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Stress Challenges
and Immunity
in Space
From Mechanisms to
Monitoring and Preventive
Strategies
Alexander Choukér
Editor
Second Edition
123
Stress Challenges and Immunity in Space
Alexander Choukér
Editor
Second Edition
Editor
Alexander Choukér
Laboratory of Translational Research Stress and Immunity
Department of Anaesthesiology
Hospital of the University of Munich (LMU)
Munich
Germany
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my wife
Martina
To our children
Marie-Thérèse, Maxime Amédé, Émile Victor
and Alphonse Loïc
The compilation of 40 chapters was only possible with the outstanding support,
unending patience and extreme flexibility of the authors to provide, to update and to
refine the content in the best possible and feasible way to the overall context. This
exchange has been a very rewarding task and all authors in this book deserve my
sincerest appreciation for their extremely valuable, professional and always kind
collaboration throughout the many iterations of the review process.
In science, just as in science related to space and space flight, the emerging topics
can only be addressed when a solid “chain of contributors” asks new exciting ques-
tions and helps raise funds to enable groundbreaking research or discoveries to gen-
erate new insights, knowledge and technologies. Only these interdependent
achievements from devoted researchers, students, technicians and administrators all
over the world will continue to produce new interventions to maintain or to restore
health in humans, in space and on Earth. It is especially important to me to acknow
ledge all the participating volunteers in space and space analogue environments, and
the patients who devoted time and undertook risks by giving their consent to enable
research protocols and the progress of science. Without their support, such develop-
ments would not be possible neither could a second edition ever be realized.
The continuous support and highly valuable input from all members of the
European Space Agency (ESA) Topical Team “Stress and Immunity”, their con-
structive criticism and advice have again been major sources of inspiration for the
realization of this new edition. I am very grateful to the ESA for the long-term ongo-
ing support of the Topical Team, which was pivotal in developing this topic further,
as reflected in this volume. Special thanks go to Dr. Dominique Moser who was
very supportive in the finalization and proof read period.
This project would not have been possible without the institutional support from
the Department of Anesthesiology at the Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-
Universität and the financial support from the German National Space Program
(DLR) as well as all other space and non-space agencies and bodies which have
funded the researchers and authors in this book.
Sincerely,
Alexander Choukér
vii
Acknowledgments 1st Edition
ix
Preface
Thank you for your interest and for reading this second edition of the book “Stress
Challenges and Immunity in Space”. I would like to warmly welcome the new read-
ers and am deeply indebted to the loyal readers who read the first edition already. I
am very grateful for their interest, the positive feedback and criticisms that were
instrumental in shaping these research topics and in spreading the enthusiasm for
this inter- and cross-disciplinary field of research. Encouraged by reader comments
and by the expanding body of knowledge in the area of stress and immunity, together
with an emerging interest in space and human space exploration beyond the Earth
orbit, the publisher, the authors and I were compelled to embark together on another
“journey” with this second edition.
The complex nature of stress and stress responses and immunity, especially in
light of extreme living conditions such as in space, need to be addressed on the one
hand in a very detailed fashion, but on the other hand, in a more holistic perspective.
While all organ systems are obviously interconnected in the human body, these
interactions can be strongly affected by the space life conditions (the “space expo-
some”). I hope this second edition of “Stress Challenges and Immunity in Space” is
an attempt in approaching this multifaceted issue even more comprehensively. This
has not only resulted in significant updates of the existing chapters with new know
ledge and new perspectives, but also from the creation of several new chapters,
partly stemming from more basic research, which connects the physiological sys-
tems and research areas in a meaningful way to reflect progresses in science. This
also resulted in a new summary chapter displaying all the interconnected areas and
key information and directions at a glance.
This book will hopefully continue to serve as a handy resource and as an inspira-
tion for a more integrative approach in the field of stress and immunity, highlighting
the bidirectional scientific, technological and health benefits of research in space
and on Earth.
