Planning 6th computer science of English

Introduction
Software Engineering is a discipline or area of
computer science or computer science that offers
methods and techniques to develop and maintain
quality software that solves problems of all kinds.
Today software engineering is increasingly
considered as a new era of Engineering, and the
Software Engineer is beginning to be a
professional immersed in the international labor
world, with rights, duties and responsibilities to
fulfill, along with to an already recognized social
consideration in the business world and for those
people with a bright future.
Software Engineering deals with very diverse
areas of computing and computer science, such as
the construction of compilers, operating systems
or intranet/internet development, addressing all
phases of the development life cycle of any type
of system. of information and applicable to an
infinity of areas such as: business, scientific
research, medicine, production, logistics, banking,
traffic control, meteorology, the world of law, the
Internet network of networks, Intranet and
Extranet networks, etc.
We could say then, that Software Engineering is
(as defined by the IEEE): “The application of a
systematic, disciplined and quantifiable approach
to the development, operation and maintenance of
software; that is, the application of engineering in
the software area”
Software engineering is a broader field than just
developing software, since developing software
without knowing engineering techniques is not a
guarantee that the most appropriate solutions with
the desired performance will be obtained.
This manual has been designed to become a guide
that allows the use of techniques related to
training by competencies to ensure that the
student experiences the veracity of the theory
exposed in each topic of software engineering.
The development of the module is divided into
two main topics that are:
1. Use of software engineering techniques for
systems analysis
2. Application of object-oriented software
engineering to design and test a system.
In these two sections of software engineering
knowledge, we will learn the core of each one
based on its applicability to our software
development market and the bases that, as future
software engineers, we must have in a competitive
way.
By the end of this module, you will have acquired
the skills to apply software engineering
techniques to obtain inexpensive software that is
reliable and works efficiently on real machines.
• Know the techniques for the design of software
interfaces and components.
• Master the concept and principles of systems
analysis
• Apply modeling in the system analysis phase
• Master the concept and principles of system
design
• Know the computer-aided engineering
techniques
• Master the technique to create the software
architecture
• Apply different analysis models for the software
development process
• Master the techniques and strategies for software
testing
• Apply the technical metrics of object-oriented
software
• Know the development cycle of object-oriented
systems
In your role as the protagonist of the learning
process, we suggest you complete the following
questionnaire prior to studying the module, so that
you define your initial knowledge of the topics to
be studied and evaluate your learning in the
course. course of module development. Finally,
you can compare both processes to identify the
learning achieved at the end of the module.
For this purpose, complete the questionnaire using
the following scale:
1. I do not know or know how to do it (I have
never read about this topic or worked on it)
2. I have listened but have not worked on it.
3. I have little knowledge of the subject.
4. I know and know how to do it.
Systems Engineering is the activity of specifying,
designing, implementing, validating, using and
maintaining socio-technical systems (systems that
include hardware, software and people).[1]
Systems engineering consists of the following
phases:
Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary
activity that brings together teams of people with
different knowledge bases.
Roger Pressman defines it emphasizing specific
aspects of quality: "establishment and use of
robust engineering principles, aimed at obtaining
economical software that is reliable and works
efficiently on real machines"
Its features include its top-down structure that
views the system as a whole; a life cycle
orientation that considers all phases from
conceptual design to system retirement; an
interdisciplinary 'team' approach involving all
appropriate design disciplines in a timely and
concurrent manner; and the necessary integration
to ensure that all design objectives have been met
effectively and efficiently. It is "process" oriented
and includes the essential provisions for feedback
and control.[2]
Software engineering arises as a consequence of
systems engineering. Instead of focusing solely on
software, Systems Engineering focuses on various
elements, analyzing, designing and organizing
those elements into a system that can be a
product, a service or a technology for information
transformation or information control.

Software Engineering is the technological and

administrative discipline dedicated to the
systematic production of programming products,
which are developed and modified on time and
within a defined budget.
It is one of the Computer Science disciplines that
offers methods and techniques to develop and
maintain quality software that solves problems of
all kinds. In this way, several fields of study are
opened, including object-oriented software
engineering and various advanced topics such as
software reuse, reengineering, multichannel
engineering, etc.
THE PRODUCT.[3]

The systems engineering process is called

business process engineering when the context of
the engineering work focuses on a company.
When a product has to be built, the process is
called product engineering.

Today, software has a dual role. It is a product

and, at the same time, it is the vehicle to deliver it.
As a product, it delivers the computing power that
is embedded in computing hardware or, more
broadly, a network of computers that is accessible
by local hardware.
As the vehicle used to deliver the product,
software acts as the basis for computer control
(operating systems), information communication
(networks), and the creation of control for other
programs (software tools and environments).
The goal of product engineering is to translate a
customer's desire, from a set of defined
capabilities, into a working product. To achieve
this goal, product engineering (like business
process engineering) must create an architecture
and infrastructure. The architecture comprises
four distinct system components:
1.Software,
2.Hardware,
3. Data (databases) and
4 people.
Product engineering is an approach to systems
engineering that begins with system analysis. The
systems engineer identifies the client's needs,
determines the economic and technical feasibility,
and assigns functions and performance to the
software, hardware, people and databases; the key
engineering components.

REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING.
A requirement according to the IEEE is defined as
a specification of what should be implemented. A
condition or capability that a system or system
component must meet or possess in order to
satisfy a contract, standard, specification, or other
formally imposed document.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
REQUIREMENT DESCRIPTIONS
In systems engineering and software engineering,
requirements engineering includes all tasks related
to determining the needs or conditions to be met
for new or modified software, taking into account
the various requirements of investors, which may
come into conflict with each other. Many times
we talk about requirements instead of
requirements, this is due to a bad translation from
English. The word requirement must be translated
as requirement, while requirement is translated
into English as request.
Requirements engineering is the part of software
engineering that deals with the problem of
defining the services that the system has to
provide and establishing its operational
restrictions. Use cases have become one of the
most widely used modeling techniques for
determining and documenting the functional
requirements of a software system.[4]
Requirements engineering provides the
appropriate mechanism for understanding what
the customer wants, analyzing needs, confirming
their feasibility, negotiating a reasonable solution,
specifying the solution without ambiguity,
validating the specification, and managing the
requirements so that they become an operational
system. Obtaining the requirements correctly is
one of the most critical aspects of a software
project, regardless of the type of project in
question, since a poor capture of the same is the
cause of most of the problems that arise
throughout the process. the cycle of life.
The purpose of requirements engineering is to
bring the requirements to an optimal state before
reaching the design phase of the project. Good
requirements must be measurable, verifiable,
without ambiguities or contradictions, etc.
DEFECTS
Common Flaws in the requirements and their
consequences:
From a conceptual point of view, there are 5
activities:
For others, the requirements engineering process
can be described in 6 distinct steps:
Requirements Development:
Process of extracting, analyzing, specifying and
verifying the requirements.
• The requirements development process varies
radically from one organization to another
depending on its maturity, organizational culture,
application domain, involvement, etc.
There are no ideal requirements development and
requirements management processes
GOOD PRACTICES

ESPECIFICACI
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REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT
• Define a change control process
• Establish a change control group (or committee)
• Perform impact analysis on changes
• Create baselines and control versions of
requirements
• Keep history of changes
• Follow the status of the requirements
• Measure the volatility of requirements
• Use requirements management tools
• Create requirements traceability matrices
MANAGEMENT OF FUNCTIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
Commonly used.
main techniques
Requirements engineering can be a long and
arduous process that requires psychological skills.
New systems change the environment and the
relationships between people, so it is important to
identify all the people involved, consider their
needs and ensure that they understand the
implications of the new systems. Analysts can
employ various techniques to elicit customer
requirements. Historically, this has included
techniques such as interviews, or workshops with
groups to create lists of requirements. More
modern techniques include prototyping, and use
use cases. When necessary, the analyst will use a
combination of these methods to establish the
exact requirements of the people involved, to
produce a system that meets the needs of the
business.

