AERODYNAMICS 1

Chapter 2

Atmosphere

Prepared by: Engr. Angelo Thomas C. Cruz

Altitude
Geometric Altitude - the distance from sea level
Geopotential Altitude – geometric altitude corrected for
gravitational corrections
Absolute Altitude – measured from the center of the
Earth
ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝑟
Where:
ℎ𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

ℎ𝑔 = 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ

Atmosphere
Is the mechanical mixture of gases surrounding a planet

The Constituents of the Earth’s Atmosphere:

Nitrogen 78.03%
Oxygen 20.99%
Argon 0.94%
Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
Hydrogen 0.01%
Helium 0.004%
Neon 0.0012%
 Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Ionosphere

Mesosphere
{ Thermosphere
Exosphere
Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is dynamically changing system. The pressure and
temperature of the atmosphere depend on altitude, location on the globe, time of
day, season, and even solar sunspot activity.
We cannot take account all of these variations, that is why a Standard Atmosphere is
defined, in order to relate flight tests, wind-tunnel results, and general airplane
design and performance to a common reference.
International Standard Atmosphere

}
Stratopause

Stratosphere

Isothermal, T = 216.5 K
T = 390.15 °R { Tropopause
} Troposphere
Standard Values of Air at Sea Level
Pressure
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
P0 = 14.7 𝑖𝑛2 = 2116.8 𝑓𝑡 2 = 29.92 inHg = 101 325 Pa = 76cmHg = 760 mmHg

Density
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝐾𝑔
𝜌0 = 0.002377 = 1.225 𝑚3
𝑓𝑡 3

Temperature
T0 = 519 °R = 288K

Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝐾𝑔
𝜇0 = 3.7372 x 10-7 𝑓𝑡 · 𝑠 = 1.7894 x 10-5 𝑚 · 𝑠
 Temperature Variation with altitude from
Sea Level up to Tropopause (11km)
dT
a=
dh
T = T0 + a( h – h0)
Since, h0 = 0

T
T = T0 + ah ; 𝜃=
T0
Where:
T
𝜃= = Temperature ratio
T0
T = temperature at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in °R or K
T0 = 519°R or 288K
°R K K
a = lapse rate or temperature gradient (-0.003566 ) or (-0.00651 𝑚) or (-6.51 𝑘𝑚)
𝑓𝑡

h = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in ft, m, or km.

Temperature Variation with altitude from
Sea Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 1
Find the temperature at 7km altitude in the standard atmosphere. What is the Temperature ratio?

Given: Solution:
h = 7km For 𝑇: For 𝑇:
K 𝑇 = T0 + ah 𝑇
a = -6.51 𝜃=
𝑘𝑚
𝐾 𝑇0
T0 = 288
𝑇 = 288K + (-6.51 )(7 km)
𝑘𝑚
242.43 K
𝜃=
𝑇 = 242.43 𝐾 288 K
Required: 𝜃 = 0.842
Temperature at 7km = ?
𝜃=?
Temperature Variation with altitude from
Sea Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 2
Find the temperature at 16,500 ft altitude in the standard atmosphere.

Given: Solution:
h = 16,500 ft For 𝑇: For 𝑇:
°R 𝑇 = T0 + ah 𝑇
a = -0.003566 𝜃=
𝑓𝑡
°R 𝑇0
T0 = 519 °R 𝑇 = 519 °R + (-0.003566 )(16,500 ft)
𝑓𝑡 460.16 °R
𝜃=
𝑇 = 460.16 °R 519 °R
Required: 𝜃 = 0.887
Temperature at 16500 = ?
𝜃=?
Temperature Variation with altitude from
Sea Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 3
Find the altitude in the standard atmosphere if the temperature is 265K. a) m, b) km, c) ft

Given: Solution:
T − T0
T = 265 K T = T0 + ah; h=a
T0 = 288 K 265 K − 288 K
h=
K −0.00651K𝑚
a = -0.00651
𝑚 − 23 K
h=
−0.00651K𝑚

h = 3533.03m
Required:
h = ? m, km, ft h = 3.533 km

h = 11,588.34 ft
Hydrostatic Equation
A force balance on an element of fluid at rest.
Used to put together a model that allows us to calculate the variations of Pressure,
Density and Temperature as functions of altitude.

