Afro-Asian Literature

Competencies:

1. be familiar with the literary history, philosophy, religious beliefs, and culture of the Afro-
Asian nations
2. point out the universal themes, issues, and subject matter that dominate Afro-Asian literature
3. interpret the significance and meaning of selected literary pieces
4. identify outstanding writers and their major works

INDIA

1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between 2500 and
1500 B.C. The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the earliest known
migrants into India. They brought with them a well-developed language and literature and a set
of religious beliefs.
a) Vedic Period (1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns
that formed the cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, which were
transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of all literature for they believe these
to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods.

 The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme sacred knowledge,” is the
foremost collection or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the Vedas, it
contains strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns, often comparable to the psalms in
the Old Testament. The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely inspired or ‘heard’
directly from the gods.

Afro-Asian Literature|1
 The Song of Creation

Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it.

What covered it and where? And what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of
water?

Death was not then nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day’s and
night’s divider.

That one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it was nothing
whatsoever.

Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness, this All was indiscriminated
chaos.

All that existed then was void and formless: by the great power of warmth was born that
unit.

b) Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two great epics,
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of later Vedic literature,
new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was also
probably composed during this period. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka
promoted Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’ although
this period was known for warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.)
was the next great political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a full flowering and
was evident in culture and the arts.

 The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a mass of

legendary and didactic material that tells of the struggle for supremacy between two
groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas set sometime 3102 BC. The poem is
made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or sections. It is an
exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper conduct of a king, of a
warrior, of a man living in times of calamity, and of a person seeking to attain
emancipation from rebirth.

 The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the greatest and most
beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is regarded by the Hindus in somewhat the same
way as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of Book IV and is written in the
form of a dialogue between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend and charioteer,
Krishna, who is also an earthly
 incarnation of the god Vishnu.

From the Bhagavad-Gita

Arjuna: Krishna, what defines a man/ deep in contemplation whose insight/ and
thought are sure? How would he speak?/ How would he sit? How would he move?
Lord Krishna: When he gives up desires in his mind,/ is content with the self within
himself,/ then he is said to be a man/ whose insight is sure, Arjuna.
When suffering does not disturb his mind,/ when his craving for pleasures has
vanished,/ when attraction, fear, and anger are gone,/ he is called a sage whose
thought is sure.

 The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BC, by the poet
Valmiki and consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It reflects the
Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of karma, the ideals of
wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor and promises.

The poem describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under the sage Visvamitra, and
his success in bending Siva’s mighty bow, thus winning Sita, the daughter of King Janaka,
for his wife. After Rama is banished from his position as heir by an intrigue, he retreats
to the forest with his wife and his half brother, Laksmana. There Ravana, the demon-
king of Lanka, carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects his attentions. After numerous
adventures Rama slays Ravana and rescues Sita. When they return to his kingdom,
however, Rama learns that the people question the queen’s chastity, and he banishes
her to the forest where she gives birth to Rama’s two sons. The family is reunited when
the sons come of age, but Sita, after again protesting her innocence, asks to be received
by the earth, which swallows her up.

From the Ramayana: “Brother’s Faithfulness”

If my elder and his lady to the pathless forests wend,

Armed with bow and ample quiver Lakshman will on them attend, Where the
wild deer range the forest and the lordly tuskers roam, And the bird of
gorgeous plumage nestles in its jungle home, Dearer far to me those
woodlands where perennial bliss prevails! Grant me then thy sweet
permission, - faithful to thy glorious star, Lakshman, shall not wait and tarry
when his Rama wanders far, Grant me then thy loving mandate, - Lakshman
hath no wish to stay, None shall bar the faithful younger when the elder leads
the way!

c) Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern India during this
period was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern India. Sanskrit,
which means ‘perfect speech’ is considered a sacred
language, the language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was seen as
the only appropriate language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama peaked
during this period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were popular and often used by
religious teachers to illustrate moral points.
 The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit. In
Europe, the work was known under the title The Fables of Bidpai after the narrator, and
Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook of
artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify shrewdness and cleverness more
than helping of others. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas of
verse, with the stories contained within one of five frame stories. The introduction,
which acts as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the stories to a learned
Brahman named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables to instruct the
three dull-witted sons of a king.

From the Panchatantra: “Right-Mind and Wrong-Mind” The good

and bad of given schemes/ wise thought must first reveal: the stupid heron saw his
chicks/ provide a mongoose meal.

 Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the love between Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes spiritual in
the end as their love endures and surpasses all difficulties. King Dushyanta is a noble
and pious king who upholds his duties above personal desire. Sakuntala, on the other
hand, is a young girl who matures beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and
strength of will. After a period of suffering, the two are eventually reunited. Emotion or
rasa dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama. These emotions vary from love to anger,
heroism to cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part in the play and
be one with the characters.

Excerpt from Sakuntala:

King. You are too modest. I feel honoured by the mere sight of you. Shakuntala.
Anusuya, my foot is cut on a sharp blade of grass, and my dress is caught on an
amaranth twig. Wait for me while I loosen it. (She casts a lingering glance at the king,
and goes out with her two friends.)

King. (sighing). They are gone. And I must go. The sight of Shakuntala has made me
dread the return to the city. I will make my men camp at a distance from the pious
grove. But I cannot turn my own thoughts from Shakuntala.
It is my body leaves my love, not I;/ My body moves away, but not my
mind;
For back to her struggling fancies fly/ Like silken banners borne against the
wind. (Exit.)
  The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to Shudraka, a king. The characters in
this play include a Brahman merchant who has lost his money through liberality, a rich
courtesan in love with a poor young man, much description of resplendent palaces, and
both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional situations.

PROLOGUE (Benediction upon the audience) May His,

may Shiva's meditation be
Your strong defense; on the Great Self thinks he, Knowing
full well the world's vacuity.
And again:
May Shiva's neck shield you from every harm, That seems a
threatening thunder-cloud, whereon, Bright as the lightning-
flash, lies Gauri's arm.

d) Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present). Persian influence on literature was
considerable during this period. Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. In
the 18th century India was directly under the British Crown and remained so until its
Independence in 1947. British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are primarily
educated in English. Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at the
expense of learning about their own culture.

 Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and it s translation
followed in 1912. In these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from
nature to express the themes of love and the internal conflict between spiritual
longings and earthly desires.

Moment’s Indulgence
I ask for a moment's indulgence to sit by thy side.
The works that I have in hand I will finish afterwards.
Away from the sight of thy face my heart knows no rest nor respite, and my
work becomes an endless toil in a shoreless sea of toil.

 The Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the mausoleum in North India built
by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-i- Mahal. The façade of this
grandiose structure is made of white marble and is surrounded by water gardens,
gateways, and walks. The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block with
towers at each corner. The construction of the building took twenty years to complete
involving some 20, 000 workers.

Excerpt from the Taj Mahal

Do dead king’s tombs delight you?
 If so, look into your own dark home.
In this world, countless people have loved. Who says
their passions weren’t true?
They just couldn’t afford a public display like this.

 On Learning to be an Indian an essay by Santha Rama Rau illustrates the telling

effects of colonization on the lives of the people particularly the younger generation.
The writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise between her grandmother's
traditional Indian values and the author’s own British upbringing.

Because Mother had to fight against the old standards, and because she was brought
up to believe in them, she has an emotional understanding of them which my sister I
will never have. Brought up in Europe and educated in preparatory and public schools
in England, we felt that the conventions were not only retrogressive and socially
crippling to the country but also a little ridiculous.

2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two
important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which ironically became
extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.

a) Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of India and
of no other nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the
universe.

The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the
renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved
after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths. The Hindus believe that all
reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual soul is identical with this reality and
shares its characteristics: pure being, intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to divide
the soul from this reality is maya or illusion.

Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the
four asramas: a) the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the
Vedas; b) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as head of the family
where he begets sons and earns a living; c) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from
home and renounces the social world; and d) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals
or social duties of life in the world and devotes time for reflection and meditation.

Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder, that of
pleasure and love. The Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of
pleasure and love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.