Interviews
Interviews are a common method. In general, not
all the people who will be related to the system
are interviewed, but rather a selection of people
who represent all the critical sectors of the
organization, with emphasis placed on the sectors
most affected or that will use it more frequently.
of the new system. The requirements that arise
from the interviews often contradict each other or
are formulated from ignorance of the details of the
system's operation, its potentialities,
interdependencies or limitations; so you must
work with them to correct their failures.
Interviews can be personal or group.
workshops
Requirements often have cross-cutting
implications that are unknown to the individual
stakeholders and often go undiscovered or
incompletely defined during interviews. These
cross-implications can be discovered by
conducting, in a controlled environment,
workshops facilitated by a business analyst, where
the people involved participate in discussions to
discover requirements, analyze their details and
cross-implications. Selecting a secretary dedicated
to documenting the discussion is often helpful,
freeing the business analyst to focus on the
requirements definition process and directing the
discussion.
prototypes
A prototype is a small sample, with limited
functionality, of what the finished product would
look like. They help to know the opinion of the
users and rectify some aspects before reaching the
finished product.
Use cases
Use cases
A use case is a technique for documenting
possible requirements, charting the system's
relationship to users or other systems. Since the
system itself appears as a black box, and only its
interaction with external entities is represented, it
allows these aspects to be omitted and the ones
that really correspond to the external entities to be
determined. The objective of this practice is to
improve communication between users and
developers, through early testing of prototypes to
minimize changes towards the end of the project
and reduce final costs.

Computer systems engineering is a modeling

process. Whether the focus is on the big picture or
the detailed view, the engineer creates models
that:
• Define the processes that meet the needs of the
vision under consideration;
• Represent the behavior of processes and the
assumptions on which the behavior is based;
• Explicitly define the exogenous and endogenous
inputs of information to the model;
• Represent all joints (including outlets) that allow
the engineer to better understand the vision.

To develop the system model, a system modeling

scheme is used. The systems engineer assigns
elements to each of the five treatment regions of
the schema: (1) user interface, (2) input, (3)
system treatment and control, (4) output, and (5)
maintenance and self-service. verification.

The system modeling scheme allows the analyst

to create a hierarchy in detail, where at the highest
level of said hierarchy is the system context
diagram. This diagram establishes the information
boundary between the system being implemented
and the environment in which it will operate. In
other words, it defines all external information
providers used by the system, all external
information consumers created by the system, and
all entities that communicate through the interface
or perform maintenance and self-testing.

APPLIED TERMINOLOGY
• Requirements Engineering: is the process of
developing a software specification.
Specifications are intended to communicate the
needs of the customer's system to the system
developers. (Sommerville, 2005: 82)
• Prototypes: they are simulations of the possible
product, which are then used by the end user,
allowing us to obtain important feedback as to
whether the system designed based on the
collected requirements allows the user to carry out
their work efficiently and effectively.
• Requirements: are the descriptions that the user
makes of the desires or needs that he has in front
of a product to the software engineers or
developers, these requirements give rise to
requirements that must be met in order to meet the
requirements.
Topic 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ABpQZyZ8_TI

During the past two decades, a large number of

modeling methods have been developed.
Researchers have identified analysis problems and
their causes and have developed various modeling
notations and corresponding sets of heuristics to
address them. Each method of analysis has its
point of view. However, all analysis methods are
related by a set of operating principles:
1. The information domain of a problem must be
represented and understood.
2. The functions to be performed by the software
must be defined.
3. The behavior of the software (as a consequence
of external events) must be represented.
4. Models representing information, function, and
behavior should be partitioned in such a way that
details are uncovered layered (or hierarchically).
5. The analysis process should go from essential
information to implementation detail.

In addition to the analysis operating principles

mentioned above, a set of guiding principles for
requirements engineering are detailed:
• Understand the problem before starting to create
the analysis model.
• Develop prototypes that allow the user to
understand what the human-machine interaction
will be like.
• Record the origin and reason for each
requirement
• Use multiple approaches to requirements
• Prioritize requirements
The models created during requirements analysis
play very important roles:
• The model helps the analyst to understand the
information, function and behavior of the system,
thus making the requirements analysis task easier
and more systematic.
• The model becomes the focal point for the
review and thus the key to determining its
completeness, its consistency and the accuracy of
the specification.
The model becomes the foundation for design,
providing the designer with an essential
representation of the software that can be
translated into the context of implementation.
2.2 MANAGEMENT OF REQUIREMENTS
FOR SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
Identification of Requirements for the Software:
Before requirements can be analyzed, modeled, or
specified, they must be collected through an
elicitation process. A customer has a problem that
they intend to solve with a computer-based
solution. A developer responds to the customer's
help request. At that moment a communication is
being established.
The most used technique for obtaining
requirements is the interview.

Analysis.
Requirements analysis is a software engineering
task that bridges the gap between system-level
software definition and software design (Fig.1).
Requirements analysis allows the systems
engineer to specify the operational characteristics
of the software (function, data, and performance),
indicates the interface of the software with other
elements of the system, and establishes the
constraints that the software must meet.

Software requirements analysis can be divided

into five areas of effort:
1. Recognition of the problem,
2. Evaluation and synthesis,
3. Modeling,
4. Specification and
5. Review.
Initially, the analyst studies the System
Specification (if any) and the Software Project
Plan.
For example, a car wholesaler needs an inventory
control system. The analyst finds that the
problems of the manual system currently in use
are:
1. Inability to quickly get the status of a
component;
2. Two or three days on average to update a file
based on cards;
3. Multiple repeat orders for the same vendor due
to no way to associate vendors with components,
etc. Once the problems have been identified, the
analyst determines what information the new
system will produce and what information will be
provided to the system.
Specification of requirements.[1]
Specification is a document that fully, accurately,
and verifiably defines the requirements, design,
behavior, or other characteristics of a system or
system component.
The software requirements specification can be
defined as the documentation of the essential
requirements of the software and its external
interfaces. It must have two fundamental
characteristics:
1. It must include true information, that is,
consistent with the real needs of the user that are
to be satisfied.
2. You must communicate this information
effectively, that is, in such a way that it can be
fully understood

Characteristics of a good software requirements

specification:
1. Unambiguous
2. Complete
3. Easy to verify
4. Consistent
5. Ranked by importance or stability
6. Easy to modify
7. Easy identification of the origin and
consequences of each requirement
8. Easy to use during the operation and
maintenance phase.

One of the most important aspects of the

specification of requirements is that of the
external interfaces of the software, both because
of its influence on the ease of use of the software
and because it is what is most easily perceived by
the user and where their preferences most
influence.
The interfaces with the outside coincide with what
has traditionally been called the inputs and
outputs of the system. In the case of structured
analysis, they can be easily identified just by
looking at the flows into and out of the system in
the context diagram.
The action of modeling the requirements results in
one or more of the following model types:
• Models based on the scenario of the
requirements from the point of view of different
“actors” of the system.
• Data models, which illustrate the information
domain of the problem.
• Class-oriented models, which represent object-
oriented classes (attributes and operations) and the
way the classes collaborate to meet system
requirements.
• Flow-oriented models, which represent the
functional elements of the system and how they
transform data as it progresses through the
system.
• Behavior models, which illustrate how software
is shared as a result of external events.
2.3 CREATION OF PROTOTYPES
A prototype is a preliminary, intentionally
incomplete or reduced version of a system.
Prototypes are strategies applied to most activities
of the software process, which may be related to
technical, functional, efficiency or user interface
aspects.

The purpose of the prototypes is to preliminary

search for information necessary to help in
decision making. A prototype can be thought of as
a means of requirements specification or a
communication link between the end user and the
designer.

The analysis must be done regardless of the

software engineering paradigm that is applied.
However, the form this analysis takes varies. In
some cases it is possible to apply the operating
principles of analysis and obtain a software model
from which a design can be developed. In other
situations, requirements gathering are performed,
analysis principles are applied, and a model of the
software to be manufactured (prototype) is built
for customer and developer evaluation.

Finally, there are circumstances that require the

construction of a prototype at the beginning of the
analysis, since the model is the only means
through which the requirements can be efficiently
obtained. The model then evolves towards the
production of the software
2.4 MODELING OF DATA, INFORMATION
FLOW AND BEHAVIOR
2.4.1. DATA MODELING

If the software requirements include the need to

create, extend, or interface with a database, or if
complex data structures must be built and
manipulated, the software team may choose to
create a data model as part of the overall modeling
of the software. the requirements.
A data model is a language oriented to describe a
Database. Typically a data model allows to
describe:
• Database data structures: The type of data in the
database and how they are related.
• Integrity constraints: A set of conditions that the
data must meet to correctly reflect the desired
reality.
• Data manipulation operations: typically,
database data addition, deletion, modification and
recovery operations.

