Halebid

H
the only figure who always bears it is
Krishna’s brother Balarama, for whom
one of the epithets is Haladhara (“bear-
ing a plow”).

Haladhara
(“bearing a plow”) Epithet of Balarama,
elder brother to the god Krishna.
Balarama was given this name because
Hair of his strong associations with farmers
According to traditional Hindu notions and farming, and also because he
regarding purity and impurity (ashaucha), occasionally used the plow itself as
head and facial hair trap and retain rit- a weapon.
ual impurity. In ordinary cases this On one occasion he is said to have
impurity is removed by simple washing menaced the Yamuna River with his
in running water, just as for the rest of plow when he was displeased with the
the body. In cases of particularly violent course she was taking. This threat to dig
impurity, such as that connected with a new channel for her induced the
death (maranashaucha), men will often Yamuna her to change her course to one
conclude the period of impurity by com- with which Balarama was happier.
pletely shaving both their heads and
beards. They may also have their nails Halahala
cut, probably reflecting that conviction In Hindu mythology, the name of the
that any dispensable parts of the body deadly poison produced when the
should be removed as a way to get rid of gods and demons churn the Ocean
any residual impurity. of Milk. The gods and demons churn
Shaving the head is also the major the ocean to produce amrta, the nectar
feature in the chudakarana, the tonsure of immortality. Yet their action pro-
ceremony that marks the ritual conclu- duces not only the amrta, but also its
sion of infancy to remove any residual antithesis, the halahala poison. This is
impurities left from childbirth. Among an event of great peril, since if left
adults such head shaving is usually unchecked this poison is so powerful
restricted to men; women usually offer a that it will destroy the earth. The poi-
token lock of hair as a symbol for the son is neutralized by the god Shiva,
whole, although women may have who holds it in his throat without swal-
their heads shaved to fulfill a religious lowing it. The poison turns his throat
vow. While shaving the head is fairly blue, hence one of his epithets is
common, shaving the body hair is not— Nilakanth, “the blue-throated [one].”
the Sanskrit language has different See also Tortoise avatar.
words for these two types of hair, and
they are considered to be different
things entirely. Halebid
Village in the southern Indian state of
Karnataka, about sixty miles northwest
Hala of the city of Mysore. As at its sister city,
(“plow”) In Hindu iconography, the Belur, Halebid is known for a magnifi-
branch of study concerned with the rep- cent collection of temples from
resentation of various figures, the hala is the Hoysala dynasty, who ruled
an ordinary Indian plow, which repre- western Karnataka from the eleventh
sents farming; it is also considered a to thirteenth centuries C.E. The
weapon. The hala is most often associated most notable site at Halebid is the
with the avatars of the god Vishnu, but magnificent Hoysaleshvar Temple,
269
 Hampi

Ruins of the city of Hampi. These structures were once a part

of the capital of the powerful Vijayanagar empire.

dedicated to Shiva in his form as Lord Indian peninsula south of the Narmada
of the Hoysalas. River. The empire’s wealth primarily
At both Belur and Halebid, the tem- stemmed from its control of the spice
ples were built from a particular type of and cotton trade—both highly valuable
stone—variously described as chlorite commodities at the time—and the
schist, steatite, or soapstone—that is city of Hampi was built on a scale to
quite soft when newly quarried, but reflect its importance. The empire came
gradually hardens with exposure to air. to an abrupt end after the battle of
This initial malleability makes the stone Talikota in 1565, when the last
easy to carve, and resulted in the lush Vijayanagar king, Rama Raja, was
detail characteristic of Hoysala temples. defeated by a coalition of Muslim sul-
Architecturally speaking, Hoysala tans from further north in the Deccan.
temples have certain unique features: The city was sacked by the invading
a central hall connecting three star- sultans, and has been deserted ever
shaped sanctuaries, and temple towers since. See also Vijayanagar dynasty.
(shikharas) composed of well-defined
horizontal tiers, rather than the
continuous upward sweep characteris- Hamsa
tic of the northern Indian Nagara archi- The name for the Barheaded Goose
tectural style. (Anser indicus), a bird with several
important symbolic associations; the
most significant is purity and transcen-
Hampi dence, since the bird’s color is largely
Deserted city in central Karnataka, white. It flies at very high altitudes,
about 170 miles northwest of the state’s and it is reputed to nest in Lake
capital, Bangalore. Hampi was the capi- Manasarovar in the high Himalayas,
tal of the Vijayanagar empire (1336–1565 the region believed to be the land of
C.E.), which at its peak in the early six- the gods. Since it is popularly believed to
teenth century controlled most of the be able to separate milk and water—