The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul and original source of
the universe. As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated
beings. As a personified human being, Purusha's body is the
 source of all creation. The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the organization of
the Hindu society. These were thought to have been created from Purusha’s body:

- The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to perform sacrifices,
to study and to teach the Vedas, and to guard the rules of dharma. Because of
their sacred work, they are supreme in purity and rank.
- The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the kings who are
the protectors of society.
- The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding, and
farming.
- The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and manual
occupation and they are to serve meekly the three classes above them. They are
strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.

 The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought

suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, according to some
traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical
doctrine is the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman, and knowledge is
directed toward reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of
eternal life is discussed and such themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in
creation.
b) Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. This religion is based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’ Much of
Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self- development in order to attain
nirvana or enlightenment.

According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of life which is
a continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in which a
person’s present life and experiences are the result of past thoughts and actions, and these
present thoughts and actions likewise create those of the future. The Buddhist scriptures
uphold the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are: 1)
life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) the removal of desire is the removal of
suffering; and 4) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering. The Noble Eightfold
Path consists of: 1) right understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right speech; 4) right action; 5)
right means of livelihood; 6) right effort; 7) right concentration; and 8) right meditation. The
Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad feelings such as selfishness, greed, hostility,
hate are evil not because they harm others but because of their negative influence on the
mental state of the doer. It is in this sense that evil returns to punish the doer

 The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist teaching in a simple

aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the Pali Buddhist canon, it contains
423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters. These verses are compared with the Letters of St.
Paul in the Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount
 Thought

As a fletcher makes straight his arrow, a wise man makes straight his trembling and
unsteady thought which is difficult to guard, difficult to hold back.
As a fish taken from his watery home and thrown on the dry ground, our thought
trembles all over in order to escape the dominion of Mara, the tempter.
It is good to tame the mind, which is difficult to hold in and flighty, rushing wherever
it listeth; a tamed mind brings happiness.
Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are difficult to perceive, very artful,
and they rush wherever they list: thoughts well guarded bring happiness.
Those who bridle their mind which travels far, moves about alone, is without a body, and
hides in the chamber of the heart, will be free from the bonds of Mara, the tempter

3. Major Writers.

a) Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian writer of all time.
As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s person or his
historical relationships. His poems suggest that he was a Brahman (priest). Many works
are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have identified only six as genuine.
b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet and
mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore managed his father's
estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
backwardness was later reflected in his works. The death of his wife and two children
brought him years of sadness but this also inspired some of his best poety. Tagore is also a
gifted composer and a painter.
c) Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936). Indian author of
numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian
themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma
Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.

 Sevasadana (House of Service). His first major novel deals with the problems of
prostitution and moral corruption among the Indian middle class.
 Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which
contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
 Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece and it deals
with his favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life of the village peasant.
d) Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of contemporary Indians
with conflicting Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at Madras University
then settled in England and married an Englishman. In her fiction, Western values typically
are viewed as modern and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual and traditional.

 Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is about an Indian peasant’s
narrative of her difficult life.

e) R. K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing
in English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself full-time to
writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian
town of Malgudi. They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships and the
ironies of Indian daily life, in which modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition.
His style is graceful, marked by genial humor, elegance, and simplicity.

 Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the adventures
of a group of schoolboys.
 Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The Guide
(1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A Tiger for
Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
 Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goats and Other
Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985), and Grandmother’s
Tale (1992).

f) Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of children’s books,
she is considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled in evoking character and
mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect Desei’s tragic view of life.
 Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses the theme of the suppression and
oppression of Indian women.
 Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This was
shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
 Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily on imagery at the
expense of plot and characterization, but it was praised for its poetic symbolism and
use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of Literature’s Winifred Holtby
Memorial Prize.

g) Vir Singh (1872-1957). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when Sikh
religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by the English and
Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals, earning respect for the Punjabi
language as a literary vehicle.
 Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17th century guru Gobind
Singh.
 Other novels on Sikh philosophy and martial excellence include Sundri
 (1898) and Bijai Singh (1899).
h) Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The God of Small Things won
for her a Booker Prize.

A. CHINA

1. Historical Background. Chinese literature reflects the political and social history of China and
the impact of powerful religions that came from within and outside the country. Its tradition
goes back thousand of years and has often been inspired by philosophical questions about
the meaning of life, how to live ethically in society, and how to live in spiritual harmony with
the natural order of the universe.

a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.). During this time, the people practiced a religion based on the
belief that nature was inhabited by many powerful gods and spirits. Among the significant
advances of this period were bronze working, decimal system, a twelve-month calendar
and a system of writing consisting of 3,000 characters.

b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.). This was the longest of all the dynasties and
throughout most of this period China suffered from severe political disunity and upheaval.
This era was also known as the Hundred Schools period because of the many competing
philosophers and teachers who emerged the most influential among them being Lao Tzu,
the proponent of Taoism, and Confucius, the founder of Confucianism. Lao Tzu stressed
freedom, simplicity, and the mystical contemplation of nature whereas Confucius
emphasized a code of social conduct and stressed the importance of discipline, morality,
and knowledge.

The Book of Songs, (Shih Ching) first compiled in the 6th century B.C., is the oldest
collection of Chinese poetry and is considered a model of poetic expression and moral
insight. The poems include court songs that entertained the aristocracy, story songs that
recounted Chou dynasty legends, hymns that were sung in the temples accompanied by
dance and brief folk songs and ballads. Although these poems were originally meant to be
sung, their melodies have long been lost.

O Oriole, Yellow Bird

O oriole, yellow bird,/ Do not settle on the corn, Do not peck
at my millet./ The people of this land
Are not minded to nurture me./ I must go back, go home To my
own land and kin.

The Parables of the Ancient Philosophers illustrate the Taoist belief and the humanism of
the Chinese thought. In them can be seen the relativity of all things as they pass through
man’s judgment, the virtues of flexibility, and the drawbacks of material progress.
 The Missing Axe by Lieh Tzu
A man whose axe was missing suspected his neighbor’s son. The boy walked like a thief,
looked like a thief, and spoke like a thief. But the man found his axe while he was digging
in the valley, and the next time he saw his neighbor’s son, the boy walked, looked, and
spoke like any other child.

c) Ch’in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.). This period saw the unification of China and the
strengthening of central government. Roads connecting all parts of the empire were built
and the existing walls on the northern borders were connected to form the Great Wall of
China.

d) Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220). This period was one of the most glorious eras of
Chinese history and was marked by the introduction of Buddhism from India.

e) T’ang Dynasty (A.D. 618-960). Fine arts and literature flourished during this era which is
viewed as the Golden Age of Chinese civilization. Among the technological advances of this
time were the invention of gunpowder and the block printing.

The T’ang Poets. Chinese lyrical poetry reached its height during the T’ang Dynasty.
Inspired by scenes of natural beauty, T’ang poets wrote about the fragile blossoms in
spring, the falling of leaves in autumn, or the changing shape of the moon.

Conversation in the Mountains by Li Po

If you were to ask me why I dwell among green mountains, I should
laugh silently; my soul is serene.
The peach blossom follows the moving water;
There is another heaven and earth beyond the world of men.

A Meeting by Tu Fu
We were often separated How long does youth last? Like the
Dipper and the morning star. Now we are all gray-haired. What
night is tonight? Half of our friends are dead,
We are together in the candlelight. And both of us were surprised when
we met.

f) Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 – 1279). This period was characterized by delicacy and
refinement although inferior in terms of literary arts but great in learning. Professional
poets were replaced by amateur writers. The practice of Neo-Confucianism grew

g) Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260-1912). During the late 12th and early 13th centuries, northern
China was overrun by Mongol invaders led by Genghis Khan whose grandson Kublai Khan
completed the Mongol conquest of China and
 established the Yuan dynasty, the first foreign dynasty in China’s history. It was during this
time that Marco Polo visited China. Chinese rule was reestablished after the Mongols
were driven out of China and the Ming dynasty was established. There was a growth of
drama in colloquial language and a decline of the language of learning. A second foreign
dynasty, the Ch’ing was established and China prospered as its population rapidly
increased causing major problems for its government.

h) Traditional Chinese Government. The imperial rule lasted in China for over 2,000 years
leading to a pyramid-shaped hierarchy in the government. The emperor, known as the Son
of Heaven, was a hereditary ruler and beneath him were bureaucratic officials. An official
government career was considered prestigious and the selection was by means of
government examinations. The civil service examinations tested on the major Chinese
works of philosophy and poetry requiring the composition for verse. Most government
officials were
well-versed in literature and philosophy and many famous Chinese poets also served in
the government.