Data modeling answers a number of specific

questions important to any data processing
application. What are the primary data objects to
be processed by the system? What is the
composition of each data object and what
attributes describe the object? Where do the
objects currently reside? What is the relationship
between objects and the processes that transform
them?
To answer these questions, data modeling
methods make use of the Entity-Relationship
Diagram (ERD). It allows a software engineer to
identify data objects and their relationships using
graphical notation. In the context of structured
analysis, the DER defines all the data that is
entered, stored, transformed, and produced within
an application.
The DER is specifically useful for applications
where the data is complex.
Symbology:

Example:
Tabular representation of data objects
2.4.2. INFORMATION FLOW MODELING

Information is transformed as it flows through a

computer-based system. The system accepts input
in a wide variety of forms; it applies hardware,
software, and human elements to transform input
into output, and produces output in a wide variety
of ways. The input can be a control signal
transmitted by a controller, a series of numbers
written by a network link, or a large data file
retrieved from secondary storage.
The transformation can be anything from a simple
logical comparison to a complex numerical
algorithm or rule mechanism of an expert system.
Structured analysis is a technique for modeling
the flow and content of information. The
representation of the data flow modeling can be
done through a Data Flow Diagram.
Data flow modeling is a fundamental activity of
structured analysis.
Stream-oriented modeling gives an indication of
how data objects are transformed by processing
functions.
Although flow-oriented modeling is perceived by
some software engineers as an outdated technique,
it is still one of the most widely used notations for
doing requirements analysis today.
Data flow diagrams are used to complement UML
diagrams and broaden the perspective of system
flow and requirements.

The data flow diagram (DFD) is a technique that

represents the flow of information and the
transformations that are applied to the data as it
moves from input to output; since it takes an
input-process-output point of view for the system.

The data flow diagram can be used to represent a

system or software at any level of abstraction. In
fact, the DFDs can be divided into levels that
represent a greater flow of information and greater
functional detail. Therefore, the DFD provides a
mechanism for functional modeling as well as
information flow modeling.
A level 0 DFD, also called a fundamental system
model or context model, represents the entire
software element as a single bubble with input
and output data represented by input and output
arrows, respectively. By dividing the level 0 DFD
to show more details, it is when we start to create
the DFD's by levels.

Ward and Mellor extend the basic structured

analysis notation to accommodate the following
demands imposed by real-time systems:
• Flow of information that is collected or
produced continuously over time.
• Control information passing through the system
and associated control processing.
• Multiple occurrences of the same transformation
often found in multitasking situations.
• States of the system and mechanisms that
produce transition of states in the system

EXAMPLE:
A multilevel DFD for an order control system is
presented below.
LEVEL OF CONTEXT (LEVEL ZERO)

NIVEL 1
NIVEL 2

2.4.3 BEHAVIOR MODELING

Behavior modeling is one of the fundamental

principles of all requirements analysis methods.
The behavior model indicates how the software
will respond to external events or stimuli.

To generate the model, the following steps must

be followed:
1. Evaluate all use cases to fully understand the
sequence of interaction within the system.
2. Identify the events that drive the interaction
sequence and understand how they relate to
specific objects.
3. Create a sequence for each use case.
4. Construct a state diagram for the system.
5. Review the behavioral model for accuracy and
consistency.

The state transition diagram (STD) represents the

behavior of a system showing the states and the
events that cause the system to change its state.
Other types of behavioral representation are called
Sequence Diagrams.

2.5 MECHANISMS OF STRUCTURED

ANALYSIS AND DATA DICTIONARY
The analysis model accompanies representations
of data objects, functions and control. In each
representation data objects and/or control
elements play an important role.
Therefore, it is necessary to provide an organized
approach to represent the characteristics of each
data object and control element. This is done with
the data dictionary. The data dictionary has been
proposed as a quasi-formal grammar to describe
the content of objects defined during structured
parsing.
The data dictionary is an organized list of all the
data elements that are relevant to the system, with
precise and rigorous definitions that allow the user
and the system analyst to have the same
understanding of the inputs, outputs, components
of warehouses and also intermediate calculations.

DATA DICTIONARY

The format of the dictionary varies between

different tools, most of them contain the following
information:

• Name: The main name of the data or control

item, data store, or external entity.
• Alias: Other names used for the first entry.
• Where it is used and how it is used: a listing of
the processes that use the data or control element
and how they use it (for example, as an input to
the process, as an output to the process, as a data
store, as an external entity) .
• Content description: the content represented by a
notation.
• Additional information: other information about
data types, implicit values (if known), restrictions
or limitations, etc.

CONSTRUCTION OF A DICTIONARY OF
DATA.
As a first step in building a data dictionary, list all
the entities, data flows, processes, and stores of all
the diagrams of a proposed DFD.
The next step is to describe the data structures that
make up each of them.
Finally, the data that make up the structures is
described.
There are many common notation schemes used
by the systems analyst. The one shown below is
one of the most common and uses several simple
symbols:
= is composed of
+ and
( ) optional (may be present or absent)
{ } iteration
[ ] select one of several alternatives
** comment
@ identifier (key field) for a store
| separate alternative options in construction

Definitions:
The definition of a data is introduced with the
symbol “=”. In this context, the “=” reads: “is
defined as”, or “is composed of”, or “means”.
A = B+C (A is defined as B and C).
For example, we can define:
name = courtesy title + first name + (middle
name) + paternal surname + maternal surname
courtesy title = [Mr. | Miss | Mrs | doctor |
Professor ]
name = {legal character}
paternal surname = {legal character}
maternal surname = {legal character}

Optional data, are those that may or may not be

present in a composite data. For example, a
customer's name may not include a middle name,
a customer's address may or may not include
secondary information such as apartment number.

Customer Address = (Shipping Address)+

(Account Address)
It means that the address could consist of only a
shipping address or only a billing address or
neither.
This last possibility is doubtful. The user is much
more likely to mean that the address must consist
of one or the other or both. This is represented
like this:
Customer address = [shipping address | domicile
for accounts | shipping address +address for
accounts]

If you want the delivery address to always exist

and the address for accounts to be optional, it is
represented as follows:
Customer address = shipping address + (address
for accounts)
Iteration notation is used to indicate the repeated
occurrence of a data component. It is read as "zero
or more occurrences of ".

Request = customer name + shipping address +

{item}
It means that the request must always contain a
customer name, a shipping address, and also zero
or more occurrences of an item. We can also
specify the upper and lower limits of the iteration,
which must be at least one and at least 10 will be
allowed; this can be stated like this: Request =
customer name + shipping address + 1{item}10.
Only one of the limits can be specified and it is
correct.

Selection
The selection notation indicates that a datum
consists of exactly one element from among a set
of alternative options. Options are enclosed in
square brackets and separated by the vertical bar |.

Gender = [female | male]

Client type = [government | industry | University |
other]
It is important to make sure you cover all
possibilities.

Alias: is an alternative name for a data. This is a

common occurrence when dealing with diverse
groups of users in different departments or
geographic locations who insist on using different
names to mean the same thing.
The alias is included in the data dictionary for
completeness and is related to the primary or
official name of the data.

Buyer = * customer alias *

When we design a Data Dictionary, we must

adopt a particular format for the description of its
elements.
What must be described in the Data Dictionary, in
addition to its data structure, will be each of the
elements that make up a DFD.
Examples of filling a Data Dictionary:
Topic 3 PDF
o In this document is the content that corresponds
to topic 3

• UML in 24 Hours PDF

o Consider this document as support in learning
the different diagrams that are used to represent
software in its life cycle based on UML,
download it if you consider it necessary.

• Free tools for software interface design

o Pidoco, available at https://pidoco.com/en
o Mockup, available at
http://balsamiq.com/download/

• Tool to make diversity of UML diagrams

o DIA (OPEN SOURCE), available at http://dia-
installer.de/index.html.es
o Microsoft Office Visio (PROPRIETARY),
available in Office package and Microfoft official
site

3.1 CONCEPT AND DESIGN PRINCIPLE

INTRODUCTION

The goal of designers is to produce a model or

representation of an entity that will be built later.
In any design process there are two important
phases: diversification and convergence.
Diversification is the acquisition of a repertoire of
alternatives, of primitive design material:
components, component solutions, and
knowledge, all within catalogues, textbooks, and
the mind. During convergence, the designer
chooses and combines the appropriate elements
drawn from this repertoire to satisfy the design
objectives, in the same way as stated in the
requirements document, and in the way agreed
with the client.