270
 Hanuman

drinking for former, and discarding the

latter—the hamsa is also a symbol for
a discriminating person, who is able
to take counsel from many different
people, and to separate the good from
the bad.
Perhaps because of these associa-
tions, the hamsa is also the name for a
particular type of Hindu ascetic. The
Hamsa ascetics were described as peri-
patetic—they were directed to stay no
more than one night in a village or five
nights in a town. They were also directed
to perform different sorts of ascetic
practices, such as subsisting on cow’s
urine or dung, fasting (upavasa) for a
month at a time, or observing the chan-
drayana rite, a fast in which one
increases and decreases one’s food con-
sumption according to the waxing and
waning of the moon.

Hanuman Image of Hanuman, a monkey-headed god who is

Monkey-headed Hindu god. Hanuman a devoted servant of the god Rama. He plays a
originally appears in the Ramayana, the pivotal role in the Hindu epic the Ramayana.
earlier of the two great Indian epics, strike means that no one can live a nor-
where he is described as a minister mal life. After a short time the gods real-
of the monkey king Sugriva and a ize their predicament and beg Vayu for
devoted servant of Rama, the god-king forgiveness; he is placated when each of
who is the epic’s protagonist. Despite the gods promises to give Hanuman a
Hanuman’s seemingly minor place in divine gift.
the Hindu pantheon, he is an enor- By virtue of these divine gifts,
mously popular deity in modern India, Hanuman gains great powers. He is
because he gives humans a god essen- immensely strong, and his image por-
tially like themselves (or as they would trays him with bulging muscles. He is
like to be) but on a greater scale and also skilled as a healer, both through his
with greater capacity. skill with herbs and natural medicines,
Hanuman is said to have been born and his magical abilities to protect peo-
of a union between the wind-god, Vayu, ple from evil supernatural beings.
and the nymph Anjana. After his birth Among his most unusual divine gifts are
the infant Hanuman is continually hun- the power to live as long as he likes and
gry, and one day he attempts to eat the to choose the time of his death.
sun. Indra, the king of the gods and His greatest virtue, and many would
ruler of heaven, is incensed at Hanuman’s say the real source of his power, is his
action, and strikes the infant with a devotion (bhakti) to Rama. In the
thunderbolt, breaking his jaw (hanu). Ramayana, Hanuman plays a pivotal
Vayu becomes very angry upon learning role in advancing the story. Hanuman is
of his son’s injury and ceases to perform sent out with a troop of other monkeys
his usual activities. Since in Indian phys- to search for Sita, Rama’s kidnapped
iology winds are responsible for all inter- wife, and after a long and arduous
nal functions—including digestion, search finally finds her imprisoned in
respiration, and elimination—Vayu’s the kingdom of Lanka.
271
 Hanuman Chalisa