2. Philosophy and Religion. Chinese literature and all of Chinese culture has been profoundly
influenced by three great schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Unlike
Western religions, Chinese religions are based on the perception of life as a process of
continual change in which opposing forces, such as heaven and earth or light and dark, balance
one another. These opposites are symbolized by the Yin and Yang. Yin, the passive and
feminine force, counterbalances yang, the active and masculine force, each contains a ‘seed’
of the other, as represented in the traditional yin-yang symbol.

a) Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral order and an order for the universe.
It is not a religion but it makes individuals aware of their place in the world and the
behavior appropriate to it. It also provides a political and social philosophy.

Confucius was China’s most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose
ideas have influenced all civilizations of East Asia. According to tradition, Confucius came
from an impoverished family of the lower nobility. He became a minor government
bureaucrat but was never give a position of high office. He criticized government policies
and spent the greater part of his life educating a group of disciples. Confucius was not a
religious leader in the ordinary sense, for his teaching was essentially a social ethic.
Confucian politics is hierarchical but not absolute and the political system is described by
analogy with the family.
There are five key Confucian relationships: emperor and subject, father and son, husband
and wife, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend.

Confucian ethics is humanist. The following are Confucian tenets: a) jen or human
heartedness are qualities or forms of behavior that set men above the rest of the life on
earth. It is the unique goodness of man which animals cannot aspire
 to. Also known as ren, it is the measure of individual character and such, is the goal of self-
cultivation. The ideal individual results from acting according to li,
b) li refers to ritual, custom, propriety, and manner. Li is thought to be the means by which
life should be regulated. A person of li is a good person and a state ordered by li is a
harmonious and peaceful state. Li or de as a virtue is best understood as a sacred power
inherent in the very presence of the sage. The sage was the inspiration for proper conduct
and the model of behavior.

The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confucian texts. The sayings range from brief
statements to more extended dialogues between Confucius and his students. Confucius
believes that people should cultivate the inherent goodness within themselves –
unselfishness, courage, and honor – as an ideal of universal moral and social harmony. The
Analects instructs on moderation in all things through moral education, the building of a
harmonious family life, and the development of virtues such as loyalty, obedience, and a
sense of justice. It also emphasizes filial piety and concern with social and religious rituals.
To Confucius, a person’s inner virtues can be fully realized only through concrete acts of
‘ritual propriety’ or proper behavior toward other human beings.

From The Analects (II.1)

The Master said, “He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared
to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.”

The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five Classics of Confucian philosophy and has
been primarily used for divination. This book is based on the concept of change – the one
constant of the universe. Although change is never- ending, it too proceeds according to
certain universal and observable patterns.

b) Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and
influences are an important part of classical Chinese culture. “The Tao” or “The Way”
means the natural course that the world follows. To follow the tao of to “go with the
flow” is both wisdom and happiness. For the Taoist, unhappiness comes from parting
from the tao or from trying to flout it.

The Taoist political ideas are very passive: the good king does nothing, and by this
everything is done naturally. This idea presents an interesting foil to Confucian theories of
state, although the Taoists never represented any political threat to the Confucianists.
Whereas Confucianism stressed conformity and reason in solving human problems, Taoism
stressed the individual and the need for human beings to conform to nature rather than to
society.

Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi is credited as the founder of Taoism and an
elder contemporary of Confucius who once consulted with him. He was more pessimistic
than Confucius was about what can be accomplished in the world by human action. He
counseled a far more passive approach to the
 world and one’s fellows: one must be cautious and let things speak for themselves. He
favored a more direct relationship between the individual self and the dao.

The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) is believed to have been written between
the 8th and 3rd centuries B.C. The basic concept of the dao is wu- wei or “non-action”
which means no unnatural action, rather than complete passivity. It implies spontaneity,
non-interference, letting things take their natural course i.e., “Do nothing and everything
else is done.” Chaos ceases, quarrels end, and self-righteous feuding disappears because
the dao is allowed to flow unchallenged.

Realize the Simple Self

Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, The people have need of what
And the people shall profit a hundredfold; Banish they can depend upon:
love, discard justice, Reveal thy Simple Self,
And the people shall recover the love of their kin; Embrace the Original
Banish cunning discard utility, Nature,
And the thieves and brigands shall Check thy selfishness,
disappear. Curtail thy desires.
As these three touch the externals and are
inadequate;

c) Buddhism was imported from India during the Han dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses the
importance of ridding oneself of earthly desires and of seeking ultimate peace and
enlightenment through detachment. With its stress on living ethically and its de-emphasis
on material concerns, Buddhism appealed to both Confucians and Taoists.

3. Genres in Chinese Poetry has always been highly valued in Chinese culture and was considered
superior to prose. Chief among its characteristics are lucidity, brevity, subtlety, suggestiveness
or understatement, and its three-fold appeal to intellect, emotion, and calligraphy. There are
five principle genres in Chinese poetry:
b) shih was the dominant Chinese poetic form from the 2 nd through the 12th century
characterized by: i) an even number of lines; ii) the same number of words in each line, in
most cases five or seven; and iii) the occurrence of rhymes at the end s of the even-
numbered lines. Shih poems often involve the use of parallelism, or couplets that are similar
in structure or meaning.
c) sao was inspired by li sao or ‘encountering sorrow’, a poem of lamentation and protest
authored by China’s first known great poet, Chu Yuan (332-295 B.C.). It was an unusually
long poem consisting of two parts: i) an autobiographical account that is Confucian in
overtones; and ii) a narration of an imaginary journey undertaken by the persona. The sao
enables the poets to display their creativity of describing China’s flora and fauna, both real
and imaginary. It is also filled with melancholia for unrewarded virtue
 d) fu was a poem partially expository and partly descriptive involving a single thought or
sentiment usually expressed in a reflective manner. Language ranges from the simple to the
rhetorical.
e) lu-shih or ‘regulation poetry’ was developed during the Tang dynasty but has remained
popular even in the present times. It is an octave consisting of five or seven syllabic verses
with a definite rhyming scheme with all even lines rhyming together and the presence of
the caesura in every line. The first four lines of this poem is the ching (scene) while the
remaining four lines describe the ch’ing (emotion). Thus, emotion evolves from the setting
or atmosphere and the two becomes fused resulting in a highly focused reflection of the
persona’s loneliness but with determination to struggle.
f) chueh-chu or truncated poetry is a shorter version of the lu-shih and was also popular during
the Tang dynasty. It contains only four lines but within its twenty or twenty-eight syllables or
characters were vivid pictures of natural beauty.
g) tzu was identified with the Sung dynasty. It is not governed by a fixed number of verses nor
a fixed number of characters per verse. The tzu lyrics were sung to the tunes of popular
melodies.