3.1.1 CONCEPT
Architecture design defines the relationship
between the major elements of the software
structure, the architecture design styles and
patterns that can be used to meet the requirements
defined by the system, and the constraints that
affect how it is implemented. the architecture.
Software design should always begin with data
analysis, as it is the foundation for all other design
elements. Once the foundation is obtained, the
architecture is obtained. Only then should further
design work be carried out.
CONCEPTS RELATED TO
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

DISEÑO DE DATOS Los objetos de datos y las relaciones

definidas en el diagrama entidad-relación
y el contenido detallado de datos del
diccionario de datos constituyen la base
para el diseño de datos.

DISEÑO ARQUITECTÓNICO Se obtiene a partir del modelo de análisis

y de la interacción de subsistemas
definidos dentro del modelo de análisis.

DISEÑO DE INTERFAZ Describe como se comunica el software

consigo mismo, con los sistemas que
operan con él y con los operadores que lo
emplean.

DISEÑO PROCEDIMENTAL Se obtiene a partir de la especificación del

proceso, la especificación del control y el
diagrama de transición de estados

COMPONENTES DEL DISEÑO

SÍMBOLOS GRÁFICOS Identifica y describe los componentes de

un sistema y las relaciones entre estos.

DICCIONARIOS DE DATOS Describe todos los datos utilizados en el

sistema pueden ser manual o
automatizado.

DESCRIPCIONES DE Descripción técnica para describir las

PROCESOS Y actividades que se realizan los procesos.
PROCEDIMIENTOS
 REGLAS Pasos a seguir para describir y documentar
de forma correcta y completa.

HERRAMIENTAS

DIAGRAMA DE FLUJO DE Es la base para otros componentes y describe

DATOS como navegan los datos entre procesos y
elementos relacionados.

DICCIONARIO DE DATOS Contiene las características de los campos y/o

descripción detallada de los diferentes objetos
que componen el sistema

DIAGRAMA ENTIDAD describe la relación entre las entidades y los

RELACIÓN (DER) objetos (conjunta de información que
contienen las entidades)

3.1.2 THE DESIGN PROCESS

Software design is an iterative process by which
requirements are translated "into a blueprint" to
build software. At first, the blueprint illustrates a
holistic view of software. That is, the design is
represented at a high level of abstraction, in which
the specific objective of the system and the more
detailed requirements of data, operation and
behavior are directly traced. As design iterations
take place, subsequent improvements lead to
lower levels of abstraction. These can also be
traced back to the requirements, but the
connection is more useful.

Software architecture design takes into account

two levels of the design pyramid shown in the
figure: data design and architectural design.
Data design makes it easy for us to represent the
data components of the architecture.
Architectural design focuses on the representation
of the structure of software components, their
properties and interactions.
System architecture affects the performance,
robustness, degree of distribution, and
maintainability of a system. (Bosch, 2000). The
particular style and structure chosen for an
application may therefore depend on the non-
functional requirements of the system:
1. Performance. If performance is a critical
requirement, the architecture should be designed
to identify critical operations in a small number of
subsystems, with as little communication as
possible between these subsystems.
2. Protection. If protection is a critical
requirement, a layered architecture should be
used, with the most critical resources protected in
the innermost layers and high-level security
validation applied to those layers.
3. Security. If security is a critical requirement,
the architecture should be designed so that
security-related operations are located in a single
subsystem or a small number of subsystems. This
reduces costs and security validation issues and
makes it possible to create security-related
protection systems.
4. Availability. If availability is a critical
requirement, the architecture should be designed
to include redundant components and to make it
possible to replace and upgrade components
without stopping the system.
5. Maintainability. If maintainability is a critical
requirement, the system architecture should be
designed using fine-grained, independent
components that can be easily modified. Data
producers should be separated from consumers
and shared data structures should be avoided.
Software Design is a sequence of steps, it is not a
recipe because they intervene:
• Creativity, experience and a commitment to
quality.
• There are internal and external quality factors.
• External. Properties that can be observed by
users.
• Internal. They are wanted by the Software
Engineer.

Software design is both a process and a model.

The design process is a sequence of steps that
make it possible for the designer to describe all
aspects of the software to be built. The design
model is equivalent to an architect's plans for a
house. Start by rendering the totality of everything
to be built (for example, a three-dimensional
rendering of the house) and slowly refine what
will provide the guidance for building each detail
(for example, the plumbing layout). Similarly, the
design model that is created for software provides
several different views of computer software.
According to Alan Davis, the design principles
are as follows:
1. Alternative approaches must be taken in the
process.
2. Shall be traced back to analysis.
3. It must be reused.
4. Try to mimic the problem domain.
5. Uniformity and integration.
6. It should be structured to admit changes.
7. You must anticipate adaptation to unusual
circumstances.
8. Do not code.
9. Assess yourself for quality while you're
growing.
10. Minimize misconceptions.
3.2 SOFTWARE DESIGN MODEL
When designing the interface, 4 different models
come into play:
1. Design model created by the software engineer.
2. User model: which can be created by the
software engineer or other engineers.
3. User perception.
4. Image of the system created by those who
implement the system.
These 4 models can be reconciled and a consistent
representation of the interface derived, for which
the profiles of age, gender, physical abilities,
education, cultural or ethnic background,
motivation, goals and personality must be known.
In addition, the following user categories can be
established:
Beginners: they do not have syntactic knowledge
or semantic knowledge of the use of the
application.
Occasional and knowledgeable users: they have
reasonable semantic knowledge, but low retention
of the information necessary to use the interface.
Frequent and knowledgeable users: possess
sufficient syntactic and semantic knowledge, seek
abbreviated modes of interaction
design elements
To develop the interface design, the following
tools will be used:
1. Menu map
2. Design of each one of the screens of the system
according to the hierarchical diagram.
3. Function Point Count
Different architectural models can be produced
during the design process.
Each model presents different perspectives of
architecture:
• Structural static model showing the main
components of the system.
• Dynamic model of the process that shows the
process structure of the system.
• Interface model that defines the interfaces of the
subsystems.
• Relationship model such as a data flow model.

3.3 MODULAR DESIGN

The software is divided into separately named and
addressed components, often called modules, that
are integrated to satisfy the requirements of the
problem. It's easier to solve a complex problem
when it's broken down into manageable pieces.
A module is typically a component of a subsystem
that provides one or more services to other
modules. In turn, it uses the services provided by
other modules. Modules are typically made up of
several simpler system components.
It involves dividing software into separately
named and addressed components called modules,
which are integrated to solve the requirements of
the problem.
According to G. Meyers, "modularity is the only
attribute of software that allows you to manage a
program intellectually"
Monolithic software (a large program made up of
a single module) cannot be easily understood by
the reader.
There are two main strategies that can be used
when decomposing a subsystem into modules:

1. Object-oriented decomposition, in which a

system is decomposed into a set of
communicating objects. This criterion is the most
used today, and consists of dividing the main
Problem into modules (Objects) that encapsulate
together the definition of the object and all its
operations. It refers to small modules that are
going to carry out an independent and specific
task, aimed at solving the main problem but
without depending on another module; due to this
it is very easy to modify the modules without
affecting others.
2. Flow-oriented decomposition of functions, in
which a system is decomposed into functional
modules that accept data and transform it into
output data. This criterion is the least used today
and refers to dividing the main program into
subprograms that group similar functions, that is,
each of these Modules are related to each other,
therefore these modules are not independent, due
to this it is very difficult modify them since
modifying any of the modules implies modifying
all the other modules.
What services does a computer scientist offer?
Services
• Software development. ...
• Geographic information systems. ...
• Mobility applications. ...
• Business Management Software. ...
• Systems Management. ...
• Computer consulting. ...
• Web and Positioning.
What is customer service in computing?
Customer service assistants at a computer
company handle phone calls and emails from
people who are having problems with hardware or
software. They first detect the problem and then
try to find a solution.

What activities does a computer scientist

perform?
A computer scientist is a professional who uses
computers and their associated software to solve
problems. They can work in a wide variety of
sectors, such as healthcare, administration or
education. Computer scientists typically have a
bachelor's degree in computer science or a related
field.