𝑃(1)(1) = (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃)(1)(1) + 𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ

𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ
Pressure Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Hydrostatic Equation: Hence;
𝑔
𝑑𝑃 𝑔 𝑑𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 −𝑎𝑅
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ =− 𝑒 0 𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑇0
𝑃 𝑎𝑅 𝑇
𝑔
From Ideal gas Law: 𝑃 𝑇
−
𝑎𝑅
Integrating both sides: =
𝑃 𝑃0 𝑇0
𝜌= 𝑃 𝑔 𝑇
𝑅𝑇
𝑙𝑛 𝑃 =− 𝑙𝑛 𝑇
𝑃0 𝑎𝑅 𝑇0
Therefore,
𝑔
𝑃 𝑙𝑛 𝑃 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑃0 = − 𝑙𝑛 𝑇 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑇0
𝑑𝑃 = − 𝑔𝑑ℎ 𝑎𝑅
𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝑔 𝑇
𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑙𝑛
At gradient region, 𝑃0 𝑎𝑅 𝑇0
𝑔
𝑑𝑇 −
𝑑ℎ = 𝑃 𝑇 𝑎𝑅
𝑎 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑃0 𝑇0
Pressure Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
−𝑔
𝑃 𝑇 𝑎𝑅
Let try substituting using English constants:
𝛿= =
𝑃0 𝑇0
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
−9.8066 2 −32.174 2
𝑠 𝑠
𝑃 𝑇 𝐾 𝑁·𝑚 𝑅 𝑙𝑏𝑓·𝑓𝑡 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚
−0.00651
𝑚
(287.08
𝑘𝑔·𝐾
) 𝑃 𝑇 −0.003566 (53.342 )( )
𝛿= = 𝛿= = 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚·𝑅 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑇0
5.26 5.26
𝑃 𝑇 𝑃 𝑇
𝛿= = 𝛿= =
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑇0
5.26
𝑃 𝑇0 + 𝑎ℎ
𝛿= = Where:
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝛿=
𝑃
= Pressure ratio
𝑃0
5.26
𝑃 𝑇0 𝑎ℎ P = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in lb/ft2 or Pa
𝛿= = + P0 = 2116.8 lb/ft2 or 101325Pa
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑇0
°R K K
5.26 a = (-0.003566 ) or (-0.00651 ) or (-6.51 )
𝑃 𝑎ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝛿= = 1+ h = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in ft, m, or km.
𝑃0 𝑇0
Pressure Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 1
Find the pressure at 4500 m altitude in the standard atmosphere. What is the Pressure ratio?

Given: Solution:
h = 4500 m For 𝑃: For 𝛿:
5.26
K 𝑃 𝑎ℎ 𝑃
a = -0.00651 = 1+ 𝛿=
𝑚 𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑃0
T0 = 288 K 5.26 57,632.24𝑃𝑎
𝑎ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑃0 1+ 𝛿=
P0 = 101325 Pa 𝑇0 101325 𝑃𝑎
5.26
Required: K 𝛿 = 0.569
−0.00651 (4500 𝑚)
𝑃 = 101325 𝑃𝑎 1 + 𝑚
Pressure at 4500 m= ? 288 𝐾
𝛿=? 𝑃 = 57,632.24 𝑃𝑎
Pressure Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 2
Find the pressure at an altitude where the temperature is 430 °R in standard atmosphere

Given: Solution:
T = 430 °R For 𝑃:
5.26
𝑃 𝑇
T0 = 519 °R =
𝑃0 𝑇0
𝑙𝑏𝑠
P0 = 2116.8 𝑇
5.26
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑃 = 𝑃0
𝑇0
°R
a = -0.003566 5.26
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑠 430 °𝑅
𝑃 = 2116.8 2
𝑓𝑡 519 °𝑅
Required:
𝑙𝑏𝑠
Pressure at T = 430 °R 𝑃 = 786.94
𝑓𝑡 2
Pressure Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 3
Find the altitude in the standard atmosphere where the pressure is 30,500 Pa.