4. Conventions of Chinese Theater. Chinese drama may be traced to the song and dances of the
chi (wizards) and the wu (witches) whom the people consulted to exercise evil spirits, to bring
rain, to insure bountiful harvest, etc., an origin in worship or in some sacred ritual.

a) There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao.
 The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually a male character, a scholar,
a statesman, a warrior patriot and the like.
 The tau plays all the women’s roles. At least six principal characters are
played by the female impersonator who has taken over the role after women were
banned from the Chinese stage as they were looked down upon as courtesen.
 The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave warriors, bandits, crafty and evil
ministers, upright judges, loyal statesmen, at times god-like and supernatural beings.
Conventionally, the ching must have broad faces and forehead suitable for the make-
up patters suggestive of his behavior.
 The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a fool and may also do serious or
evil character. He is easily recognized for the white patch around his eyes and nose, his
use of colloquial language and adeptness in combining mimicry and acrobatics.
b) Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not follow the unities of time, place, and
action. The plot may be set in two or more places, the time element sometimes taking
years to develop or end, and action containing many other sub- plots.
c) Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in the guise of art in order to impress a moral
truth or a Confucian tenet. Dramas uphold virtue, condemn vice, praise fidelity, and filial
piety. Vice is represented on the stage not for its own sake but as contrast to virtue.
 d) There are two types of speeches – the dialogue, usually in prose, and the
monologues. While the dialogue carries forward the action of the day, the
monologue is the means for each character to introduce him/herself at the
beginning of the first scene of every scene as well as to outline the plot.
e) Chinese plays are long – six or seven hours if performed completely. The average length
is about four acts with a prologue and an epilogue. The Chinese play is a total theater.
There is singing, recitation of verses, acrobats, dancing, and playing of traditional musical
instruments.
f) Music is an integral part of the classical drama. It has recitatives, arias, and musical
accompaniment. Chinese music is based on movement and rhythm that harmonized
perfectly with the sentiments being conveyed by a character.
g) The poetic dialogue, hsieh tzu (wedge), is placed at the beginning or in between acts and
is an integral part of the play.
The stage is bare of props except a table and a pair of chairs may be converted to a
battlefield or a court scene, a bedroom, even a prison through vivid acting and
poetry.
Property conventions are rich in symbolism table with a chair at the side, both placed at
the side of the stage, represents a hill or a high wall.
h) Dramatic conventions that serve to identify the nature and function of each
character.
Make-up identifies the characters and personalities. Costumes help reveal types and
different colors signify ranks and status.
i) Action reflects highly stylized movements. Hand movements may indicate
embarrassment or helplessness or anguish or anger.

5. Major Chinese Writers.

 Chuang Tzu (4th century B.C.) was the most important early interpreter of the philosophy of
Taoism. Very little is known about his life except that he served as a minor court official. In
his stories, he appears as a quirky character who cares little for either public approval or
material possessions.
 Lieh Tzu (4th century B.C.) was a Taoist teacher who had many philosophical differences with
his forebears Lao-Tzu and Chuan Tzu. He argued that a sequence of causes predetermines
everything that happens, including one’s choice of action.
 Lui An (172 – 122 B.C.) was not only a Taoist scholar but the grandson of the founder of the
founder of the Han dynasty. His royal title was the Prince of Haui- nan. Together with
philosophers and under his patronage, he produced a collection of essays on metaphysics,
cosmology, politics, and conduct.
 Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 – 90 B.C.) was the greatest of China’s ‘Grand Historians’ who dedicated
himself to completing the first history of China the Records of the Historian. His work covers
almost three thousand years of Chinese history in more than half a million written characters
etched onto bamboo tablets.
The T’ang Poets:
 Li Po (701 –762) was Wang Wei’s contemporary and he spent a short time in courts,
but seems to have bee too much of a romantic and too give to drink to
 carry out responsibilities. He was a Taoist, drawing sustenance from nature and his poetry
was often other-wordly and ecstatic. He had no great regard for his poems himself. He is
said to have mad thousands of them into paper boats which he sailed along streams.
 Tu Fu (712 –770) is the Confucian moralist, realist, and humanitarian. He was public-
spirited, and his poetry helped chronicle the history of the age: the deterioration
 Wang Wei (796? – 761?) was an 8th century government official who spent the later years
of his life in the country, reading and discussing Buddhism with scholars and monks. He is
known for the pictorial quality of his poetry and for its economy. His word-pictures parallel
Chinese brush artistry in which a few strokes are all suggestive of authority, the disasters of
war, and official extravagance.
 Po Chu-I (772 – 846) was born two years after Tu Fu died, at a time when China was still in
turmoil from foreign invasion and internal strife. He wrote many poems speaking bitterly
against the social and economic problems that were plaguing China.
 Li Ch’ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151) is regarded as China’s greatest woman poet and was also
one of the most liberated women of her day. She was brought up in court society and was
trained in the arts and classical literature quite an unusual upbringing for a woman of the
Sung dynasty. Many of her poems composed in the tz’u form celebrate her happy
marriage or express her loneliness when her husband was away.
 Chou-Shu-jen (1881 – 1936) has been called the ‘father of the modern Chinese short story
because of his introduction of Western techniques. He is also known as Lu Hsun whose
stories deal with themes of social concern, the problems of the poor, women, and
intellectuals.

B. JAPAN

1. Historical Background. Early Japan borrowed much from Chinese culture but evolved its own
character over time. Early Japan’s political structure was based on clan, or family. Each clan
developed a hierarchy of classes with aristocrats, warriors, and priests at the top and peasants
and workers at the bottom. During the 4th century
A.D. the Yamato grew to be most powerful and imposed the Chinese imperial system on Japan
creating an emperor, an imperial bureaucracy, and a grand capital city.
a) The Heian Age was the period of peace and prosperity, of aesthetic refinement and
artificial manners. The emperor began to diminish in power but continued to be a
respected figure. Since the Japanese court had few official responsibilities, they were able
to turn their attention to art, music, and literature.

The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, represents a unique form of the diary genre. It contains
vivid sketches of people and place, shy anecdotes and witticisms, snatches of poetry, and 164
lists on court life during the Heian period. Primarily intended to be a private journal, it was
discovered and eventually printed. Shōnagon served as
 a lady-in-waiting to the Empress Sadako in the late 10th century.

From Hateful Things

One is in a hurry to leave, but one’s visitor keeps chattering away. If it is someone of no
importance, one can get rid of him by saying, “You must tell me all about it next time”; but,
should it be the sort of visitor whose presence commands one’s best behavior, the situation
is hateful indeed.

b) The Feudal Era was dominated by the samurai class which included the militaristic lords, the
daimyo and the band of warriors, the samurai who adhered to a strict code of conduct the
emphasized bravery, loyalty, and honor. In 1192 Yorimoto became the shogun or chief
general one of a series of shoguns who ruled Japan for over 500 years.

c) The Tokugawa Shogonate in the late 1500s crushed the warring feudal lords and controlled
all of Japan from a new capital at Edo, now Tokyo. By 1630 and for two centuries, Japan was a
closed society: all foreigners were expelled, Japanese Christians were persecuted, and foreign
travel was forbidden under penalty of death. The shogonate was ended in 1868 when Japan
began to trade with the Western powers. Under a more powerful emperor, Japan rapidly
acquired the latest technological knowledge, introduced universal education, and created an
impressive industrial economy.

2. Religious Traditions. Two major faiths were essential elements in the cultural
foundations of Japanese society.
a) Shintoism or ‘ the way of the gods,’ is the ancient religion that reveres in dwelling divine
spirits called kami, found in natural places and objects. For this reason natural scenes, such
as waterfall, a gnarled tree, or a full moon, inspired reverence in the Japanese people.

The Shinto legends have been accepted as historical fact although in postwar times they
were once again regarded as myths. These legends from the Records of Ancient Matters, or
Kokiji, A.D. 712, and the Chronicles of Japan, or Nihongi, A.D. 720 form the earliest writings of
ancient Japan. Both collections have been considerably influenced by Chinese thought.

b) Zen Buddhism emphasized the importance of meditation, concentration, and self- discipline
as the way to enlightenment. Zen rejects the notion that salvation is attained outside of this
life and this world. Instead, Zen disciples believe that one can attain personal tranquility and
insights into the true meaning of life through rigorous phusical and mental discipline.

3. Socio-political concepts. Japan has integrated Confucian ethics and Buddhist morality which
India implanted in China. The concepts of giri and on explain why the
 average Japanese is patriotic, sometimes ultra-nationalistic, law-abiding. Even seppuku or ritual
disembowelment exemplify to what extent these two socio-political concepts could be morally
followed.

a) Giri connotes duty, justice, honor, face, decency, respectability, courtesy, charity,
humanity, love, gratitude, claim. Its sanctions are found in mores, customs, folkways. For
example, in feudal Japan ‘loss of face’ is saved by suicide or vendetta, if not renouncing the
world in the monastery.
b) On suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness which propels a Japanese to act, as it
binds the person perpetually to other individuals to the group, to parents, teachers,
superiors, and the emperor.

4. Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular means of expression and communication in the
Japanese culture. It was an integral part of daily life in ancient Japanese society, serving as a
means through which anyone could chronicle experiences and express emotions
a) The Manyoshu or ‘Book of Ten Thousand Leaves is an anthology by poets from a wide range
of social classes, including the peasantry, the clergy, and the ruling class.
b) There are different poems according to set forms or structures:
 choka are poems that consist of alternate lines of five and seven syllables with an additional
seven-syllable line at the end. There is no limit to the number of lines which end with
envoys, or pithy summations. These envoys consist of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables that elaborate on
or summarize the theme or central idea of the main poem.
 tanka is the most prevalent verse form in traditional Japanese literature. It consists of five
lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables including at least one caesura, or pause. Used as a means of
communication in ancient Japanese society, the tanka often tell a brief story or express a
single thought or insight and the common subjects are love and nature.

Every Single Thing How Helpless My Heart!

(by Priest Saigyo) (by Ono Komachi)

Every single thing Changes and is How helpless my heart!

changing Always in this world. Were the stream to tempt,
Yet with the same light The moon My body, like a reed
goes on shining. Severed at the roots,
Would drift along, I think.

 renga is a chain of interlocking tanka. Each tanka within a renga was divided into verses
of 17 and 14 syllables composed by different poets as it was fashionable for groups of
poets to work together during the age of Japanese feudalism.

 hokku was the opening verse of a renga which developed into a distinct literary form
known as the haiku. The haiku consist of 3 lines of 5-7-5 syllable
 characterized by precision, simplicity, and suggestiveness. Almost all haiku include a kigo
or seasonal words such as snow or cherry blossoms that indicates the time of year being
described.

Buson Sokan
Blossoms on the pear; If to the moon
and a woman in the moonlight reads a one puts a handle – what
letter there… a splendid fan!

Onitsura
Even stones in streams
of mountain water compose songs to
wild cherries.
5. Prose appeared in the early part of the 8th century focusing on Japanese history. During the
Heian Age, the members of the Imperial court, having few administrative or political duties,
kept lengthy diaries and experimented with writing fiction.
 The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, a work of tremendous length and
complexity, is considered to be the world’s first true novel. It traces the life of a gifted
and charming prince. Lady Murasaki was an extraordinary woman far more educated
than most upper-class men of her generation. She was appointed to serve in the royal
court of the emperor.
 The Tale of Haike written by an anonymous author during the 13th century was the
most famous early Japanese novel. It presents a striking portrait of war-torn Japan
during the early stages of the age of feudalism.
 Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko was written during the age of feudalism. It is a
loosely organized collection of insights, reflections, and observations, written during
the 14th century. Kenko was born into a high- ranking Shinto family and became a
Buddhist priest.

Excerpt from Essays in Idleness:

In all things it is Beginning and End that are interesting. The love of men and women – is
it only when they meet face to face? To feel sorrow at an unaccomplished meeting, to
grieve over empty vows, to spend the long night sleepless and alone, to yearn for distant
skies, in a neglected house to think fondly of the past – this is what love is.

 In the Grove by Ryunusuke Akutagawa is the author’s most famous story made into the
film Rashomon. The story asks these questions: What is the truth? Who tells the truth?
How is the truth falsified? Six narrators tell their own testimonies about the death of a
husband and the violation of his wife in the woods. The narrators include a woodcutter, a
monk, an old woman, the mother-in-law of the slain man, the wife, and finally, the dead
man whose story is spoken through the mouth of a shamaness. Akutagawa’s ability to
blend a feudal setting with deep psychological insights gives this story an ageless quality.
 An Excerpt: “The Story Of The Murdered Man As Told Through A Medium”
After violating my wife, the robber, sitting there, began to speak comforting words to
her. Of course I couldn’t speak. My whole body was tied fast to the root of a cedar. But
meanwhile I winked at her many times, as much as to say, “Don’t believe the robber.” I
wanted to convey some such meaning to her.
But my wife, sitting dejectedly on the bamboo leaves, was looking hard at her lap. To all
appearances, she was listening to his words. I was agonized by jealousy.”

6. Drama.
a) Nō plays emerged during the 14 th century as the earliest form of Japanese drama. The
plays are performed on an almost bare stage by a small but elaborately costumed cast of
actors wearing masks. The actors are accompanied by a chorus and the plays are written
either in verse or in highly poetic prose. The dramas reflect many Shinto and Buddhist
beliefs, along with a number of dominant Japanese artistic preferences. The Nō
performers’ subtle expressions of inner strength, along with the beauty of the costumes,
the eloquence of the dancing, the mesmerizing quality of the singing, and the mystical,
almost supernatural, atmosphere of the performances, has enabled the Nō theater to
retain its popularity.

Atsumori by Seami Motokiyo is drawn from an episode of The Tale of the Heike, a
medieval Japanese epic based on historical fact that tells the story of the rise and fall of the
Taira family, otherwise known as the Heike. The play takes place by the sea of Ichi no tani. A
priest named Rensei, who was once a warrior with the Genji clan, has decided to return to
the scene of the battle to pray for a sixteen-year-old named Atsumori, whom he killed on
the beach during the battle. Rensei had taken pity on Atsumori and had almost refrained
from killing him. He realized though that if he did not kill the boy, his fellow warriors would.
He explained to Atsumori that he must kill him, and promised to pray for his soul.
On his return, he meets two peasants who are returning home from their fields and Rensai
makes an astonishing discovery about one of them.

An Excerpt from Atsumori

Chorus: [ATSUMORI rises from the ground and advances toward the Priest with uplifted
sword.]
“There is my enemy,” he cries, and would strike, But the
other is grown gentle
And calling on Buddha’s name Has obtained
salvation for his foe;
So that they shall be reborn together On one
lotus seat.
 “No, Rensai is not my enemy.
Pray for me again, oh pray for me again.”

b) Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is staged using elaborate and colorful
costumes and sets. It is performed with the accompaniment of an orchestra and
generally focus on the lives of common people rather than aristocrats.
c) Jorori (now called Bunraku) is staged using puppets and was a great influence on the
development of the Kabuki.
d) Kyogen is a farce traditionally performed between the Nō tragedies.

7. Novels and Short Stories.

 Snow Country by Kawabata tells of love denied by a Tokyo dilettante, Shimamura, to

Komako, a geisha who feels ‘used’ much as she wants to think and feel that she is drawn
sincerely, purely to a man of the world. She has befriended Yoko to whom Shimamura is
equally and passionately drawn because of her virginity, her naivete, as he is to Komako
who loses it, after her affair with him earlier. In the end, Yoko dies in the cocoon-warehouse
in a fire notwithstanding Komako’s attempt to rescue her. Komako embraces the virgin
Yoko in her arms while Shimamura senses the Milky Way ‘flowing down inside him with a
roar.’ Kawabata makes use of contrasting thematic symbols in the title: death and
purification amidst physical decay and corruption.
 The House of Sleeping Beauties by Kawabata tells of the escapades of a dirty old man,
Eguchi, to a resort near the sea where young women are given drugs before they are
made to sleep sky-clad. Decorum rules it that these sleeping beauties should not be
touched, lest the customers be driven away by the management. The book lets the
reader bare the deeper recesses of the septuagenarian’s mind. Ironically, this old man
who senses beauty and youth is incapable of expressing, much less having it. Thus, the
themes of old age and loneliness and coping become inseparable.
 The Makioka Sisters by Tanizaki is the story of four sisters whose chief concern is finding a
suitable husband for the third sister, Yukiko, a woman of traditional beliefs who has
rejected several suitors. Until Yukiko marries, Taeko, the youngest, most independent, and
most Westernized of the sisters, must remain unmarried. More important than the plot, the
novel tells of middle-class daily life in prewar Osaka. It also delves into such topics as the
intrusion of modernity and its effect on the psyche of the contemporary Japanese, the place
of kinship in the daily life of the people, and the passage of the old order and the coming of
the new.
 The Sea of Fertility by Mishima is the four-part epic including Spring Snow, Runaway
Horses, The Temple of Dawn, and The Decay of the Angel. The novels are set in Japan from
about 1912 to the 1960s. Each of them depicts a different reincarnation of the same being:
as a young aristocrat in 1912, as a political fanatic in the 1930s, as a Thai princess before the
end of WWII, and as an evil young orphan in the 1960s. Taken together the novels are a clear
indication of Mishima’s increasing obsession with blood, death, and suicide, his interest in
self-destructive
 personalities, and his rejection of the sterility of modern life.