1. Which of the following options correspond to

types of Operating Systems Existing on the
market.
 • Windows, Mac Os, Linux

 • Office, Word, Excel

 • Mother Board, Mouse, Keyboard

 • Internet, Server, FTP Connection

 2. What office software do we use to write

letters?
 • Word

 • Excel

 • Internet

 • Pen and paper

 3. When we make drawings and edit images

on the computer we can do it with some of

these programs, what are they?
 • Paint

 • Fireworks

 • Photoshop

 • Any of the above 3

 4. The elements of a computer are Mouse and
Keyboard?
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 5. Mention that they are the input elements to
a computer.
 • They are programs waiting to be executed
 • They are the ones that allow the cpu to
enter
 • They are what allow you to open the
Internet
 • Google, Yahoo, Gmail
 6. What function do you think the devices that
are connected to the computer fulfill?
 • Decorate the computer
 • They allow the entry and exit of processes
 • Allow free access to the cpu
 • They help you turn on a computer correctly.
 7. Does the keyboard allow data entry to the
computer?
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 8. Which ones do you think allow the output
of information?
 • Keyboard
• Mouse
• Monitor
• Printer
9. Mention what are Storage Devices?
• They allow communication between users and
the computer
• They provide non-volatile memory and data
storage.
• They allow the computer to be connected to
others through a network interface. Among them
we can mention Modems, Network Interface
Cards,
• They provide non-volatile memory and data
storage.
10. What are Communications Devices?
• They provide non-volatile memory and data
storage.
• They allow communication between users and
the computer.
• They allow the computer to be connected to
others through a network interface. Among them
we can mention Modems, Network Interface
Cards,
• Windows Live Messenger
11. Taskbar
• It is the bar located at the top of the window
• It is the bar located in the central part of the
window
• It is the bar located at the bottom of the screen
• It is the bar located at the top of the screen
12. The scroll bar allows
• Scroll within the window to see its content
• Show what is the name of the window
• View menu names
• Know the location of the folders.
13. Indicate what is the key combination that is
used to close a window?
• ALT+F4
• CTL+ALT+Z
• ENTER
• ALT+SHIFT
14. A Hyperlink is:
• Another page to find information
• Another name for the URL
• A navigation point to go to another page
• A propaganda
15. Windows operating system belongs to the type
of Secondary Software
• TRUE
• Fake
 16. The title bar shows the name of the
program and the name of the current
presentation
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 17. The toolbar is the bar that contains the
menus with all the actions that we can apply
to a presentation.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 18. To create a new presentation I can display
the File menu and select the new presentation
option or do it from the Task Panel.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 19. We can use a template so that all our
slides have the same background.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 20. If we use the Save As option we will be
changing the name of the presentation.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 21. A Web page can be created from a
PowerPoint presentation.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 22. The Window menu in the menu bar is
used to view miniature presentations that we
have on the hard drive.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 23. Zoom is used to view the selected area
from closer or further away.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 24. To copy an object we have to select it
first.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 25. Excel is a program that allows you to
manipulate numerical and alphanumeric data
arranged in the form of tables. It is usually
possible to perform complex calculations with
formulas and functions and draw different
types of graphs.
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 26. Mention the name of the intersection
between a row and a column.
 27. Every Excel formula must begin with the
symbol ( = )
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 28. Formula that allows adding the values
from cell A1 to cell A33.
 • =(A1:A33)
 • =SUM(A1:A33)
 • SUM(A1:A33)
 • =SUM(A1+A33)
 29. Which of these ways can we open Word?
 • Window + R (run) WINWORD
 • Window + R (run) c:program filesmicrosoft
officeoffice12winword
 • Start > All Programs > Microsoft Office >
Word 2007
 • None All are wrong
 30. When we open Word, what menu appears
initially?
 • Archive
 • Start
 • Tools
 • Editing
 31. In order to move the left-right margins,
what tools do we use?
 • Rules
 • Vertical ruler
 • Bleeding
 • Spacing
 32. What are the Attributes that a document
has called?
 • Style
 • Format
 • Sources
 • Issue
 33. With what tool can we make a word(s)
stand out from the rest of the text?
 • Highlighted or bold
 • Shading
 • Color change
 • Edge
 34. If we want to find something specific
within a 100-page text, the search tool helps
us
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 35. The Bold, Italic, Underline,
Strikethrough, Font, Size, etc. options, how
are all these tools known?
 • Editing Tools
 • Source Tools
 • Format Tool
 • Search tool
 36. Having 4 paragraphs we want to align the
text, center it, move it, etc., what tool would
help us?
 • Select Paragraph
 • Select Home
 • Select Lining
 • Select all
 37. In screen properties you can change the
wallpaper
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 38. MANUEL NEEDS A PROGRAM TO BE
ABLE TO EDIT DOCUMENTS. WHAT
PROGRAM DO YOU RECOMMEND?
 • Word
 • Excel
 • Power Point
 • Accesses
 39. AT THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
COMASAGUA, YOU NEED TO CREATE
A DOCUMENT THAT ALLOWS YOU TO
KEEP THE GRADE RECORD OF YOUR
 STUDENTS. WHAT PROGRAM DO YOU
RECOMMEND?
 • Word
 • Excel
 • Power Point
 • Accesses
 40. JULIO NEEDS TO PRESENT A
MONOGRAPH ON EL SALVADOR AND
DOESN'T KNOW WHERE TO FIND THE
INFORMATION. WHAT DO YOU
SUGGEST HIM?
 • Power Point
 • Microsoft Encarta
 • Internet explorer
 • Messenger
 41. TIJI, HE WANTS TO IMPRESS HIS
SCIENCE TEACHER, IN AN
EXHIBITION, HE WANTS TO SHOW
THEM HIS CAPABILITIES BUT HE
DOESN'T KNOW HOW TO DO IT. WHAT
DO YOU RECOMMEND HIM TO USE?
 • Word
 • Excel
 • Power Point
 • Fireworks
 42. IF YOU WANT TO FIND
INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET,
WHAT TOOL WOULD YOU USE?
 • Search engines
 • Sites
 • Browsers
 • Blogs
 43. TO INSERT A CLIPART IMAGE,
ACTIVE ON BUTTON
 • Preview
 • New image
 • Insert image
 • Open image
 44. WHAT IS THE CORRECT PROCESS
TO SEND AN EMAIL TO MR. MANUEL
DE JESUS GARCIA SARAVIA?
 • WRITE, DIGITIZE EMAIL.SEND.
 • SEND, ATTACH FILE, MAILBOX
 • ENTER EMAIL, SEND, WRITE
 • THE PREVIOUS 3
 45. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING
INSTRUCTIONS ALLOWS ME TO
CREATE A FOLDER IN WINDOWS
 • RIGHT CLICK ON DESKTOP,NEW.
FOLDER, NAME, ENTER
 • NEW, ARCHIVE. ENTER FOLDER
 • FILE, NEW.DIGIT NAME, ENTER
 • NEW FILE FOLDER, ENTER
 46. WHAT KEY CONVINATION ALLOWS
ME TO COPY A DOCUMENT?
 • CONTROL B
 • CONTROL C
 • CONTROL T
 • CONTROL SHIFT
 47. WHAT KEY COMBINATION
ALLOWS ME TO PASTE THE COPIED
CONTENT OR TO THE CLIPBOARD?
 • CONTROL V
 • Z CONTROL
 • P CONTROL
 • CONTROL SHIFT
 48. WHAT BUTTON DISPLAYS ALL THE
PROGRAMS THAT ARE INSTALLED ON
THE MACHINE?
 • START
 • ALL THE PROGRAMS
 • TASK PANEL
 • RESTORE
 49. Software is classified into Primary and
Secondary
  • TRUE
 • Fake
 50. To change the 1-click or double-click
mouse behavior you must access folder
options and select 1-click mouse behavior
mode
 • TRUE
 • Fake
 Submit Responses
 End of form
Computer Vocabulary
anti-virus software - a program that finds and removes viruses from a
computer

app - a self-contained program or piece of software; an application, especially

when downloadable to a mobile device

application - a self-contained program or piece of software

backup - a copy of files from a computer's hard disk, usually made on some
external medium such as CD-ROM or flash drive. A backup is made in case
the hard disk file(s) are erased or damaged.

bit, bytes - a bit is the smallest piece of information that computers use. For
simplicity, a PC uses bits in groups of 8 called bytes (8 bits = 1 byte).

