srinivasa
Ramanujan (2013) and Srinivasa Ramanujan: The Mathematician and His Legacy (2016)
about the mathematician.[140]
Ramanujan (The Man Who Reshaped 20th Century Mathematics), an Indian docudrama film
directed by Akashdeep released in 2018.[141]
M. N. Krish's thriller novel The Steradian Trail weaves Ramanujan and his accidental
discovery into its plot connecting religion, mathematics, finance and economics.[142][143]
Partition, a play by Ira Hauptman about Hardy and Ramanujan, was first performed in
2013.[144][145][146][147]
The play First Class Man by Alter Ego Productions[148] was based on David Freeman's First
Class Man. The play centres around Ramanujan and his complex and dysfunctional
relationship with Hardy. On 16 October 2011 it was announced that Roger Spottiswoode,
best known for his James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies, is working on the film version,
starring Siddharth.[149]
A Disappearing Number is a British stage production by the company Complicite that
explores the relationship between Hardy and Ramanujan.[150]
 David Leavitt's novel The Indian Clerk explores the events following Ramanujan's letter to
Hardy.[151][152]
Google honoured Ramanujan on his 125th birth anniversary by replacing its logo with a
doodle on its home page.[153][154]
Ramanujan was mentioned in the 1997 film Good Will Hunting, in a scene where professor
Gerald Lambeau (Stellan Skarsgård) explains to Sean Maguire (Robin Williams) the genius
of Will Hunting (Matt Damon) by comparing him to Ramanujan.[155]

Selected papers
Ramanujan, S. (1914). "Some definite integrals" (https://archive.org/details/messengerofmat
he44cambuoft/page/10/mode/2up). Messenger Math. 44: 10–18.
Ramanujan, S. (1914). "Some definite integrals connected with Gauss's sums" (https://archiv
e.org/details/messengerofmathe44cambuoft/page/10/mode/2up). Messenger Math. 44: 75–
85.
Ramanujan, S. (1915). "On certain infinite series" (https://archive.org/details/messengerofma
the45cambuoft/page/10/mode/2up). Messenger Math. 45: 11–15.
Ramanujan, S. (1915). "Highly Composite Numbers" (https://zenodo.org/record/1433496).
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 14 (1): 347–409.
doi:10.1112/plms/s2_14.1.347 (https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2_14.1.347).
Ramanujan, S. (1915). "On the number of divisors of a number" (https://archive.org/details/dl
i.ernet.504289/page/131/mode/2up). The Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society. 7 (4):
131–133.
Ramanujan, S. (1915). "Short Note: On the sum of the square roots of the first n natural
numbers" (https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.504289/page/173/mode/2up). The Journal of
the Indian Mathematical Society. 7 (5): 173–175.
Ramanujan, S. (1916). "Some formulae in the analytical theory of numbers" (https://archive.o
rg/details/messengerofmathe45cambuoft/page/80/mode/2up). Messenger Math. 45: 81–84.
Ramanujan, S. (1916). "A Series for Euler's Constant γ" (https://archive.org/details/messeng
erofmathe46cambuoft/page/72/mode/2up). Messenger Math. 46: 73–80.
Ramanujan, S. (1917). "On the expression of numbers in the form ax2 + by2 + cz2 + du2" (http
s://archive.org/details/proceedingsofcam1920191721camb/page/n23/mode/2up).
Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 19: 11–21.
Hardy, G. H.; Ramanujan, S. (1917). "Asymptotic Formulae for the Distribution of Integers of
Various Types" (https://zenodo.org/record/1553638). Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society. 16 (1): 112–132. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-16.1.112 (https://doi.org/10.111
2%2Fplms%2Fs2-16.1.112).
Hardy, G. H.; Ramanujan, Srinivasa (1918). "Asymptotic Formulae in Combinatory Analysis"
(https://zenodo.org/record/1560148). Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 17
(1): 75–115. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-17.1.75 (https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-17.1.75).
Hardy, G. H.; Ramanujan, Srinivasa (1918). "On the coefficients in the expansions of certain
modular functions" (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1918.0056). Proc. R. Soc. A. 95 (667):
144–155. Bibcode:1918RSPSA..95..144H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1918RSPSA..
95..144H). doi:10.1098/rspa.1918.0056 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1918.0056).
Ramanujan, Srinivasa (1919). "Some definite integrals" (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dl
i.2015.509608/page/n89/mode/2up). The Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society. 11 (2):
81–88.
Ramanujan, S. (1919). "A proof of Bertrand's postulate" (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dl
i.2015.509608/page/n195/mode/2up). The Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society. 11
(5): 181–183.
 Ramanujan, S. (1920). "A class of definite integrals" (https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b4175
68?urlappend=%3Bseq=306%3Bownerid=9007199275659670-310). Quart. J. Pure. Appl.
Math. 48: 294–309. hdl:2027/uc1.$b417568 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.%24b41756
8?urlappend=%3Bseq=306).
Ramanujan, S. (1921). "Congruence properties of partitions" (https://zenodo.org/record/1447
425). Math. Z. 9 (1–2): 147–153. doi:10.1007/BF01378341 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01
378341). S2CID 121753215 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121753215).
Posthumously published extract of a longer, unpublished manuscript.