The authors and I look forward to your comments to this new edition.
xi
Contents
Part I Introduction
Part II Stress and Immunity Research: A Link Between Space and Earth
4 What Is Stress?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 19
Bruce S. McEwen and Ilia N. Karatsoreos
5 Environmental Stress: Mitochondria as Targets and Stressors
in Cellular Metabolism������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 43
Jürgen Bereiter-Hahn and Marina Jendrach
6 The Impact of Everyday Stressors on the Immune System
and Health�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
Annina Seiler, Christopher P. Fagundes, and Lisa M. Christian
xiii
xiv Contents
Part VII Synopsis
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 753
Part I
Introduction
The Human Space Exploration
Endeavour: A Personal View from Inside 1
David Parker
Humanity’s road into the solar system is now under construction, and the humans
that will ride along that road will be exposed to many physical and psychological
challenges. Uniquely among space activities, exploration is driven by the combina-
tion of curiosity and opportunity: the curiosity to venture into the unknown and the
opportunity to bring back to Earth discoveries and perspectives only possible by
exploring with humans and robots. To ensure our human explorers return safely is
both a moral responsibility and a scientific puzzle—a puzzle which researchers
around the world have been tackling with enthusiasm and increasing success.
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) exploration strategy—approved by
Ministers back in 2014—focuses on three destinations: Low Earth Orbit, the Moon
and Mars. Through the International Space Station (ISS), Low Earth Orbit has
proven its value as a place for humans to live and work. In particular, it has allowed
sustained physiology research of value back on Earth as well as in preparing for
more distant voyages.
The Moon has immense scientific and practical potential, much increased given
the discoveries made since the days of Apollo. Space agencies around the world
concur that it is the next target for sustained human exploration, being—in compari-
son with the ISS—a few days instead of a few hours away from the Earth’s
surface.
Finally, the Red Planet is a key target not least because it has much to reveal
about the potential for past or present life elsewhere in the universe. Establishing
how to sustain humans on a multi-year mission to Mars is the horizon goal of the
current research discussed in this book.
But while exploration without science is merely tourism, exploration is much
more than only science. As the ultimate proving ground for important technolo-
gies—energy, robotics, life support systems—it is also a vital source of innovation.
D. Parker (*)
Human and Robotic Exploration, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
Given all this, it is not surprising that the Gateway and the wider exploration of
the Moon is generating increasing interest in the science community and beyond.
Undoubtedly, it will further advance the research topics—from fundamental under-
standings of the cell´s function to the integrative and interdisciplinary insights on
the effects of stress on the immune and associated organ systems—as discussed in
this second edition of Alexander Choukér’s volume. There are new discoveries and
new history awaiting humanity—it is time for us to take the next steps in life sci-
ences and human exploration!
Space Travel: A Personal
View from Above 2
Thomas Reiter
One of the disciplines that is in the focus of scientists is the human physiology. It’s
not too surprising how much gravity influences the function of our body from a
macroscopic- down to the microscopic level of biochemical processes within each
cell—the absence of gravity opens completely new insights into physiological and
biochemical processes. It is remarkable, how the human body is able to adapt to
weightlessness, increased radiation, altered atmospheric constituents and circadian
rhythm. ISS—this multidisciplinary laboratory in space is an ideal environment to
understand these effects, and consequently might help us to reveal the root-causes
of some widespread diseases, e.g. diseases of the cardiovascular system, the demin-
eralization of bones and the deficiencies of the immune system.
Human space flight is also the source of great fascination. The view of our planet
from above and the view of the starry sky is just overwhelming, nurtures our curios-
ity and drives us to continuously expand our boundaries, to find answers to ever new
questions about our origins and the physical principles that govern our universe.
Curiosity is a deeply human quality, which has always played a central role in our
development.
The progression and further evolution of our technical and scientific knowledge
is the merit of generations of engineers and researchers, who have been working in
the area of spaceflight and who will continue to push the limits of technology and
science. I have no doubt that we will again see humans on the surface of the moon.
And in two or three decades we will travel to even more distant destinations like our
neighbouring planet Mars. Still a number of technological challenges need to be
solved, and a range of medical issues, which are linked to long-term exposure to the
space-environment, have to be understood.
Spaceflight is an interdisciplinary regime with a direct impact on science, tech-
nology and industrial capabilities. In this context we should not lose sight of the
T. Reiter (*)
Human Spaceflight and Operations (HSO), Darmstadt, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
cultural aspect of human spaceflight. There are destinations, which can probably
never be reached by humans, but by automated or robotic probes. However, humans
with their unique combination of cognitive-, sensory- and dexterous capabilities
cannot be replaced by robots, not in the near- and maybe not even in the far future.