Given: Solution:
P = 30,500 Pa For ℎ: 1
5.26 𝑃 5.26
P0 = 101325 Pa 𝑃 𝑎ℎ 𝑇0 −1
= 1+ 𝑃0
𝑃0 𝑇0 ℎ=
T0 = 288 K 𝑎
1 1 1
5.26 5.26
K 𝑃 5.26 𝑎ℎ 30500 𝑃𝑎 5.26
a = -0.00651 = 1+ 288 𝐾 −1
𝑚 𝑃0 𝑇0 101325 𝑃𝑎
ℎ=
1 K
− 0.00651
𝑃 5.26 𝑎ℎ 𝑚
=1+ ℎ = 9,028.27 𝑚
𝑃0 𝑇0
Required:
1
h=? 𝑎ℎ 𝑃 5.26
= −1
𝑇0 𝑃0
Density Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
From ideal gas law:
𝑃 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑇 5.26
= 𝜌 𝑇
𝑃0 𝜌0 𝑅𝑇0 = 0
𝜌0 𝑇
𝑃 𝜌𝑇 𝑇0
=
𝑃0 𝜌0 𝑇0 5.26−1
𝜌 𝑇
=
Substitute to the pressure ratio 𝜌0 𝑇0
equation:
5.26 4.26
𝑃 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇
𝛿= = = Where:
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝜌
𝜎= = Density ratio
𝜌0
5.26 4.26 𝜌 = density at any altitude above sea level up to
𝜌𝑇 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇0 + 𝑎ℎ
= 𝜎= = tropopause in slug/ft3 or kg/m3
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑇0 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝜌 0 = 0.002377 slug/ft3 or 1.225 kg/m3
°R K K
4.26 a = (-0.003566 ) or (-0.00651 ) or (-6.51 )
𝑓𝑡 𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝜌 𝑎ℎ
𝜎= = 1+ h = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in ft,
𝜌0 𝑇0 m, or km.
Density Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 1
Find the density at 26,000 ft altitude in the standard atmosphere. What is the Density ratio?

Given: Solution:
h = 26,000 ft For 𝜌: For 𝜎:
𝜌 𝑎ℎ
4.26 𝜌
°R = 1+ 𝜎=
a = -0.003566 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝜌0
𝑓𝑡

T0 = 519 °R 𝑎ℎ
4.26 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝜌 = 𝜌0 1+ 0.001028
𝑇0 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝜎=
𝜌0 = 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑓𝑡 3
°R 4.26 0.002377
(−0.003566 )(26000𝑓𝑡) 𝑓𝑡 3
Required: 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑓𝑡
𝜌 = 0.002377 1+
𝑓𝑡 3 519 °𝑅 𝜎 = 0.432
Density at 26,000 ft= ? 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝜌 = 0.001028
𝜎=? 𝑓𝑡 3
Density Variation with altitude from Sea
Level up to Tropopause (11km)
Problem 2
Find the density in the standard atmosphere where the pressure is 2015 psf.

Given: Solution:
𝑙𝑏𝑠
P = 2015 For 𝜌:
𝑓𝑡 2 4.26
4.26 5.26
𝜌 𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝜌 𝑃 5.26
°R = = =
a = -0.003566 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑇0 𝜌0 𝑃0
𝑓𝑡 4.26
1 1 𝑙𝑏𝑠 5.26
T0 = 519 °R 𝑇 𝜌 4.26 𝑇 𝑃 5.26
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 2015
= 𝑓𝑡 2
= 𝜌 = 0.002377 3
𝜌0 = 0.002377
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑇0 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑓𝑡 3 2116.8 2
1 1
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝜌 4.26 𝑃 5.26
P0 = 2116.8 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑓𝑡 2 =
𝜌0 𝑃0 𝜌 = 0.002284
𝑓𝑡 3
Required: 1 4.26 1 4.26
𝜌 4.26 𝑃 5.26
Density, 𝜌 = ? =
𝜌0 𝑃0
- End -