Further works of Ramanujan's mathematics

George E. Andrews and Bruce C. Berndt, Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part I (Springer,
2005, ISBN 0-387-25529-X)[156]
George E. Andrews and Bruce C. Berndt, Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part II, (Springer,
2008, ISBN 978-0-387-77765-8)
George E. Andrews and Bruce C. Berndt, Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part III, (Springer,
2012, ISBN 978-1-4614-3809-0)
George E. Andrews and Bruce C. Berndt, Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part IV, (Springer,
2013, ISBN 978-1-4614-4080-2)
George E. Andrews and Bruce C. Berndt, Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part V, (Springer,
2018, ISBN 978-3-319-77832-7)
M. P. Chaudhary, A simple solution of some integrals given by Srinivasa Ramanujan,
(Resonance: J. Sci. Education – publication of Indian Academy of Science, 2008)[157]
M.P. Chaudhary, Mock theta functions to mock theta conjectures, SCIENTIA, Series A : Math.
Sci., (22)(2012) 33–46.
M.P. Chaudhary, On modular relations for the Roger-Ramanujan type identities, Pacific J.
Appl. Math., 7(3)(2016) 177–184.

Selected publications on Ramanujan and his work

Berndt, Bruce C. (1998). Butzer, P. L.; Oberschelp, W.; Jongen, H. Th. (eds.). Charlemagne
and His Heritage: 1200 Years of Civilization and Science in Europe (https://www.math.uiuc.e
du/~berndt/articles/aachen.pdf) (PDF). Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Verlag. pp. 119–146.
ISBN 978-2-503-50673-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20040909045617/http://ww
w.math.uiuc.edu/~berndt/articles/aachen.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2004.
Berndt, Bruce C.; Rankin, Robert A. (1995). Ramanujan: Letters and Commentary. Vol. 9.
Providence, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-0287-8.
Berndt, Bruce C.; Rankin, Robert A. (2001). Ramanujan: Essays and Surveys (https://archiv
e.org/details/trent_0116405145958). Vol. 22. Providence, Rhode Island: American
Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-2624-9.
Berndt, Bruce C. (2006). Number Theory in the Spirit of Ramanujan. Vol. 9. Providence,
Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-4178-5.
Berndt, Bruce C. (1985). Ramanujan's Notebooks: Part I. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-
387-96110-1.
Berndt, Bruce C. (1999). Ramanujan's Notebooks: Part II. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-
387-96794-3.
Berndt, Bruce C. (2004). Ramanujan's Notebooks: Part III (https://archive.org/details/ramanuj
ansnotebo0000rama). New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-97503-0.
 Berndt, Bruce C. (1993). Ramanujan's Notebooks: Part IV. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-
387-94109-7.
Berndt, Bruce C. (2005). Ramanujan's Notebooks: Part V. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-
387-94941-3.
Hardy, G. H. (March 1937). "The Indian Mathematician Ramanujan". The American
Mathematical Monthly. 44 (3): 137–155. doi:10.2307/2301659 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F23
01659). JSTOR 2301659 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2301659).
Hardy, G. H. (1978). Ramanujan. New York: Chelsea Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8284-0136-4.
Hardy, G. H. (1999). Ramanujan: Twelve Lectures on Subjects Suggested by His Life and
Work. Providence, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-2023-0.
Henderson, Harry (1995). Modern Mathematicians (https://archive.org/details/modernmathe
matic00hend). New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-3235-8.
Kanigel, Robert (1991). The Man Who Knew Infinity: a Life of the Genius Ramanujan. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-19259-8.
Leavitt, David (2007). The Indian Clerk (paperback ed.). London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-
7475-9370-6.
Narlikar, Jayant V. (2003). Scientific Edge: the Indian Scientist From Vedic to Modern Times.
New Delhi, India: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-303028-7.
Ono, Ken; Aczel, Amir D. (13 April 2016). My Search for Ramanujan: How I Learned to
Count. Springer. ISBN 978-3319255668.
Sankaran, T. M. (2005). Srinivasa Ramanujan- Ganitha lokathile Mahaprathibha (Report) (in
Malayalam). Kochi, India: Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad.

Selected publications on works of Ramanujan

Ramanujan, Srinivasa; Hardy, G. H.; Seshu Aiyar, P. V.; Wilson, B. M.; Berndt, Bruce C.
(2000). Collected Papers of Srinivasa Ramanujan. AMS. ISBN 978-0-8218-2076-6.

This book was originally published in 1927[158] after Ramanujan's death. It contains the 37
papers published in professional journals by Ramanujan during his lifetime. The third
reprint contains additional commentary by Bruce C. Berndt.

S. Ramanujan (1957). Notebooks (2 Volumes). Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental

Research.

These books contain photocopies of the original notebooks as written by Ramanujan.