Bluetooth - a way of communicating wirelessly over short distances between

electronic devices (for example computer and mobile telephone)

boot, boot up, boot disk - You boot (or boot up) your computer when you
switch it on and wait while it prepares itself. Instructions for startup are given
to the computer from the boot disk, which is usually the hard disk.

browser, to browse - A browser is a program like Firefox or Internet

Explorer. You use it to view or browse the Internet.
bug - a (small) defect or fault in a program

cache - a kind of memory used to make a computer work faster

CD-ROM - a disk for storing computer information. It looks like an audio

CD.

CPU - Central Processing Unit. This is a PC's heart or "brains".

data - Usually means the information (text, pictures, audio etc) that you create
or share on a computer, as opposed to the programs that manipulate the data.

DOS - Disk Operating System. The original system used for PCs, where you
typed in commands instead of pointing and clicking.

driver - a small program that tells a PC how a peripheral works

ebook - an electronic book that can be downloaded and read on a computer or

other device

electronic mail (email, e-mail) - messages sent from one computer to

another. You can see email on the screen or print it out.

file - a specific computer record. It could contain data such as text (e.g.
essay.doc), or a program such as paint.exe.

external drive - a stand-alone hard drive, solid state drive (SSD) or optical
disc drive that plugs into the computer, used to store computer data. External
drives are designed for stationary use as well as portability.

folder (directory) - a sub-division of a computer's hard disk into which you

put files

font - a particular sort of lettering (on the screen or on paper). Arial is a font.
Times New Roman is another.

format - All hard disks and floppy disks have to be electronically prepared for
use by a process called formatting. Hard disks are pre-formatted by the
computer manufacturer. If you buy a floppy disk that is not pre-formatted, you
format it yourself, using a program that comes with your PC.

graphics card - the equipment inside a computer that creates the image on the
screen

hard disk - the main disk inside a computer used for storing programs and
information. It is hard because it is metal. See floppy disk.
hotspot - an area that has an available wireless signal for Internet access
(usually public)

icon - a small image or picture on a computer screen that is a symbol

for folders, disks, peripherals, programs etc

Internet - International network of computers that you connect to by

telephone line. Two popular services of the Internet are the World Wide
Web and electronic mail.

iPad - a tablet computer created by Apple.

Kb, Mb, Gb - kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes. Used to measure

computer memory and storage.

Kindle - a device for downloading and reading ebooks, developed by

Amazon.com.

memory - Memory is for the temporary storing of information while a

computer is being used. See RAM, ROM and cache.

MHz - Megahertz. This describes the speed of computer equipment. The

higher the MHz the better the performance.

modem - equipment connected to a computer for sending/receiving digital

information by telephone line. You may need a modem to connect to
the Internet, to send electronic mail and to fax.

notebook - a notebook computer; a laptop computer; a folding, portable

computer.

operating system (OS) - the basic software that manages a computer (for
example, Windows 10, OS X, Unix, iOS).

OCR - Optical Character Recognition. OCR lets a PC read a fax or scanned

image and convert it to actual lettering.

palmtop - a computer that is small enough to sit on the palm of the hand

parallel port - a socket at the back of a computer for connecting external

equipment or peripherals, especially printers

PC card - a device that is the same size as a thick credit card, for plugging
into a slot on notebook computers. You can buy memory, modems and hard
disks as PC cards.
PDA - abbreviation of "personal digital assistant"

peripheral - any equipment that is connected externally to a computer. For

example, printers, scanners and modems are peripherals.

pixel - the image that you see on the screen is made of thousands of tiny dots,
points or pixels

program software that operates a PC and does various things, such as writing
text (word-processing program), keeping accounts (accounts program) and
drawing pictures (graphics program)

QWERTY - The first 6 letters on English-language keyboards are Q-W-E-R-

T-Y. The first 6 letters on French-language keyboards are A-Z-E-R-T-Y.

RAM, ROM - two types of memory. RAM (Random Access Memory) is the
main memory used while the PC is working. RAM is temporary. ROM (Read
Only Memory) is for information needed by the PC and cannot be changed.

resolution - the number of dots or pixels per inch (sometimes per centimetre)
used to create the screen image

scanner - equipment for converting paper documents to electronic documents

that can be used by a computer

serial port - socket at the back of a PC for

connecting peripherals (obsolescent)

smartphone - a mobile phone that includes a palmtop computer or PDA and

also gives access to Internet and email

tablet - a tablet computer; a mobile computer consisting of a screen only, and

controlled by touching the screen

TFT - Thin Film Transistor, a type of high quality screen for notebook
computers

USB - abbreviation of "universal serial bus"; a standardized connection for

attaching devices to computers etc

USB flash drive - a small, external device for storing data; it connects
through the USB socket.

virus - a small, unauthorized program that can damage a computer

Wi-Fi - a system for communicating without wires over a computer network

Windows - an operating system used by the majority of PCs

World Wide Web, WWW, the Web - WWW are initials that stand for
World Wide Web. The Web is one of the services available on the Internet. It
lets you access millions of pages through a system of links. Because it is
"world-wide", it was originally called the World Wide Web or WWW.

WYSIWIG - "What You See Is What You Get." With a WYSIWIG program,
if you print a document it looks the same on paper as it looks on the screen.

Oraciones negativas en pasado simple en inglés

Aunque no te lo creas, las oraciones negativas en pasado simple en inglés tienen más
relación con las oraciones negativas del presente simple que con la estructura del pasado
simple afirmativo. Si te estás rascando la cabeza, te lo explico mejor. Como has leído al
principio de esta lección, la forma afirmativa del pasado simple no utiliza verbo
auxiliar. Tampoco lo emplea el presente simple, por cierto. No obstante, sí que lo utilizan
las oraciones negativas en ambos tiempos.

Es decir, que la estructura de las oraciones negativas identifican el presente y el pasado

mediante el verbo auxiliar (do/does – did). Como consecuencia de ello, el verbo irá en
infinitivo en ambos casos. Para que lo veas mejor, observa la siguiente tabla:

Pasado simple Presente simple

Sujeto + DIDN’T + infinitivo Sujeto + don’t/doesn’t + infinitivo

De esta manera, cuando hables en pasado simple afirmativo, conjugarás el

verbo. Pero, si expresas la misma acción en negativo, lo dejarás igual. Estudia los
ejemplos que te mostramos a continuación para entenderlo bien:

Frases de Ejemplo
I watched a movie yesterday but I didn’t watch the one you told me.
Ayer vi una película pero no vi la que me dijiste.

They went to London last week so we didn’t go to their house.

La semana pasada fueron a Londres, así que no fuimos a su casa.

He had water because he didn’t have any money left.

Él tomó agua porque no le quedaba dinero.

I ate a lot in the morning so I didn’t eat anything in the evening.

Comí mucho por la mañana, así que no comí nada por la noche.
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Oraciones interrogativas en pasado simple en

inglés
De nuevo, las oraciones interrogativas en pasado simple en inglés se hacen igual que las
preguntas en presente simple. Pero, recuerda que el auxiliar es distinto. Es decir, que
aquí también reemplazarás el Do/Does del presente por DID. Como también invertirás el
orden del auxiliar y del sujeto. A fin de cuentas, así se construyen todas las preguntas en
inglés.

Pasado simple Presente simple

DID + sujeto + infinitivo Do/does + sujeto + infinitivo

Frases de Ejemplo
Did I say that?
¿Dije yo eso?

It might not be important but did you call your boss yesterday?
Puede que no sea importante, pero ¿llamaste ayer a tu jefe?

She said she was going to do it last week. So, did she do it?
Ella dijo que lo iba a hacer la semana pasada. Así que, ¿lo hizo?

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Respuestas cortas pasado simple en inglés

Cuando alguien te pregunta de la manera que acabas de ver, por lo general, responderás con
un SÍ o un NO. Por desgracia, esa es la forma española. Si quieres decir lo mismo en
inglés, tienes que utilizar el auxiliar de la pregunta en tu respuesta. Es decir,
DID, para contestar afirmativamente, o DIDN’T, si quieres decir que no.