Hanuman plays an even greater role of Indian wrestlers, who strive to imitate
in the Ramcharitmanas (a vernacular him as they train.
version of the Ramayana written by Finally, he plays an important role as
Tulsidas), in which he is transformed a healer and sustainer. On one hand, he
from a powerful monkey servant to the is famous as an exorcist, helping people
devotee (bhakta), whose only aim is to get rid of evil spirits. On the other, he
serve Rama with loving devotion. This preserves life for those who know his
devotion precludes any type of worldly special mantra, which gives them the
attachment, including marriage and power—as he had—to choose their time
family, and Hanuman remains a model of death. Given his importance in mod-
for a religious lifestyle stressing celibate ern Hindu life, Hanuman is only now
asceticism. In Indian culture, celibacy is receiving the attention he deserves. For
perceived as a source of power, since it more information see Sudhir Kakar,
prevents the loss of a man’s vital forces Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1982.
that takes place with ejaculation.
Yet for Hanuman’s devotees, his
greatest virtue is not his strength, but his Hanuman Chalisa
ability to act as an intermediary to (“Hanuman’s forty”) Forty poetic stanzas
Rama, who is usually perceived as far in praise of the god Hanuman, written in
more remote from human affairs. Hindi. A signature line (bhanita) at the
Because Hanuman is also a devotee, end of the text attributes it as written by
people feel an affinity and kinship with the poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623),
him, even though his powers are far best known as the composer of the
greater than theirs. In fact, they believe Ramcharitmanas, a vernacular version
that messages conveyed by Hanuman of the epic Ramayana.
have a better chance of reaching Rama’s Short texts like the Hanuman Chalisa
presence and getting action. In a text are often sung as a devotional act, or as
aptly named the “Letter of Petition” an established part of worship, and in
(Vinaya Patrika), the poet-saint many cases people can recite the text by
Tulsidas appoints Hanuman as his mes- heart. The text is written in the chaupai
senger, in the full confidence that his meter, the predominant meter in the
plea will be heard in the divine court. Ramcharitmanas.
Hanuman’s intimate access to divine The text begins with a description of
power, his own undeniable strengths, Hanuman’s physical features, then
and his perceived accessibility and sym- relates his devotion to Rama and
pathy have all combined to make him his heroic deeds in the Ramayana. The
one of the most widely worshiped closing verses reiterate Hanuman’s
deities in India, and one who crosses power, promise benefits as a result of the
sectarian boundaries. recitation of the verses, and reclaim
Because of his service to Rama, he Tulsidas’s wish that Hanuman will reside
is usually counted as a Vaishnava or in his heart.
devotee of the Vishnu. Yet in an
interesting twist, Hanuman is also Hanuman Jayanti
considered to be an avatar or ”incarna- Festival of the god Hanuman’s birthday.
tion” of the god Shiva, and is thus In southern India, this is celebrated on
revered by the Shaivites, Shiva’s the full moon in the lunar month of
devotees. As a protective deity, Chaitra (March–April), whereas in
Hanuman is often worshiped on northern India it is more commonly cel-
astrologically inauspicious days, to ebrated on the fourteenth day of the
keep these inauspicious forces at dark (waning) half of the lunar month of
bay. His prodigious strength, celibate Kartik (October–November). This latter
lifestyle, and single-minded devotion date reflects the date of Shivaratri, the
have made him the patron deity
272
 Haridwar