Anyhow, a machine will hardly be able to share any feelings when executing tasks
on the surface of a remote celestial body, or share its emotions when looking back
to this beautiful planet, with all its colours, textures, oceans, forests and deserts—a
multitude of impressions that an astronaut registers, assimilates and never forgets.
Entering a New Era of Holistic Research
in Establishing Groundwork for Future 3
Human Space Exploration: Perspectives
from the ESA-Topical Team “Stress
and Immunity”
Alexander Choukér, Sarah Baatout, Patrizia Campolongo, Jean-Pol Frippiat, Jay Gopalakrishnan,
Ines Kaufmann, Nicola Montano, Siegfried Praun, Dominique de Quervain, Benno Roozendaal,
Gustav Schelling, Manfred Thiel, Detlef Thieme, Antoine Viola are the TT-members and Judith-
Irina Buchheim, Alex Salam and Anne Guo are co-authors of this chapter.
The European Space Agency (ESA) supports teams of international experts in “Topical Teams.”
ESA-Topical Teams are open structures led by European researchers to address a scientific field in
which gravity and access to space or planetary bodies constitute as cornerstones of their research.
The members of the Topical Team “Stress and Immunity” played a crucial role in the realization of
this book and its second edition and authored this prelude collectively as a group.
I. Kaufmann
Munich Clinic Neuperlach, Munich, Germany
N. Montano
Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico,
University of Milan, Milan, Italy
S. Praun
VF Services GmbH, Absam, Austria
D. de Quervain
Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Transfaculty Research
Platform and University Psychiatric Clinics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
B. Roozendaal
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center,
Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen,
Nijmegen, The Netherlands
G. Schelling
Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital of Munich, LMU, Munich, Germany
M. Thiel
Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Medical Faculty of Mannheim,
University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
D. Thieme
Institut für Dopinganalytik und Sportbiochemie (IDAS), Kreischa, Germany
A. Viola
PPRS, Rouffach, France
A. Salam
Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
3.1 Introduction
We are currently entering a new era of manned space flight, which will expand
human presence to the moon and Mars as outlined in the roadmaps of the
International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG, www.globalspaceex-
ploration.org). This roadmap builds on the vision for “a coordinated human and
robotic exploration of our solar system” within this century, and envisions perma-
nent human colonization on the moon and on our neighboring planet. This goal set
by the established and emerging space countries and agencies, as well as by private
entrepreneurs, has further fueled the pace and created impact in this new “race to
space” to moon again and to Mars, following the first era in exploring the Earth orbit
and the landing on the moon in the past century. These new strategies mandate that
we also need to enter a new era of holistic research to better understand human
beings subjected to extreme environments for longer periods of time.
3 Entering a New Era of Holistic Research in Establishing Groundwork for Future 11
For centuries, mankind has been struggling to understand the profound complexity
governing the principles of life and the universe. This quest has taken him on scien-
tific journeys far and wide: from the delicate structure of our DNA to the hellish and
chaotic depths of our sun. Scientific, artistic, and social discoveries are what drive
humans, and what distinguish us from all other species. One of the fundamental
questions that still troubles us is how life began on this planet and whether it exists
elsewhere in the universe. This deep desire to understand and search for life has
taken humans on exploratory journeys to the extremes of our planet - from the
depths of our oceans to the heights of our mountains- and into to space, escaping the
clutches of Earth’s gravitational pull.
Yet in 1960, before a human was launched into space, it was not even clear if one
could survive in a zero-gravity environment. At no point in our evolution had we been
prepared for such extreme and manifold environmental stresses. From the moment
life began in the “pre-biotic soup” some three billion years ago, all life on Earth,
Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes, and Archaea alike, have been shaped by the universal force
of gravity. Within a matter of few minutes into space, one is faced with the most com-
plex forces and must successfully cope with the absence of gravity. Since Gagarin’s
historic 108-min voyage, others have survived for months not only in weightlessness
but also in extreme isolation and confinement. However, adapting to such hostile and
unnatural conditions is not without any repercussions and is accompanied by adverse
physiological and psychological effects, which over the last decades, have been shown
to impact almost all organ systems. While our presence has extended beyond low
Earth orbit to the moon, manned exploration beyond Earth’s vicinity into the depths
of our solar system as stated above requires a much more detailed understanding of
the adaptation of human beings to extreme environments. Major questions remain:
What are the principles and most important environmental and social threats to physi-
cal and mental health during long-duration space flight missions and how can we
prevent and mitigate the adverse effects from adaptation to these threats?