 The Setting Sun by Ozamu is a tragic, vividly painted story of life in postwar Japan. The
narrator is Kazuko, a young woman born to gentility but now impoverished. Though she
wears Western clothes, her outlook is Japanese; her life is static, and she recognizes that she
is spiritually empty. In the course of the novel, she survives the deaths of her aristocratic
mother and her sensitive, drug- addicted brother Naoji, an intellectual ravage by his own and
society’s spiritual failures. She also spends a sad, sordid night with the writer Uehara, and
she conceives a child in the hope that it will be the first step in a moral revolution
 In the Grove by Akutagawa is the author’s most famous story made into the film Rashomon.
The story asks these questions: What is the truth? Who tells the truth? How is the truth
falsified? Six narrators tell their own testimonies about the death of a husband and the
violation of his wife in the woods. The narrators include a woodcutter, a monk, an old
woman, the mother-in-law of the slain man, the wife, and finally, the dead man whose story
is spoken through the mouth of a shamaness. Akutagawa’s ability to blend a feudal setting
with deep psychological insights gives this story an ageless quality.
 The Wild Geese by Oagi is a melodramatic novel set in Tokyo at the threshold of the 20 th
century. The novel explores the blighted life of Otama, daughter of a cake vendor. Because
of extreme poverty, she becomes the mistress of a policeman, and later on of a money-
lender, Shazo. In her desire to rise from the pitfall of shame and deprivation, she tries to
befriend Okada, a medical student who she greets every day by the window as he passes by
on his way to the campus. She is disillusioned however, as Okada, in the end, prepares for
further medical studies in Germany. Ogai’s novel follows the traditio of the watakushi-
shosetsu or the confessional I- novel where the storyteller is the main character.
 The Buddha Tree by Fumio alludes to the awakening of Buddha under the bo tree when he
gets enlightened after fasting 40 days and nights. Similarly, the hero of the novel, Soshu,
attains self-illumination after freeing himself from the way of all flesh. The author was
inspired by personal tragedies that befell their family and this novel makes him transcend his
personal agony into artistic achievement.

8. Major Writers.
 Seami Motokiyo had acting in his blood for his father Kanami, a priest, was one of the finest
performers of his day. At age 20 not long after his father’s death, he took over his father’s
acting school and began to write plays. Some say he became a Zen priest late in life; others
say he had two sons, both of them actors. According to legend, he died alone at the age of 81
in a Buddhist temple near Kyoto.
 The Haiku Poets
- Matsuo Bashō (1644 – 1694) is regarded as the greatest haiku poet. He was born into a
samurai family and began writing poetry at an early age. After becoming a Zen Buddhist,
he moved into an isolated hut on the outskirts of Edo (Tokyo) where he lived the life of a
hermit, supporting himself by teaching and judging poetry. Bashō means ‘banana plant,’
a gift given him to which he became deeply attached. Over time his hut became known as
the Bashō Hut
 until he assumed the name.
- Yosa Buson (1716 – 1783) is regarded as the second-greatest haiku poet. He lived in
Kyoto throughout most of his life and was one of the finest painters of his time. Buson
presents a romantic view of the Japanese landscape, vividly capturing the wonder and
mystery of nature.
- Kobayashi Issa (1763 –1827) is ranked with Bashō and Buson although his talent was not
widely recognized until after his death. Issa’s poems capture the essence of daily life in
Japan and convey his compassion for the less fortunate.
 Yasunari Kawabata (1899 – 1972) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968. The sense of
loneliness and preoccupation with death that permeates much of his mature writing
possibly derives from the loneliness of his childhood having been orphaned early. Three of
his best novels are: Snow Country, Thousand Cranes, and Sound of the Mountains. He
committed suicide shortly after the suicide of his friend Mishima.
 Junichiro Tanizaki (1886 –1965) is a major novelist whose writing is characterized by
eroticism and ironic wit. His earliest stories were like those of Edgar Allan Poe’s but he
later turned toward the exploration of more traditional Japanese ideals of beauty. Among
his works are Some Prefer Nettles, The Makioka Sisters, Diary of a Mad Old Man.
 Yukio Mishima (1925 – 1970) is the pen name of Kimitake Hiraoka, a prolific writer who is
regarded by many writers as the most important Japanese novelist of the 20th century. His
highly acclaimed first novel, Confessions of a Mask is partly autobiographical work that
describes with stylistic brilliance a homosexual who must mask his sexual orientation. Many
of his novels have main characters who, for physical or psychological reasons, are unable to
find happiness. Deeply attracted to the austere patriotism and marital spirit of Japan’s past,
Mishima was contemptuous of the materialistic Westernized society of Japan in the
postwar era. Mishima committed seppuku (ritual disembowelment).
 Dazai Ozamu (1909 – 1948) just like Mishima, and Kawabata committed suicide, not
unusual, but so traditional among Japanese intellectuals. It is believed that Ozamu had
psychological conflicts arising from his inability to draw a red line between his Japaneseness
clashing with his embracing the Catholic faith, if not the demands of creativity. The Setting
Sun is one of his works.
 Ryunosuke Akutagawa (1892 – 1927) is a prolific writer of stories, plays, and poetry,
noted for his stylistic virtuosity. He is one of the most widely translated of all Japanese
writers, and a number of his stories have been made into films. Many of his short stories
are Japanese tales retold in the light of modern psychology in a highly individual style of
feverish intensity that is well-suited to their macabre themes. Among his works are
Rashomon, and Kappa. He also committed suicide.
 Oe Kenzaburo (1935 -) a novelist whose rough prose style, at time nearly violating the
natural rhythms of the Japanese language, epitomizes the rebellion of the post-WWII
generation which he writes. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994. Among
his works are: Lavish are the Dead, The Catch, Our Generation, A Personal Matter, The
Silent Cry, and Awake, New Man!.
C. AFRICA

1. The Rise of Africa’s Great Civilization . Between 751 and 664 B.C. the kingdom of Kush at the
southern end of the Nile River gained strength and prominence succeeding the New Kingdom
of Egyptian civilization. Smaller civilizations around the edges of the Sahara also existed
among them the Fasa of the northern Sudan, whose deeds are recalled by the Soninka oral
epic, The Daust.
 Aksum (3rd century A.D.), a rich kingdom in eastern Africa arose in what is now Ethiopia. It
served as the center of a trade route and developed its own writing system. The Kingdom of
Old Ghana (A.D. 300) the first of great civilizations in western Africa succeeded by the
empires of Old Mali and Songhai. The legendary city of Timbuktu was a center of trade and
culture in both the Mali and Songhai empires. New cultures sprang up throughout the
South: Luba and Malawi empires in central Africa, the two Congo kingdoms, the Swahili
culture of eastern Africa, the kingdom of Old Zimbabwe, and the Zulu nation near the
southern tip of the cotinent.
 Africa’s Golden Age (between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1600) marked the time when sculpture,
music, metalwork, textiles, and oral literature flourished.
 Foreign influences came in the 4th century. The Roman Empire had proclaimed
Christianity as its state religion and taken control of the entire northern coast of Africa
including Egypt. Around 700 A.D. Islam, the religion of Mohammed, was
introduced into Africa as well as the Arabic writing system. Old Mali, Somali and other
eastern African nations were largely Muslim. Christianity and colonialism came to sub-
Saharan Africa towards the close of Africa’s Golden Age. European powers created
colonized countries in the late 1800s. Social and political chaos reigned as traditional
African nations were either split apart by European colonizers or joined with incompatible
neighbors.
 Mid-1900s marked the independence and rebirth of traditional cultures written in African
languages.
2. Literary Forms.
a) Orature is the tradition of African oral literature which includes praise poems, love
poems, tales, ritual dramas, and moral instructions in the form of proverbs and fables. It
also includes epics and poems and narratives.

b) Griots, the keepers of oral literature in West Africa, may be a professional storyteller,
singer, or entertainer and were skilled at creating and transmitting the many forms of
African oral literature. Bards, storytellers, town criers, and oral historians also preserved
and continued the oral tradition.

c) Features of African oral literature:

 repetition and parallel structure – served foremost as memory aids for griots and other
storytellers. Repetition also creates rhythm, builds suspense, and adds emphasis to parts
of the poem or narrative. Repeated lines or refrains often mark places where an
audience can join in the oral performance.
  repeat-and-vary technique – in which lines or phrases are repeated with slight
variations, sometimes by changing a single word.
 tonal assonance – the tones in which syllables are spoken determine the
meanings of words like many Asian languages.
 call-and-response format - includes spirited audience participation in which the
leader calls out a line or phrase and the audience responds with an answering line or
phrase becoming performers themselves.

d) Lyric Poems do not tell a story but instead, like songs, create a vivid, expressive testament
to a speaker’s thoughts or emotional state. Love lyrics were an influence of the New
Kingdom and were written to be sung with the accompaniment of a harp or a set of reed
pipes.