most important festival of Shiva, which avatar or “incarnation” as the god

is celebrated on the fourteenth day of Krishna. See Vishnu and Krishna.
the waning half of the month Phalgun
(usually in February). The two festivals
are associated because Hanuman is Haridasa
sometimes deemed an avatar or “incar- (ca. late 16th c.) Poet, singer, and devo-
nation” of Shiva, come to earth to serve tee (bhakta) of the god Krishna, who
the god-king Rama. founded the sect known as the
Although Hanuman’s primary myth- Haridasis. According to tradition,
ic importance is as a faithful and power- Haridasa was the teacher of Tansen, the
ful servant of Rama, in everyday consummate musician at the court of
religious life Hanuman is a very impor- the Moghul emperor Akbar. Most of the
tant deity, with a wide following. His songs of Haridasa describe the love
birthday has no prescribed celebrations, between Radha and Krishna. See also
but usually his devotees (bhakta) often Moghul dynasty.
mark it with worship, festive proces-
sions, and devotional reading of reli- Haridwar
gious texts, particularly the Hanuman Sacred city (tirtha) on the Ganges River
Chalisa and the Ramayana. about 140 miles northeast of Delhi.
Haridwar is one of India’s Seven Sacred
Hara Cities. Dying in one of these cities is
(“taking away,” “Destroyer”) Epithet of believed to ensure the final liberation of
the god Shiva. See Shiva. one’s soul. It is located on the edge of the
Shiwalik Hills, the foothills to the
Himalayas, and is the place where the
Harappa Ganges is believed to leave the moun-
Ancient city and archeological site on tains and enter the northern Indian
the Ravi River in Pakistan, about one plain. As with all the places where the
hundred miles southwest of the modern Ganges makes some natural transition,
city of Lahore. Harappa is one of the Haridwar is considered especially holy,
cities of the Indus Valley civilization, a and has been a pilgrimage destination
highly developed urban culture that since at least the sixth century, when the
flourished in the Indus Valley region Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang reported
between the fourth and third millennia enormous pilgrim crowds.
B.C.E. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have Haridwar’s primary importance is as
been the most extensively excavated of a bathing (snana) place, and it draws
these cities, although archeological large crowds on festival days. For cen-
work is proceeding in some of the oth- turies it has been an important site
ers, and the similarities between these for performing asthi-visarjana, the
different cities have revealed a great deal last of the funerary rites (antyeshthi
about this civilization’s material culture. samskara), in which the ashes of
the deceased are immersed in the
Ganges. Haridwar is also important as
Hare Krishnas the gateway to the pilgrimage sites in
Colloquial name for the International the Garhwal region of the Himalayas,
Society for Krishna Consciousness and during the pilgrim season
(ISKCON). See ISKCON. (April–October) it serves as an impor-
tant transit and supply point to places
Hari farther up in the mountains.
(probably derived from the Sanskrit Finally, Haridwar has a long history
verb hr, “taking away [evil]”) Epithet of as a dwelling place for ascetics. It is a
the god Vishnu, particularly in his major center for several ascetic groups,

273
 Harihara

Crowds gather in Haridwar to bathe in the Ganges River.

particularly the Naga class of the his own kingdom. After gaining power,
Dashanami Sanyasis, trader-soldiers Harihara reconverted to Hinduism,
who are devotees (bhakta) of the god despite having become an outcast
Shiva. It also serves as the winter quar- through his acceptance of Islam. His
ters for many ascetics who spend their example not only shows the fluidity of
summers in the Himalayas. The pres- religious identity in early medieval
ence of so many ascetics has had a pro- India, but also Hindu pragmatism in
found effect on the city’s general relation to the ruling powers. Although
character, both in the hundreds of Harihara had earlier become an outcast,
ashrams that are spread throughout the his power as ruler gave him the authori-
city, and in the prohibitions on the sale ty to reconvert without orthodox oppo-
of eggs, meat, and liquor. sition. See also Vijayanagar dynasty.

Harihara Harihara
(early 14th c.) The founder of the (2) A deity seen as a combination of the
Vijayanagar (“city of victory”) empire, gods Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva).
established in 1336, which ruled over Behind this hybrid deity lay the convic-
much of southern India for the following tion that both of these divinities were
two centuries. The empire took its name differing manifestations of the same
from the capital city that Harihara built divine power.
near the city of Hampi in the modern This underlying unity was represented
state of Karnataka. in several different ways. One way was to
As a boy, Harihara was captured by create a figure whose right half had the
soldiers of the Bahmani sultanate to the attributes of Shiva, and whose left half
north, and had converted to Islam in had those of Vishnu. Another method,
captivity, which rendered him an outcast found most often in modern poster art,
in the eyes of traditional Hindus. As a is to display both Vishnu and Shiva in
man, Harihara was sent to regain the their full forms, riding on their respec-
southern region for the sultanate, but tive animal vehicles. Vishnu’s elephant
instead used the opportunity to establish and Shiva’s bull are conjoined at the
274
 Harishchandra