It was Hans Selye who first used the term “stress” in the 1930s to describe how a
biological system might adjust to the challenges and demands associated with major
environmental changes (Selye 1936). He realized that when a complex organism is
challenged by noxious conditions, the resulting symptoms are independent of the
quality of the conditions, i.e., the qualitative end-result of different stressor types is the
same. Rather, it is the quantitative effects that vary. He also recognized that stressful
conditions directly affect neural pathways, such as the autonomic nervous system, but
also indirectly affect other organ systems, e.g., the immune system. The steps involved
in the adaptation process to chronic stress are gradual and the biological system either
builds up resistance and maintains a healthy physiological and psychological equilib-
rium, or succumbs to the stress, resulting in disequilibrium and eventual disease.
Stress research has expanded tremendously since then, and Selye probably never
12 A. Choukér et al.
imagined that it would transcend Earth’s boundaries. Space flight is associated with a
very distinct and unique combination of stressors: zero gravity, radiation, altered
microbial flora, isolation, confinement, altered circadian rhythm, and closed-loop
environments. Such stressors will be experienced in the extreme during interplanetary
travel. These combined and multifactorial challenges affect many organ functions
with different time slopes of adaptation and can result in health issues critical to mis-
sion success. For example, the neurovestibular and cardiovascular systems seem to
adapt within days and weeks, respectively (Aubert et al. 2016). However, the signifi-
cant brain morphological changes (van Ombergen et al. 2018) and altered immune
responses that are observed are much less predictable in their degree and “dose-
response” in relation to mission duration and exposition to the stressors in space.
Moreover, changes in the immune system can influence by secondary effects other
physiological systems and even feed-back with neural pathways in a bidirectional
manner (Tracey 2009). This expands the current view that the physical and social
environment stressors interact in the “ecological loop” with the nervous system and
further with hormonal and immunological responses, the so-called macroorganismal
loop. The latter is connected by the immune system to the microorganismal loop and
the intrinsic regulation of microbial changes (Irwin and Cole 2011).
Although astronauts, cosmonauts, and taikonauts are exceptionally well selected,
trained and healthy individuals, some are now known to be particularly susceptible to
the stressors of space flight. When challenged by complex stressful conditions, indi-
viduals react differently and adjustments to the extreme conditions can fail. The“milieu
intérieur” (Claude Bernard 1813–1878) is no longer able to maintain “coordinated
physiological processes which maintain most of the steady states in the organism,” as
they “are so complex and so peculiar to living beings – involving, as they may, the brain
and nerves, the heart, lungs, kidneys and spleen, all working cooperatively” (Cannon
1932). This concept of “homeostasis” is extended further by the notion of homeody-
namics, “the stability of the internal milieu toward perturbation” (Lloyd et al. 2001).
Although studying specific cellular models and simple biological organisms under
conditions of simulated weightlessness, increased radiation, or isolation and confine-
ment can help unravel the neurophysiological consequences of standardized emo-
tional and physiological strains, no organ, especially in the case of humans, can be
considered as a stand-alone entity. For this reason, new integrative and holistic
approaches to the understanding of stress responses and individual predispositions
and reactions to stress have started to evolve. With the help of research on the
International Space Station and in analogous conditions and environments—bedrest,
or group isolation and confinement in chamber studies (i.e., former Mars-500 habitat,
now SIRIUS) or field operational conditions (i.e., Antarctica or subaquatic habitats)—
the impact of distinct emotional and physical stressors, or a combination thereof, can
be investigated. This will eventually help with the understanding of the incremental
effects of stress on organ allostasis, from an allostatic load to overload with subse-
quent exhaustion and failure to re-establishing an appropriate equilibrium.