Para decir que SÍ Para decir que NO

 Yes, I/you/he/she/it/we/they DID No, I/you/he/she/it/we/they DIDN’T

Sin embargo, no siempre podrás ser tan categórico. Algunas veces, o muchas, estarás casi
seguro de que tu respuesta es afirmativa o negativa. Aunque, es posible, de que
no sea así. Por lo tanto, cada vez que quieras decir que «crees que sí» o «crees que no»,
añadirás un sujeto y un verbo que indique un leve margen de error. El verbo más habitual
para este tipo de situaciones es THINK. Pero, por supuesto, cuentas con muchos otros para
expresar el grado de intensidad. Por ejemplo, GUESS, BELIEVE o RECKON.

Frases de Ejemplo
Did I say that? – Yes, you did.
¿Dije yo eso? – Sí, lo dijiste.

It might not be important but did you call your boss yesterday? – No, I
didn’t.
Puede que no sea importante, pero ¿llamaste ayer a tu jefe? – No, no le llamé.

She said she was going to do it last week. So, did she do it? – I think she did.
Ella dijo que lo iba a hacer la semana pasada. Así que, ¿lo hizo? – Creo que sí.

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Preguntas con palabras interrogativas (Wh-question

Word) en inglés
Además de preguntas cortas, también puedes realizar otro tipo de preguntas cuya respuesta
constituya el objeto de la oración de la respuesta. De manera coloquial, las llamamos
WH-Questions en inglés. Estas no son más que preguntas donde quieres saber el qué,
quién, cómo, dónde, cuándo, cuánto(s) o por qué de algo.

Con respecto a su construcción, mantienen la misma estructura que las cortas. Pero irán
siempre precedidas por la partícula interrogativa correspondiente. Así, su
construcción final queda de la siguiente manera:

WH-Question + DID + Sujeto + Verbo en Infinitivo

Frases de Ejemplo
What did the teacher say about the exam?
¿Qué dijo el profesor sobre el examen?

When did you mother buy her new phone?

¿Cuándo se compró tu madre el teléfono nuevo?
How did the children find their toys?
¿Cómo encontraron los niños sus juguetes?

Where did I meet you last week?

¿Dónde quedé contigo la semana pasada?
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Compara el presente simple y el pasado simple

Ya que te hemos hablado tanto de lo mucho que se parecen las oraciones negativas
e interrogativas en pasado simple con las de presente simple, vamos a explicarte
bien el por qué. Pero, para no liarte con demasiada palabrería, casi mejor que lo entiendas tú
mismo de manera visual.

En la siguiente tabla comparamos ambos tiempos, tanto en su forma negativa como

interrogativa. A primera vista, pueden parecerte iguales. Esperamos que no sea tu caso,
porque no es así. En primer lugar, observa cómo el sujeto y el verbo son los
mismos, pero el auxiliar cambia. De esta manera, identificamos el presente y pasado
simples en inglés.

Además, si te fijas bien, el objeto de tiempo (el que responde a la pregunta

¿cuándo?) también varía. Sobre este tema tienes más información en el siguiente
apartado de la lección.

Presente simple (do/does) Pasado simple (did)

I don’t study hard very often. I didn’t study hard these past few days.

She doesn’t watch television every day. Mary didn’t watch television yesterday

Does she go on a vacation every year? Did Sarah go on a vacation last year?

Do the children like to eat sweets? Did they like to eat sweets?

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Expresiones de tiempo que se usan en pasado

simple en inglés
Para terminar, vamos a hablar del objeto de tiempo. Con este nombre, ya te habrás dado
cuenta de su importancia para hablar del pasado, ¿verdad? Porque nos permiten
identificar el momento en el que sucedió una acción. A fin de cuentas, el pasado es un
periodo de tiempo muy largo. Si no aportamos una referencia temporal, estamos
transmitiendo información incompleta.

Sin embargo, a veces no es necesario incluirlo. Esto sucede cuando contamos algo del
pasado que simplemente tenía cierta regularidad. Es decir, podemos reemplazar el
tiempo por un adverbio de frecuencia.
Así que, a la hora de incluir una partícula de tiempo, dispones de las siguientes opciones:

 Adverbios de frecuencia: sometimes, always, often.

 Punto definido en el tiempo: last week, yesterday, when I was young,…
 Punto indefinido en el tiempo: the other day, a long time ago, once upon a time,…
Frases de Ejemplo
Did you always study hard at school? Because, sometimes, you didn’t seem
to.
¿Siempre estudiabas mucho en el colegio? Porque, a veces, parece que no lo hacías.

She didn’t talk too much but she was nice.

Ella no hablaba mucho, pero era simpática.

Did they have a bicycle when they were young?

¿Tenían una bicicleta cuando ellos eran pequeños?

Once upon a time, a king didn’t like his kingdom.

Hace mucho tiempo, a un rey no le gustaba su reino.

Mary knows you very well. So, did you meet her a long time ago?
María te conoce muy bien. Así que, ¿la conociste hace mucho tiempo?

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Ejercicios en el pasado simple en oraciones

negativas e interrogativas en inglés
Completa las oraciones con el pasado de los verbos entre paréntesis.
1. We ____ (have) so much fun at the company party yesterday. What about you? ____
you ____ (enjoy) the party?
2. Why ____ you ____ (not do) your homework?
3. When she was young, Susie ____ (not like) to skate.
4. Rita ____ (read) a very interesting book last week, but she ____ (not like) the story.
5. We often ____ (listen) to music after school.
6. John was very thirsty. He ____ (drink) a lot of water.
7. Sheila _____ (not get) good grades last semester. She _____ (want) to pass that subject
badly.
8. Where _____ your father _____ (work) in 2005?
9. The children _____ (not see) a lot of animals in the zoo yesterday. They _____ (expect)
to see lions and zebras.
10. Mila _____ (not enjoy) her piano lessons last week. She _____ (not like) her piano
teacher.
Solución: 1 had / Did … enjoy, 2 didn’t … do, 3 didn’t like, 4 read / didn’t like,
5 listened, 6 drank, 7 didn’t get / wanted, 8 did … work, 9didn’t see / expected, 10 didn’t
enjoy / didn’t like

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Ejercicios Gramática
Forma una interrogación con cada oración. Para cada pregunta de Sí o No,
forma respuestas cortas.
1. He bought many pineapples in the supermarket.
What __________________________________?
Did ___________________________________? Yes, __________.
2. I left on Monday morning.
When ____________________________?
Did ____________________________? No, _____________.
3. We went to Brazil.
Where ____________________________?
Did ____________________________? Yes, __________.
4. I spent five hundred dollars on this trip.
How much ____________________________?
Did ____________________________? Yes, __________.
5. We arrived at 9 am yesterday.
What time ____________________________?
Did ____________________________? No, _____________.
Solución: 1 did he buy in the supermarket / he buy a lot of pineapples in the supermarket /
he did, 2 did he leave / he leave on Monday morning / he didn’t, 3 did you go / you go to
Brazil / we did, 4 did you spend on this trip / you spend five hundred dollars on this trip / I
did, 5 did you arrive yesterday / you arrive at 9 am yesterday / we didn’t

Escribe preguntas Sí o No y respuestas cortas según el ejemplo.

Ejemplo: Mary cleaned her room yesterday. (Yes)

Did Mary/she clean her room yesterday? Yes, she did.