head, in a way that one can discern the Vaishnavas, or devotees (bhakta), of the
heads of both animals, but only one can god Vishnu, all associates and disciples
be perceived at any given moment. Both of Gokulnath’s father Vitthalnath or his
the elephant-bull and the divided figure grandfather Vallabhacharya. The text’s
show that Vishnu and Shiva are manifes- real purpose is not to provide biogra-
tations of the same divine energy, and phies of these figures, but to illustrate
that the particular deity one perceives the importance of the Pushti Marg and
depends on one’s perspective at the its leaders. Besides the Chaurasi
moment. The joint Harihara figure Vaishnavan ki Varta, a number of poems
presents an important religious truth, are also attributed to Hariray, but these
but this idea is far too abstract to may be the work of a later figure.
become popular or widespread. In
their everyday religious lives people
have tended to worship one or the Harishchandra
other of these deities, rather than their In Hindu mythology, a king who is
idealized union. famous for his truthfulness and integrity.
In modern Hindu culture, he has
become the symbol for someone who
Harijan patiently endures undeserved suffering.
(“child of God”) Name used by Harishchandra’s suffering is a result
Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) to des- of the long-standing feud between the
ignate those social groups formerly sages Vasishtha—his family priest—and
known as untouchables. The name Vishvamitra. When Vasishtha praises
reflected Gandhi’s conviction that these the virtue of Harishchandra, Vishvamitra
people were human beings like any oth- becomes determined to prove him
ers, and thus children of God. wrong. Disguised as an old brahmin,
Unfortunately, the word harijan Vishvamitra conjures up an imaginary
can also carry a pejorative sense in son using his magical powers and gets
modern India. It is used for any child Harishchandra to promise that he will
whose father is unknown—with the give whatever is necessary for the
child’s paternity ascribed to God—and boy’s wedding.
is thus a euphemism for “bastard.” In When the time comes to redeem
modern times, the people whom this promise, Vishvamitra demands
Gandhi called Harijans prefer to used Harishchandra’s kingdom. Vishvamitra
the name dalit (“oppressed”), since expects that the king will balk at this
they feel that this more accurately demand, but Harishchandra immedi-
describes their social status. ately fulfills it. Vishvamitra then
remarks that when giving a gift to a
brahmin it is customary to give a gift of
Hariray money (dakshina) and demands a
(mid-17th c.) A noted disciple of large sum. To raise this amount,
Gokulnath (1551–1640 C.E.), the third Harishchandra first sells his wife
guru of the Pushti Marg, a religious (Chandramati) and son into slavery
community founded by his grandfather and finally sells himself to an outcast,
Vallabhacharya. who puts him to work burning bodies
Aside from being a disciple, Hariray at the cremation ground.
is considered Gokulnath’s scribe. He is After enduring these miseries for
the commentator on a text called the some time, Harishchandra’s son is
Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta bitten by a snake and dies. When
(“Account of eighty-four Vaishnavas”), Chandramati brings the body to be
and probably compiled the text itself burned, he does not recognize her. He
under Gokulnath’s direction. This text refuses to cremate the boy until the
describes the lives of eighty-four cremation fee is paid, since this will
275
 Harivamsh

cheat his master of his rightful income. Mahabharata, the later of the two great
Chandramati has no money for the Hindu epics. The Harivamsha is one of
fee, and after listening to her lamenta- the important puranas, which describe
tions Harishchandra recognizes her the mythology of the Hindu deities, as
and becomes doubly miserable. The well as many other facets of popular
couple finally decides that suicide is Hindu life.
their only escape from their misery In particular, the Harivamsha is
and make a pyre on which to burn devoted to the mythology of the god
themselves. When Harishchandra is Krishna (also known as Hari). It is espe-
about to light the pyre, the gods cially important for the traditional sto-
appear before them, praising his right- ries connected with Krishna’s childhood
eousness and his commitment to his in the Braj region, for which it is the ear-
word, and Harishchandra’s outcast liest identifiable source. The episodes
master is revealed as dharma (“right- described in the Harivamsha are further
eousness”) incarnate. Harishchandra’s developed in the Bhagavata Purana, a
son is restored to life, his kingdom is later work that is considered the most
restored back to him, and everyone influential text for the cult of Krishna.
lives happily ever after.