3 Entering a New Era of Holistic Research in Establishing Groundwork for Future 13
Given that the reaction to stress can vary between individuals and even within one
individual at different times, how can we design strategies to meet the astronauts’
individual needs under evolving and unpredictable conditions? How can we pro-
vide personalized medicine? This may prove very difficult and would require new
technologies and devices. Should we select astronauts based on the presence of
genetic characteristics that confer resistance to stress? The new emerging techno-
logical tools of molecular biology, such as next-generation sequencing, single-
cell genomics, and exosome research, will help to uncover the genetic and
epigenetic (e.g., DNA methylation, post-transcriptional regulation) explanations
for (mal) adaption and the corresponding therapeutic consequences. Today, organ-
oids are very promising representatives of human models for space research as
they represent the miniature of human organs constituting the complexities simi-
lar to human tissues. For instance, the human brain is a very susceptible organ
when subjected to extreme conditions. Recent years have seen enormous progress
in developing human brain organoids reflecting events of early brain development
and maturation. Due to the fact that (brain) organoids are amendable for experi-
mental purposes and are economical, clearly they hold promises to uncover
aspects that are practically impossible to investigate in real humans. Moreover,
autologous organoids are opening up new opportunities for investigating and
modeling an individual’s organ capacity (Clevers 2016) as affected by external
stressors in metabolizing drugs and allowing dose adjustments according to indi-
vidual responses. Such new bioengineering technologies will also “revolutionize
the field of regenerative medicine” (Madl et al. 2018) on Earth and may probably
be just as needed when humans aim to expand into outer space. This altogether
will help us better predict, prevent, and treat the space voyager and to help him or
her coping with external stressors while paving the way to individually and fully
controlled human metabolism in enabling a hibernating state, for example, during
space travel (Choukèr et al. 2018).
Genetic, metabolic, and bioengineering approaches have the potential to select
and deselect candidates. This would have important psychological, social, and ethi-
cal implications. While “reading genes” does not equate to “understanding genes”
and the complexity of a human being goes far beyond his genetic heritage, identifi-
cation of single-gene polymorphisms that appear to correlate with a higher predis-
position for physiological and behavioral stresses should not disqualify a potential
space flight candidate. Although polymorphisms in genes, such as genes regulating
sleep (Goel et al. 2009), traumatic memory encoding, or DNA repair, may confer
vulnerability, individuals may have unidentified genetic resistance to other space-
related stress factors as well as behavioral coping strategies that may mitigate the
genetic risk.
“The right stuff” (Wolfe 2008) seems very likely to be a highly complex mix of
gene and environmental interactions. Given ethical implications, the use of genetic
analyses or other emerging technologies are not permitted in the selection of candi-
dates for space flight, but rather, to identify possible risks in order to personalize the
frequency and mode of physiological and psychological assessments and
14 A. Choukér et al.
The study of healthy humans experiencing high levels of stress in confinement and
isolation or in other space analogous environments allows us to establish clear
causal links between stress and physiological disequilibrium and disease.
Understanding the interaction between stress and the human body and mind will
lead to better healthcare not only for astronauts but also for the vast majority of us
who will never escape gravity’s pull. Often undermined are sex differences, which
have to come more into the focus (Jaillon et al. 2017) as well as the effect of stress
on aging of the immune system (Prather et al. 2018) and autoimmunity (Gianchecchi
et al. 2018). Space and space analogous environments provide an excellent platform
for such studies since these processes appear to be accelerated and more profound.
In the future of manned space exploration, the pace of research in understanding
these effects will be accelerated through new diagnostic and healthcare tools and
regimens that are necessary to enable a personalized, circadian-adjusted precision
medicine to balance the individuals’ allostatic load. An important question remains
though: to which degree will the required human–robotic interactions and artificial
intelligence affect the human in space and how they can assist in better adaptation?
Along the way, these new developments will not only benefit our space agencies but
also the wider society at large. Stress has the ability to alter the function of virtually
every single organ system and cell type in the human body, therein lie many new
opportunities in understanding the profound complexities governing the principles
of life and the adaptation responses of an individual. After all, every single person
on this planet experiences stress and no one is completely immune to its effects.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the funding of this Topical Team by the European
Space Agency (ESA, contract 4000109114/13/NL/PG)) and express their thanks to Dr. Jennifer
Ngo-Anh (ESA) for her support. The funding of the authors by national space agencies or other
national or international funding institutions is acknowledged and specified in the authors’ indi-
vidual chapters of this volume.