The Sorrow of Kodio by Baule Tribe We were

three women
Three men
And myself, Kodio Ango.
We were on our way to work in the city. And I lost
my wife Nanama on the way. I alone have lost my
wife
To me alone, such misery has happened,
To me alone, Kodio, the most handsome of the three men, Such
misery has happened.
In vain I call for my wife,
She died on the way like a chicken running. How shall
I tell her mother?
How shall I tell it to her, I Kodio,
When it is so hard to hold back my own pain.
e) Hymns of Praise Songs were offered to the sun god Aten. The Great Hymn to Aten is the
longest of several New Kingdom hymns. This hymn was found on the wall of a tomb built
for a royal scribe named Ay and his wife. In was intended to assure their safety in the
afterlife.

f) African Proverbs are much more than quaint old sayings. Instead, they represent a poetic
form that uses few words but achieves great depth of meaning and they function as the
essence of people’s values and knowledge.
 They are used to settle legal disputes, resolve ethical problems, and teach children
the philosophy of their people.
 Often contain puns, rhymes, and clever allusions, they also provide
entertainment.
 Mark power and eloquence of speakers in the community who know and use them.
Their ability to apply the proverbs to appropriate situations demonstrates an
understanding of social and political realities.
 Kenya. Gutire muthenya ukiaga ta ungi. (No day dawns like another.)
South Africa. Akundlovu yasindwa umboko wayo.
(No elephant ever found its trunk too heavy.)
Kikuyu. Mbaara ti ucuru. (War is not porridge.)

g) Dilemma or Enigma Tale is an important kind of African moral tale intended for listeners to
discuss and debate. It is an open-ended story that concludes with a question the asks the
audience to choose form among several alternatives. By encouraging animated discussion,
a dilemma tale invites its audience to think about right and wrong behavior and how to best
live within society.

h) Ashanti Tale comes from Ashanti, whose traditional homeland is the dense and hilly forest
beyond the city of Kumasi in south-central Ghana which was colonized by the British in the
mid-19th century. But the Ashanti, protected in their geographical stronghold, were able to
maintain their ancient culture. The tale exemplifies common occupations of the Ashanti
such as farming, fishing, and weaving. It combines such realistic elements with fantasy
elements like talking objects and animals.

i) Folk Tales have been handed down in the oral tradition from ancient times. The stories
represent a wide and colorful variety that embodies the African people’s most cherished
religious and social beliefs. The tales are used to entertain, to teach, and to explain.
Nature and the close bond that Africans share with the natural world are emphasized. The
mystical importance of the forest, sometimes called the bush, is often featured.
j) Origin stories include creation stories and stories explaining the origin of death.

k) Trickster Tale is an enormously popular type. The best known African trickster figure is
Anansi the Spider, both the hero and villain from the West African origin to the Caribbean
and other parts of the Western Hemisphere as a result of the slave trade.

l) Moral Stories attempt to teach a lesson.

m) Humorous Stories is primarily intended to amuse.

“Talk”
The chief listened to them patiently, but he couldn’t refrain from scowling. “Now,
this is really a wild story,” he said at last. “You’d better all go
back to your work before I punish you for disturbing the peace.”
So the men went away, and the chief shook his head and mumbled to himself,
“Nonsense like that upsets the community”
“Fantastic, isn’t it?” his stool said, “Imagine, a talking yam!”
 n) Epics of vanished heroes – partly human, partly superhuman, who embody the highest
values of a society – carry with them a culture’s history, values, and traditions. The
African literary traditions boasts of several oral epics.
 The Dausi from the Soninke
 Monzon and the King of Kore from the Bambara of western Africa
 The epic of Askia the Great, medieval ruler of the Songhai empire in western Africa
 The epic of the Zulu Empire of southern Africa
 Sundiata from the Mandingo peoples of West Africa is the best-preserved and the best-
known African epic which is a blend of fact and legend. Sundiata Keita, the story’s hero
really existed as a powerful leader who in 1235 defeated the Sosso nation of western
Africa and reestablished the Mandingo Empire of Old Mali. Supernatural powers are
attributed to Sundiata and he is involved in a mighty conflict between good and evil. It
was first recorded in Guinea in the 1950s and was told by the griot Djeli Mamoudou
Kouyate.

3. Negritude, which means literally ‘blackness,’ is the literary movement of the 1930s – 1950s that
began among French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in Paris as a protest against
French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading figure was Leopold Sedar Senghor
(1st president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960) , who along with Aime Cesaire from
Martinique and Leo Damas from French Guina, began to examine Western values critically and
to reassess African culture. The movement largely faded in the early 1960s when its political and
cultural objectives had been achieved in most African countries. The basic ideas behind
Negritude include:
 Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to determine the values and
traditions that are most useful in the modern world.
 Committed writers should use African subject matter and poetic traditions and should
excite a desire for political freedom.
 Negritude itself encompasses the whole of African cultural, economic, social, and
political values.
 The value and dignity of African traditions and peoples must be asserted.

4. African Poetry is more eloquent in its expression of Negritude since it is the poets who first
articulated their thoughts and feelings about the inhumanity suffered by their own people.
 Paris in the Snow swings between assimilation of French, European culture or negritude,
intensified by the poet’s catholic piety.
 Totem by Leopold Senghor shows the eternal linkage of the living with the dead.
 Letters to Martha by Dennis Brutus is the poet’s most famous collection that speaks of
the humiliation, the despondency, the indignity of prison life.

 Train Journey by Dennis Brutus reflects the poet’s social commitment, as he reacts to the
poverty around him amidst material progress especially and acutely felt by the innocent
victims, the children
 Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka is the poet’s most anthologized poem that
reflects Negritude. It is a satirical poem between a Black man seeking the landlady’s
permission to accommodate him in her lodging house. The poetic dialogue reveals the
landlady’s deep-rooted prejudice against the colored people as the caller plays up on it.

Excerpt from Telephone Conversation The price

seemed reasonable, location indifferent. The
landlady swore she lived off premises. Nothing
remained
but self-confession. “Madam,” I warned,
5“I hate a wasted journey – I am African.”
Silence. Silenced transmission of
pressurized good-breeding. Voice, when it came, lipstick
coated, long gold-rolled
cigarette-holder pipped. Caught I was foully.
10“HOW DARK?” … I had not misheard … “ARE YOU LIGHT OR VERY DARK?”
Button B. Button A. Stench
of rancid breath of public hide-and-speak.

 Africa by David Diop is a poem that achieves its impact by a series of climactic sentences
and rhetorical questions

Africa

Africa, my Africa This back trembling with red weals

Africa of proud warriors on ancestral savannahs Africa Which says yes to the whip on the hot
that my grandmother sings roads of noon
On the bank of her distant river I have Then gravely a voice replies to me
never known you Impetuous son that tree robust and
But my face is full of your blood young
Your beautiful black blood which waters the wide That tree over there
fields Splendidly alone amidst white and faded
The blood of your sweat The sweat flowers
of your work The work of your That is Africa your Africa which grows
slavery Grows patiently obstinately
The slavery of your children Africa tell And whose fruit little by little learn
me Africa The bitter taste of liberty.
Is this really you this back which is bent And
breaks under the load of insult

 Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek is a sequence of poems about the clash between African and
Western values and is regarded as the first important poem in “English to emerge from
Eastern Africa. Lawino’s song is a plea for the Ugandans to look
 back to traditional village life and recapture African values.