Harsha
Harivamsh (r. 606–647) Ruler in the Pushyabhuti
(d. 1552) Poet, singer, and founder of the line, a dynasty whose capital was the
Radhavallabh religious community, city of Kanyakubja in eastern Uttar
which is based on the figure of Radha. Pradesh. Harsha is generally considered
Initially portrayed as the god Krishna’s the greatest Pushyabhuti ruler; he con-
human consort, she was later consid- trolled a large part of northern India and
ered his adulterous mistress. The to some extent restored the glory of the
Radhavallabh community took a very Gupta dynasty (350–550).
different perspective, stressing Radha’s Historically, Harsha’s reign is well-
nature as a deity, her equality and iden- documented, in part by the Chinese pil-
tity with Krishna, and her status as his grim Hsuan Tsang, whose account gives
lawful wife. The Radhavallabhs focused invaluable information about Indian life
on the love (hit) of Radha for Krishna, at that time. Harsha was an able and
and because of this emphasis the poet is energetic ruler who spent much of his
also known as “Hit Harivamsh.” later life evaluating the condition of his
Harivamsh’s poetry treats many of empire. He was also a cultured and lit-
the traditional themes found in Krishna erate man—he was the author of three
devotionalism, but from the perspec- Sanskrit plays—whose court was
tive of a female companion (sakhi). He graced by significant literary figures,
compiled a collection of eighty-four especially the playwright Bana. After
poems known as the Hit-chaurasi, his death, his kingdom quickly disinte-
which are notable both for their highly grated when he died without an heir.
Sanskritized language and for their See also Pushyabhuti dynasty.
incorporation of the alamkara (“poetic
ornamentation”) tradition of earlier
Sanskrit poetry. For further information Harshacharita
see Charles S. J. White, The Caurasi Pad (“The Deeds of Harsha”) A drama writ-
of Sri Hit Harivams, 1977. ten by the playwright Bana (7th c.),
which chronicles the emperor Harsha’s
rise to power. Bana was a member of
Harivamsha Harsha’s court, and thus a contempo-
(“lineage of Hari”) A text traditionally rary; his tale contains some evident
considered to be an appendix to the exaggeration, but also a great deal of

276
 Hastinapur

historical detail. Bana was a careful had temporarily occupied the Moghul
observer, and the detailed descriptions capitals at Delhi and Agra, and thus
in the Harshacharita give significant reestablished Moghul rule. In 1761 an
information about courtly and everyday invading Afghan army defeated the
life in his times. Marathas, ending the period of Maratha
territorial expansion. For more informa-
tion, an accessible reference is Christine
Hartalika Teej Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., Lonely
Hindu women’s festival also known as Planet, 1998.
Teej. See Teej.

Hashish
Haryana See charas.
Modern Indian state that surrounds
Delhi, the nation’s capital, in every
direction but the east. Haryana is one of Hasta
the so-called linguistic states formed (“hand”) In Indian dance, sculpture,
after Indian independence, to unite and ritual, a hasta is a particular hand
people with a common language and position. In some cases, this hand posi-
culture (in this case, Hindi) under one tion may have symbolic meaning, as in
state government. Haryana was created varada hasta or the “gift-giving” ges-
in 1966, from the Hindi-speaking ture; in other cases the hasta’s name
regions of the former Punjab state. It may simply describe the shape of the
has traditionally been an important hand, as in kataka hasta, in which the
agricultural region, since the land is fer- tips of the fingers are loosely joined to
tile and productive, but more recently it the thumb. In the context of dance, all
has also benefited from the attempt to of these gestures have been given multi-
create “satellite cities” around Delhi, in ple symbolic meanings, and the dancer
order to spread out the development in can use these gestures to tell a story
the capital region. These efforts have through her gestures.
greatly raised the land values in the There is some overlap in meaning
areas closest to the capital. Aside from between the words hasta and mudra
this localized land boom, Haryana is a (“seal”), which are both used to describe
largely rural state. hand gestures, and the two are some-
Haryana’s major religious sites, times used interchangeably. Of the two,
which are right next to one another, are mudras tend to be more strictly defined,
Kurukshetra and Thanesar. The former and to be far more stylized than hastas.
is cited as the battleground for the war They stress the positions of the fingers,
described in the epic Mahabharata; the rather than of the entire hand; the fin-
latter is named as the place that the god gers are always in very specific posi-
Shiva was worshiped by the Pandavas, tions. Mudras always have very specific
the Mahabharata’s protagonists. symbolic meanings.
From a true historical perspective,
the level plains around the town of
Panipat have seen three decisive battles Hastinapur
that influenced the course of Indian his- Archeological site about sixty miles
tory. In 1526, Babar, a central Asian northeast of Delhi. This site has yielded
monarch who had been displaced from pottery and other artifacts believed to
his own homeland in Afghanistan, be from the ninth to sixth centuries
B.C.E., which would make them contem-
crushed the Lodis to end the Lodi
dynasty and establish his own Moghul porary with the latest parts of the Vedas,
dynasty. In 1556 Babar’s grandson the earliest Hindu religious texts. In the
Akbar decimated the Sur dynasty, which Mahabharata, the later of the two great
Hindu epics, Hastinapur is the capital of
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 Hatha Yoga