References1
Aubert AE, Larina I, Momken I, Blanc S, White O, Prisk GK, Linnarsson D (2016) Towards
human exploration of space: the THESEUS review series on cardiovascular, respiratory, and
renal research priorities. NPJ Microgravity 2:16031
1
The overarching topics addressed in this chapter will be presented also in the parts II–VI of this
volume. In addition, the references have been used to compile this chapter.
3 Entering a New Era of Holistic Research in Establishing Groundwork for Future 15
Cannon WB (1932) “Homeostasis.” The wisdom of the body. Norton, New York, NY
Choukèr A, Bereiter-Hahn J, Singer D, Heldmaier G (2018) Hibernating astronauts-science or fic-
tion? Pflugers Arch. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-018-2244-7
Clevers H (2016) Modeling development and disease with organoids. Cell 165(7):1586–1597
Gianchecchi E, Delfino DV, Fierabracci A (2018) NK cells in autoimmune diseases: linking innate
and adaptive immune responses. Autoimmun Rev 17(2):142–154
Goel N, Banks S, Mignot E, Dinges DF (2009) PER3 polymorphysm predicts cumulative sleep
homeostatic but not neurobehavioral changes to chronic partial sleep deprivation. PLoS One
4(6):e5874
Irwin MR, Cole SW (2011) Reciprocal regulation of the neural and innate immune systems. Nat
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Allergy Immunol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8648-x
Lloyd D et al (2001) Why homeodynamics, not homeostasis? Sci World J 1:133–145
Madl CM, Heilshorn SC, Blau HM (2018) Bioengineering strategies to accelerate stem cell thera-
peutics. Nature 557(7705):335–342
Prather AA, Epel ES, Portela Parra E, Coccia M, Puterman E, Aiello AE, Dhabhar FS (2018)
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nescence. Brain Behav Immun 73:546–549
Selye H (1936) A syndrome produced by diverse noxious agents. Nature 138:30–32
Tracey KJ (2009) Reflex control of immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 9(6):418–428
Van Ombergen A, Jillings S, Jeurissen B, Tomilovskaya E, Rühl RM, Rumshiskaya A, Nosikova
I, Litvinova L, Annen J, Pechenkova EV, Kozlovskaya IB, Sunaert S, Parizel PM, Sinitsyn V,
Laureys S, Sijbers J, Zu Eulenburg P, Wuyts FL (2018) Brain tissue-volume changes in cosmo-
nauts. N Engl J Med 379(17):1678–1680
Wolfe T (2008) The right stuff, 2nd edn. Picador, London. Revised edition. ISBN-10: 0312427565;
ISBN-13: 978-0312427566
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Élisée en frappant un coup avec sa béquille. Comportez-vous avec
décence et respect les unes vis-à-vis des autres comme le
commande la très sainte doctrine.»
Ces paroles ramenèrent le recueillement et la tranquillité que la
véhémence de propos de quelques-unes avaient gravement
compromis, et les tristes heures continuèrent à couler, partie en
mendiant et gémissant, partie en priant et bâillant.
Maintenant il convient de dire que l’absence de la seña Benina et
de l’aveugle Almudena n’était pas tout à fait accidentelle ce jour, et
pour l’expliquer il est nécessaire de faire mention d’un fait dont il est
indispensable de donner l’explication dans cette véridique histoire.
Ils partirent tous deux à quelques minutes d’intervalle, comme
nous l’avons dit; mais comme l’ancienne s’attarda un petit instant à
la grille, pour parler à Pulido, l’aveugle marocain la rejoignit et ils
prirent ensemble le chemin des rues San-Sebastian et Atocha.
«Je me suis arrêtée à parler avec Pulido pour t’attendre, ami
Almudena. J’ai besoin de te parler.»
Et, le prenant sous le bras avec une sollicitude câline, elle le fit
passer d’un trottoir à l’autre. Ils gagnèrent rapidement la rue des
Urosas et, s’arrêtant aux coins pour éviter les passants et les
voitures, elle commença de lui parler ainsi:
«J’ai besoin de te causer, parce que toi seul peux me sortir d’un
grand embarras; toi seul, parce que toutes les autres connaissances
de la paroisse ne me servent à rien. Comprends-tu? Les uns sont
égoïstes, des cœurs de pierre: celui qui a quelque chose, parce qu’il
a quelque chose, et celui qui n’a rien, parce qu’il n’a rien. Au total,
les autres laisseront quelqu’un mourir de honte s’il ne mendie point,
et, si l’on arrive à tendre la main, ils se réjouiront de voir une pauvre
mendiante à bas.»