S. Ramanujan (1988). The Lost Notebook and Other Unpublished Papers. New Delhi:
Narosa. ISBN 978-3-540-18726-4.

This book contains photo copies of the pages of the "Lost Notebook".

Problems posed by Ramanujan (https://www.imsc.res.in/~rao/ramanujan/collectedpapers/qu

estion/qJIMS.htm), Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society.
S. Ramanujan (2012). Notebooks (2 Volumes). Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research.

This was produced from scanned and microfilmed images of the original manuscripts by
expert archivists of Roja Muthiah Research Library, Chennai.
See also
Mathematics
portal
Biography portal

India portal

1729 (number)
Brown numbers
List of amateur mathematicians
List of Indian mathematicians
Ramanujan graph
Ramanujan summation
Ramanujan's constant
Ramanujan's ternary quadratic form
Rank of a partition

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7/09/16/books/review/Freudenberger-t.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.arc
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ng/issues/reso.pdf) (PDF). Resonance. 13 (9): 882–884. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
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External links

Media links
Biswas, Soutik (16 March 2006). "Film to celebrate mathematics genius" (https://news.bbc.c
o.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4811920.stm). BBC. Retrieved 24 August 2006.
Feature Film on Mathematics Genius Ramanujan by Dev Benegal and Stephen Fry (https://d
evbenegal.com/2006/03/15/feature-film-on-math-genius-ramanujan/)
BBC radio programme about Ramanujan – episode 5 (https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/
further5.shtml)
A biographical song about Ramanujan's life (https://archive.org/details/Ramanujan)
"Why Did This Mathematician's Equations Make Everyone So Angry?" (https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=ixra6x1XdjE). Youtube.com. Thoughty2. 11 April 2022. Retrieved 29 June
2022.

Biographical links
Srinivasa Ramanujan (https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=91561) at the Mathematics
Genealogy Project
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Srinivasa Ramanujan" (https://mathshistory.st-an
drews.ac.uk/Biographies/Ramanujan.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive,
University of St Andrews
Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang (ed.). "Ramanujan, Srinivasa (1887–1920)" (http://scienceworld.wo
lfram.com/biography/Ramanujan.html). ScienceWorld.
A short biography of Ramanujan (https://www.usna.edu/Users/math/meh/ramanujan.html)
"Our Devoted Site for Great Mathematical Genius" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018080516
1945/http://srinivasaramanujan.in/)

Other links
Wolfram, Stephen (27 April 2016). "Who Was Ramanujan?" (https://writings.stephenwolfram.
com/2016/04/who-was-ramanujan/).
A Study Group For Mathematics: Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar (https://archive.today/201212
04163504/http://groups.yahoo.com/group/srinivasaramanujan/)
The Ramanujan Journal (https://web.archive.org/web/20020126193110/https://www.math.ufl.
edu/~frank/ramanujan.html) – An international journal devoted to Ramanujan
International Math Union Prizes (https://web.archive.org/web/20051125142618/https://www.
mathunion.org/General/Prizes/), including a Ramanujan Prize
Hindu.com: Norwegian and Indian mathematical geniuses (https://web.archive.org/web/2005
0120000345/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2004/12/26/stories/2004122600610400.htm),
Ramanujan – Essays and Surveys (https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/br/2003/08/26/stories/2
003082600120300.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121106022700/http://www.
hindu.com/thehindu/br/2003/08/26/stories/2003082600120300.htm) 6 November 2012 at the
Wayback Machine, Ramanujan's growing influence (https://web.archive.org/web/200401030
74953/http://www.hindu.com/2003/12/22/stories/2003122204061100.htm), Ramanujan's
mentor (https://web.archive.org/web/20040628115315/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2
002/12/22/stories/2002122200040400.htm)
Hindu.com: The sponsor of Ramanujan (https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/metroplus/a
rticle884010.ece)
 Bruce C. Berndt; Robert A. Rankin (2000). "The Books Studied by Ramanujan in India".
American Mathematical Monthly. 107 (7): 595–601. doi:10.2307/2589114 (https://doi.org/10.
2307%2F2589114). JSTOR 2589114 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2589114). MR 1786233 (h
ttps://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1786233).
"Ramanujan's mock theta function puzzle solved" (https://www.maa.org/news/030807puzzle
solved.html)
Ramanujan's papers and notebooks (https://www.imsc.res.in/~rao/ramanujan/contentindex.h
tml)
Sample page from the second notebook (https://web.archive.org/web/20171211191400/htt
p://www.cecm.sfu.ca/organics/papers/borwein/paper/html/local/ramnotebook.html)
Ramanujan (https://web.archive.org/web/20120319203227/http://www.friedeye.com/2011/01/
01/ramanujan/) on Fried Eye
Clark, Alex. "163 and Ramanujan Constant" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180204091812/
http://www.numberphile.com/videos/163.html). Numberphile. Brady Haran. Archived from the
original (https://www.numberphile.com/videos/163.html) on 4 February 2018. Retrieved
23 June 2018.

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