the Kauravas, a group of one hundred for Shakti, and the phoneme tha to the
brothers who are the epic’s antagonists. moon, which is a symbol of Shiva. Hatha
Although the name of the site and the yoga is interpreted as the union of the
place named in the epic matches, noth- sun and moon—that is, these two cen-
ing has been found to provide a connec- ters of power are believed to exist in the
tion between these two. subtle body.

Hatha Yoga Heavens

System of religious discipline (yoga) In Hinduism, there are believed to be
based on a series of bodily postures many additional planes of existence
known as asanas. Practicing this yoga is besides the visible earthly realm. These
widely believed to provide various phys- other planes of existence include the
ical benefits, including increased bodily heavens, which are realms of reward,
flexibility and the ability to heal chronic pleasure, and enjoyment. Beings are
ailments. Yet in the Yoga Sutras written born in heaven as a reward for their past
by Patanjali, the earliest systematic good deeds, and the life of the gods liv-
treatment of yoga, these asanas are only ing in these heavens is invariably
one part of an eight-step program that described as long and pleasurable. Yet
also includes such practices as breath- heaven is not permanent, and when
ing exercises and meditation. The pur- one’s karmic merit is exhausted and
pose of hatha yoga is to train and one’s stay in heaven is done, one
strengthen the body so that the practi- inevitably descends from heaven to take
tioner can sit comfortably in medita- birth in a lower form.
tion. Although Hatha yoga’s emphasis is In general, heaven is viewed as a dis-
on the body, it assumes a spiritual and traction to serious religious life. Birth in
religious context that in contemporary heaven comes only through accumulat-
times has often been either evaded or ing and expending an enormous
ignored—leading some Hindus to dis- amount of religious merit generated by
parage such yoga as simply a technique past good deeds, and thus is a tremen-
to develop better sexual control. dous drain on one’s accumulated spiri-
A more esoteric meaning of hatha tual resources. Furthermore, once one
yoga comes from the Nathpanthi has been born in heaven, life is so easy
ascetics, who understand hatha yoga as and carefree that people generally feel
referring to processes in the subtle no inclination to engage in religious life.
body. The subtle body is an alternate For both reasons, life in heaven is con-
physiological system believed to reside sidered a goal to which people should
on a different plane of existence than not aspire.
the actual body, but with certain corre-
spondences to the actual body. It is visu-
alized as a set of six psychic centers Hedgewar, Dr. K. B.
(chakras) running roughly along the (1889–1940) Founder and first
course of the spine; above and below supreme leader (sarsanghchalak) of
these centers are found the two divine the Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh
principles, Shiva (awareness) and (RSS), which he formed in the central
Shakti (power), the latter as the latent Indian city of Nagpur in 1925. The RSS
spiritual energy known as kundalini. is a conservative Hindu organization
The aspirant aims to combine kundalini formed for the express purpose of
with the Shiva principle at the crown of providing leadership for a revitalized
the head; through this union, the physi- Hindu India; for most of its history it
cal body will become immortal. has characterized its mission as cul-
According to the Nathpanthis, the tural, rather than religious or political.
phoneme ha refers to the sun, a symbol
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