5. Novels.
 The Houseboy by Ferdinand Oyono points out the disillusionment of Toundi, a boy who
leaves his parents maltreatment to enlist his services as an acolyte to a foreign missionary.
After the priest’s death, he becomes a helper of a white plantation owner, discovers the
liaison of his master’s wife, and gets murdered later in the woods as they catch up with him.
Toundi symbolizes the disenchantment, the coming of age, and utter despondency of the
Camerooninans over the corruption and immortality of the whites. The novel is developed in
the form of a recit, the French style of a diary-like confessional work.

 Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe depict a vivid picture of Africa before the colonization by
the British. The title is an epigraph from Yeats’ The Second Coming: ‘things fall apart/ the
center cannot hold/ mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.’ The novel laments over the
disintegration of Nigerian society, represented in the story by Okwonko, once a respected
chieftain who looses his leadership and falls from grace after the coming of the whites.
Cultural values are woven around the plot to mark its authenticity: polygamy since the
character is Muslim; tribal law is held supreme by the gwugwu, respected elders in the
community; a man’s social status is determined by the people’s esteem and by possession of
fields of yams and physical prowess; community life is shown in drinking sprees, funeral
wakes, and sports festivals.

 No Longer at Ease by Chinua Achebe is a sequel to Things Fall Apart and the title of which is
alluded to Eliot’s The Journey of the Magi: ‘We returned to our places, these kingdoms,/ But
no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation.’ The returning hero fails to cope with disgrace
and social pressure. Okwonko’s son has to live up to the expectations of the Umuofians, after
winning a scholarship in London, where he reads literature, not law as is expected of him, he
has to dress up, he must have a car, he has to maintain his social standing, and he should not
marry an Ozu, an outcast. In the end, the tragic hero succumgs to temptation, he, too
receives bribes, and therefore is ‘no longer at ease.’

 The Poor Christ of Bombay by Mongo Beti begins en medias res and exposes the inhumanity
of colonialism. The novel tells of Fr. Drumont’s disillusionment after the discovery of the
degradation of the native women, betrothed, but forced to work like slaves in the sixa. The
government steps into the picture as syphilis spreads out in the priest’s compound. It turns
out that the native whose weakness is wine, women, and song has been made overseer of
the sixa when the Belgian priest goes out to attend to his other mission work. Developed
through recite or diary entries, the novel is a satire on the failure of religion to integrate to
national psychology without first understanding the natives’ culture.
  The River Between by James Ngugi show the clash of traditional values and contemporary
ethics and mores. The Honia River is symbolically taken as a metaphor of tribal and Christian
unity – the Makuyu tribe conducts Christian rites while the Kamenos hold circumcision rituals.
Muthoni, the heroine, although a new-born Christian, desires the pagan ritual. She dies in the
end but Waiyaki, the teacher, does not teach vengeance against Joshua, the leader of the
Kamenos, but unity with them. Ngugi poses co-existence of religion with people’s lifestyle at
the same time stressing the influence of education to enlighten people about their socio-
political responsibilities.

 Heirs to the Past by Driss Chraili is an allegorical, parable-like novel. After 16 years of
absence, the anti-hero Driss Ferdi returns to Morocco for his father’s funeral. The Signeur
leaves his legacy via a tape recorder in which he tells the family members his last will and
testament. Each chapter in the novel reveals his relationship with them, and at the same
time lays bare the psychology of these people. His older brother Jaad who was ‘born once
and had ided several times’ because of his childishness and irresponsibility. His idiotic
brother, Nagib, has become a total burden to the family. His mother feels betrayed, after
doin her roles as wife and mother for 30 years, as she yearns for her freedom. Driss flies back
to Europe completely alienated fro his people, religion, and civilization.
 A Few Days and Few Nights by Mbella Sonne Dipoko deals withracial prejudice. In the novel
originally written in French, a Cameroonian scholar studying in France is torn between the
love of a Swedish girl and a Parisienne show father owns a business establishment in Africa.
The father rules out the possibility of marriage. Therese, their daughter commits suicide and
Doumbe, the Camerronian, thinks only of the future of Bibi, the Swedish who is expecting his
child. Doumbe’s remark that the African is like a turtle which carries it home wherever it
goes implies the racial pride and love for the native grounds.

 The Interpreters by Wole Soyinka is about a group of young intellectuals who function as
artists in their talks with one another as they try to place themselves in the context of the
world about them.

6. Major Writers.
 Leopold Sedar Senghor (1906) is a poet and statesman who was cofounder of the Negritude
movement in African art and literature. He went to Paris on a scholarship and later taught in
the French school system. During these years Senghor discovered the unmistakable imprint
of African art on modern painting, sculpture, and music, which confirmed his belief in Africa’s
contribution to modern culture. Drafted during WWII, he was captured and spent two years
in Nazi concentration camp where he wrote some of his finest poems. He became president
of Senegal in 1960. His works include: Songs of Shadow, Black Offerings, Major Elegies,
Poetical Work. He became Negritude’s foremost spokesman and edited an anthology of
French-language poetry by black African that became a seminal text of the Negritude
movement.
 Okot P’Bitek (1930 – 1982) was born in Uganda during the British domination and was
embodied in a contrast of cultures. He attended English-speaking schools but never lost touch
with traditional African values and used his wide array of talents to pursue his interests in
both African and Western cultures. Among his works are: Song of Lawino, Song of Ocol,
African Religions and Western Scholarship, Religion of the Central Luo, Horn of My Love.

 Wole Soyinka (1934) is a Nigerian playwright, poet, novelis, and critic who was the first
black African to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. He wrote of modern
West Africa in a satirical style and with a tragic sense of the obstacles to human progress. He
taught literature and drama and headed theater groups at various Nigerian universities.
Among his works are: plays – A Dance of the Forests, The Lion and the Jewel, The Trials of
Brother Jero; novels – The Interpreters, Season of Anomy; poems – Idanre and Other
Poems, Poems from Prison, A Shuttle in the Crypt, Mandela’s Earth and Other Poems.

 Chinua Achebe (1930) is a prominent Igbo novelist acclaimed for his unsentimental
depictions of the social and psychological disorientation accompanying the imposition of
Western customs and values upon traditional African society. His particular concern was with
emergent Africa at its moments of crisis. His works include, Things Fall Apart, Arrow of God,
No Longer at Ease, A Man of the People, Anthills of Savanah.

 Nadine Gordimer (1923) is a South African novelist and short story writer whose major
theme was exile and alienation. She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Gordimer
was writing by age 9 and published her first story in a magazine at 15. Her works exhibit a
clear, controlled, and unsentimental technique that became her hallmark. She examines how
public events affect individual lives, how the dreams of on’s youth are corrupted, and how
innocence is lost. Among her works are: The Soft Voice of the Serpent, Burger’s Daughter,
July’s People, A Sport of Nature, My Son’s Story.

 Bessie Head (1937 –1986) described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and
postcolonial African society in morally didactic novels and stories. She suffered rejection
and alienation from an early age being born of an illegal union between her white mother
and black father. Among her works are: When Rain Clouds Gather, A Question of Power,
The Collector of Treasures, Serowe.

 Barbara Kimenye (1940) wrote twelve books on children’s stories known as the Moses
series which are now a standard reading fare for African school children. She also worked
for many years for His Highness the Kabaka of Uganda, in the Ministry of Education and later
served as Kabaka’s librarian. She was a journalist of The Uganda Nation and later a
columnist for a Nairobi newspaper. Among her works are: KalasandaRevisited, The
Smugglers, The Money Game.
 Ousmane Sembene (1923) is a writer and filmmaker from Senegal. His works reveal an
intense commitment to political and social change. In the words of one of his characters: “You
will never be a good writer so long as you don’t defend a cause.” Sembene tells his stories
from out of Africa’s past and relates their relevance and meaning for contemporary society.
His works include, O My Country, My Beautiful People, God’s Bits of Wood, The Storm.