Almudena tourna son visage vers elle, et l’on pourrait dire qu’il la
regarda, si regarder c’est diriger les yeux sur un objet, les poser sur
lui, alors que non la vue, mais d’une certaine façon l’attention et
l’intention, aussi soutenues qu’inefficaces à voir, se posent seuls sur
quelqu’un.
Lui pressant la main, il lui dit:
«Amri, tu sais qu’Almudena te servira, lui, comme un chien; Amri,
dis-moi tes affaires.... Fais-moi part.
—Descendons, nous causerons en cheminant. Tu vas chez toi?
—Je vais où tu voudras.
—Il me semble que tu te fatigues. Nous marchons trop vite: veux-
tu que nous nous asseyions un moment sur la petite place du
Progrès pour que nous puissions causer tranquillement?»
Sans doute, l’aveugle répondit affirmativement, car cinq minutes
après on les voyait assis l’un à côté de l’autre sur le socle de la grille
qui entourait la statue de Mendizabal. Le visage d’Almudena était
d’une laideur expressive, brun citron, avec la barbe rare et noire
comme l’aile du corbeau; sa caractéristique était surtout la grandeur
démesurée de la bouche, qui, lorsqu’il souriait, affectait une courbe,
dont les extrémités, repoussant les poils flottants des joues,
semblaient se mettre à la recherche des oreilles. Les yeux étaient
comme deux plaies sèches et insensibles rongées par des plaques
sanglantes; la taille moyenne, les jambes torses; sa stature plutôt
élevée était diminuée par la démarche ordinaire des aveugles et par
l’habitude de rester de longues heures assis sur le sol avec les
jambes repliées sous lui comme font les Mauresques.
Il était vêtu avec une propreté relative, avec décence tout au
moins, car ses habits, quoique vieux et pleins de taches, ne
présentaient point de trous ou de déchirures qui n’aient été recousus
ou recouverts par un rapiéçage intelligent. Il était chaussé de
souliers noirs usés, mais parfaitement protégés par des coutures et
des pièces très habilement posées. Le chapeau en forme de
champignon dénotait les efforts de dilatation subis en passant sur
différentes têtes avant d’arriver à celle qu’il recouvrait, qui ne serait
peut-être pas la dernière, mais les bosses du feutre n’étaient point
telles qu’elles ne pussent protéger le crâne qu’elles avaient mission
de défendre. Le bâton était dur et lisse; la main avec laquelle il
l’empoignait était nerveuse, très colorée en noir à l’extérieur, tirant
sur l’éthiopien, la paume blanchâtre avec une couleur et des
délicatesses qui la faisaient ressembler à une peau de morue
fraîche, les ongles bien coupés; le col de la chemise le moins sale
que l’on pût imaginer dans la misérable condition et l’état de
vagabondage où vivait le misérable fils du Sud.
«Il faut pourtant que nous y arrivions, Almudena, dit la seña
Benina, en ôtant et remettant dans sa poche son mouchoir comme
une personne troublée et nerveuse qui veut s’éventer la tête. Je suis
dans un grand embarras, et toi, rien que toi, peux m’en tirer.
—Dis-moi ce que c’est....
—Que comptais-tu faire ce soir?
—Dans ma maison, moi beaucoup à faire: moi laver linge, moi
coudre beaucoup, rapetasser beaucoup.
—Tu es l’homme le mieux nippé qui existe au monde. Je ne
connais pas ton pareil. Aveugle et pauvre, tu arranges toi-même tes
petites affaires; tu enfiles une aiguille avec ta langue aussi
rapidement que je le peux faire moi-même avec mes doigts; tu
couds dans la perfection; tu es ton tailleur, ton cordonnier, ta
blanchisseuse.... Et après avoir mendié le matin à la paroisse,
l’après-midi dans la rue, tu trouves encore le temps d’aller un petit
instant au café..., content de ce que tu n’as pas, et s’il y avait au
monde une justice, et si les choses étaient disposées selon la
raison, on devrait te donner un prix..., brave garçon; pourtant, voilà
ce que c’est, je ne te laisse pas travailler ce soir, parce qu’il faut que
tu me rendes un service.... On garde ses amis pour les grandes
occasions.
—Que t’arrive-t-il?
—Une affaire épouvantable. Je n’en vis plus. Je suis si
malheureuse que, si tu ne me secours pas, je n’ai plus qu’à me jeter
du haut du viaduc... C’est comme je te le dis.
—Amri..., pas te jeter.
—C’est que j’ai un malheur si grand, si grand, qu’il paraît
impossible que j’en puisse sortir. Je vais te le dire d’un trait pour que
tu puisses en sentir de suite le poids: j’ai besoin d’un douro....
—Un douro! s’écria Almudena, exprimant par la subite gravité de
sa figure et l’énergie de l’accent l’épouvante que lui causait
l’importance de la somme.
—Oui, mon fils, oui..., un douro, et je ne puis rentrer à la maison
si je ne l’ai pas préalablement avec moi. Il est indispensable que j’aie
ce douro; parle, il faut le sortir de dessous les pierres, le trouver
n’importe comment.
—C’est beaucoup, beaucoup, murmurait l’aveugle, le visage
baissé vers la terre.
—Ce n’est pas tant, observa l’autre, cherchant à tromper sa
peine par des idées optimistes. Qui n’a pas un douro? Un douro, ami
Almudena, le premier venu l’a.... Donc, peux-tu me le procurer, oui
ou non?»
L’aveugle murmura dans son langage étrange quelque chose
que Benina traduisit par le mot «impossible», et lançant un profond
soupir, auquel Almudena répondit par un autre non moins profond et
non moins pitoyable, elle se plongea un instant dans une
douloureuse méditation, regardant alternativement la terre et le ciel,
et la statue de Mendizabal, ce seigneur de bronze foncé qu’elle ne
connaissait point, ne sachant point d’ailleurs pour quel motif on
l’avait mis là. De ce regard vague et distrait, qui est le propre des
moments de grande préoccupation, et comme un tour anxieux de
l’âme sur elle-même, elle voyait passer d’un côté ou de l’autre du
jardin des gens pressés ou nonchalants. Les uns devaient avoir un
douro, les autres allaient le chercher. Elle voyait passer des garçons
de recette de la Banque avec leur sacoche à l’épaule; des charrettes
avec des bouteilles de bière ou de limonade gazeuse. Dans les
boutiques entraient des gens pour acheter et ils ressortaient avec
des paquets. Des mendiants déguenillés importunaient les passants,
des chars funèbres portaient au cimetière des gens à qui rien
n’importait plus des douros. Avec une rapide vision, Benina passait
en revue les coffres-forts de toutes ces grandes boutiques, des
beaux appartements de toutes les maisons, des bourses de tous les
passants bien vêtus, et elle avait la certitude qu’à aucun de ces
heureux de la vie il ne manquait un douro.
Ensuite elle songea que ce serait une rude folie de se présenter
dans la maison voisine des Cespedes en les priant de lui faire la
faveur de lui donner un douro, même si elle le demandait à titre de
prêt. Sûrement ils se moqueraient d’une si absurde prétention et la
mettraient promptement à la porte.
Et nonobstant, il lui paraissait naturel et juste que quelque part où
un douro ne représentait qu’une valeur insignifiante on le lui donnât
à elle, pour qui cette somme représentait une valeur immense. Et si
cette monnaie si anxieusement désirée passait des mains qui en
possèdent beaucoup d’autres dans les siennes, on ne noterait pas
une altération sensible dans la répartition des richesses et tout
suivrait son cours, les riches toujours riches, elle toujours pauvre, et
toujours misérables tous les autres de sa condition. Puisqu’il en était
ainsi, pourquoi ce douro ne venait-il pas dans ses mains? Quelle
raison y avait-il pour que vingt personnes passant ne se privassent
d’un réal et que ces vingt réaux réunis ne tombassent pas par un
chemin naturel dans sa poche? Voyez comme les choses de ce
monde sont mal arrangées! La pauvre Benina se contenterait d’une
goutte d’eau, et devant le grand réservoir du Retiro elle ne pouvait
l’obtenir. Comptons bien, ciel et terre; l’aqueduc du Lozoya perdrait-il
quelque chose si on lui prenait une goutte d’eau?
IV