1.
 1. The children played in the park yesterday afternoon. (No)
________________________________________? __________________
2. I ate breakfast at 7 am yesterday. (Yes)
________________________________________? __________________
3. Sherry painted her room pink. (yes)
________________________________________? __________________
4. Peter washed his motorcycle the other day. (No)
________________________________________? __________________
5. She bought clothes in the shop last week. (Yes)
________________________________________? __________________
Solución: 1 Did the children play in the park yesterday afternoon / No, they didn’t, 2 Did
you eat breakfast at 7 am yesterday / Yes, I did, 3 Did Sherry paint her room pink / Yes, she
did, 4 Did Peter wash his motorcycle the other day / No, he didn’t, 5 Did she buy clothes in
the shop last week / Yes, she did

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Ejercicio Speaking
1. Where did you go last summer? Did you have some fun?
2. Did your mother cook breakfast for you yesterday?
3. What did you do last month that you can never forget?
4. How did your parents support you in your work/studies?
5. What is your is your greatest dream? When did you realize that it was what you wanted?
 A continuación te hablamos de los 12 tiempos verbales en inglés, cómo conjugarlos,
qué expresan, además de frases de ejemplo. Además, encontrarás al final unos
ejercicios y una tabla explicativa de todos los tiempos verbales.
Presente
En inglés, hay cuatro formas verbales del presente: el present simple, el present
continuous y otras dos formas particulares del verbo en el presente que son el present
perfect y el present perfect continuous.
Present simple

Este tiempo se forma con el verbo en infinitivo sin el “to“. En la tercera persona del
singular es necesario agregar el sufijo -s. Se usa para indicar:
1. Acciones que se realizan habitualmente.
2. Hechos y condiciones que no cambian.
Ejemplos:
 I study English every Friday. (Estudio inglés todos los viernes).
 The sun rises at 6 a.m. (El sol sale a las 6 de la mañana).
ABA on Air · Ep. 78 The Present Simple | ABA on Air
Present continuous

Se forma con el verbo auxiliar en presente + el verbo principal con el sufijo -ing. Se usa
para indicar:
1. Acciones que tienen lugar en el momento en el que se habla.
2. Acción o evento futuro que ya ha sido programado.
3. Acciones que se repiten continuamente, generalmente acompañadas de adverbios
como always (siempre), often (a menudo), all the time (todo el
tiempo), constantly (constantemente).
Ejemplos:
 It is raining. (Está lloviendo).
 Are they coming next summer? (¿Vendrán el próximo verano?).
 Giulia and Robert are constantly arguing. (Giulia y Robert discuten constantemente).
Present Perfect

Se forma usando el auxiliar haber en presente (have/has) + el participio pasado del verbo
principal. Se usa para indicar:
1. Una acción que comenzó en el pasado y todavía está en curso o que tuvo lugar en un
período de tiempo que aún no ha finalizado.
2. Una acción o hecho que ocurrió en el pasado pero cuyos efectos todavía se evidencian.
3. Una acción que acaba de finalizar, expresada con el adverbio just.
Ejemplos:
 I have read over 25 books this year. (He leído más de 25 libros este año.)
 I have lived in London since 1991. (Vivo en Londres desde 1991.)
 I am not ready for my exams. My health has not been good this year. (No estoy listo
para los exámenes. Mi salud no ha estado muy bien este año.)
 I have just finished my homework. (Acabo de terminar mi tarea.)
Present Perfect Continuous

Se forma con el verbo en present perfect + el participio del verbo principal. Se utiliza de
manera muy similar al present perfect, con la diferencia de que en este caso la atención
se centra no solo en el resultado de la acción sino también en su desarrollo. Indica:
1. Acciones iniciadas en el pasado que continúan en el presente.
2. Acciones que acaban de terminar, pero cuyos resultados aún están presentes.
Ejemplos:
 She has been working all day. (Ha trabajado todo el día.) y todavía lo está haciendo….
 It has been raining all day. (Ha llovido todo el día.)

Pasado
Los tiempos en el pasado en inglés son 4: past simple, past continuous, past perfect, past
perfect continuous.
Past simple

Se forma con el verbo base + sufijo –ed, o con la forma apropiada en el caso de un
verbo irregular. Indica:
1. Acción que ocurrió en el pasado y terminó definitiva y permanentemente.
Ejemplo:
 Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. (Cristóbal Colón descubrió
América en 1492)
Past Continuous

Se forma con el auxiliar del verbo ser (was/were) + presente participio del verbo
principal. Se usa para indicar una acción percibida como inacabada o en progreso en el
pasado. Indica:
1. Descripción de un contexto en el que ocurre un evento del pasado.
2. Acción interrumpida por un evento u otra acción.
Ejemplos:
 The sea was shining and the seagulls were flying when Julio decided to take the boat
out. (El mar brillaba y las gaviotas volaban cuando Julio decidió tomar el bote.)
 I was taking a shower when the phone rang. (Estaba tomando una ducha cuando sonó el
teléfono.)
Past Perfect

Se forma con el pasado del verbo haber (had) + el participio pasado del verbo principal.
Indica:
1. Un evento que ocurrió antes de otro evento en el pasado.
Ejemplo:
 The movie had already started when we arrived. (La película ya había comenzado
cuando llegamos.)
Past Perfect Continuous

Este tiempo verbal corresponde al present perfect continuous pero en pasado. También
en este caso, el énfasis se pone en el progreso de la acción y no solo en su finalización.
Se forma con el past perfect del verbo ser (been) + el participio presente del verbo
principal. Indica:
1. Evento o acción que comenzó antes que otra acción en el pasado.
Ejemplo:
 Had you been waiting for long before the train arrived? (¿Esperaste mucho antes de
que llegara el tren?)

Futuro
También el tiempo futuro consiste en 4 formas verbales: future simple (con will y going
to), future continuous, future perfect y future perfect continuous.
Futuro simple con will

El future simple se forma con el verbo auxiliar will o con el shall + la forma base del
verbo. Expresa:
1. Decisión espontánea.
2. Previsión de un evento futuro.
Ejemplos:
 I will call you back later.(Te llamaré más tarde.)
 It will snow tomorrow. (Mañana nevará.)
Future Simple con going to
Se forma con el auxiliar ser + going + infinitivo del verbo principal. Indica:
1. Planes.
2. Decisiones.
3. Eventos futuros fuertemente asociados con el presente.
Ejemplo:
 I am going to have dinner with my cousin tonight. (Saldré a cenar con mi primo esta
noche.)
Future Continuous

Se forma con el simple future del verbo ser + el participio presente. Indica una acción
futura que se ve en su desarrollo.
Ejemplos:
 At this time next year, I will be going on holiday. (El próximo año, en este momento,
estaré de vacaciones.).
 I will be playing tennis in 2 hours. (Estaré jugando al tenis en dos horas)
Future Perfect

El future perfect se compone de dos elementos: el futuro simple del verbo haber (will
have) + el participio pasado del verbo principal. Indica:
1. Una acción que se completará en el tiempo futuro del cual se habla.
Ejemplos:
 By December, I will have written my thesis. (Para diciembre, habré escrito mi tesis.)
 By next Tuesday, I will have worked for 6 months at my current company. (El martes
que viene habré trabajado 6 meses en mi actual empresa)

Future Perfect Continuous

El future perfect continuous se compone de dos elementos: el future perfect del

verbo ser + el participio presente. Indica una acción que continúa en el futuro y que se
completará en el futuro o será interrumpida por otro evento.
Ejemplos:
 I’ll have been studying English for three months this summer. (Habré estudiado inglés
por tres meses para este verano).
 In 10 minutes I will have been swimming for a whole hour. (En 10 minutos habré estado
nadando una hora completa)

Tabla de tiempos verbales en inglés

Te compartimos la tabla abajo que resume todos los tiempos verbales vistos en este
artículo junto con su estructura y unos ejemplos concretos para que puedas aprender en
contexto:
Si la prefieres en PDF, haz click aquí.
Present Estructura Oraciones

I play football twice a week.

Infinitivo + s al final en la 3a
Present simple (Juego a fútbol una vez por
persona del singular
semana.)

I’m buying make-up all the time.

Present continuous Verbo to be + verbo con –ing (Compro maquillaje todo el
tiempo.)

She has written five books and

she’s only 22!
Present perfect Have/has + Participio pasado
(Ha escrito 5 libros y solo tiene 22
años!)

Present perfect Have/has + been + verbo con - I have been waiting for you for 2
continuous ing hours.
 (Te he estado esperando durante 2
horas.)

Past Estructura Oraciones

My sister helped me with my homework

Verbo + ed
yesterday.
Past simple (excepción verbos
(Mi hermana me ayudó con los deberes
irregulares)
ayer)

She was terrified by that horror movie.

Was / Were + Participio
Past continuous (Ella estaba horrorizada con esa película de
pasado
terror)

I had already stopped playing when they

Past perfect Had + Participio pasado came.
(Ya había dejado de jugar cuando llegaron)

Past perfect Had/has + been + verbo I had been looking forward to this!
continuous con -ing (Esperaba esto con ganas!)

FUTURE Estructura Oraciones

I will meet you tomorrow.

Future simple Will / shall + Infinitivo
(Quedaré contigo mañana.)

Verbo to be + Going to + I’m going to cut my hair this summer.

Future continuous
Infinitivo (Me cortaré el pelo este verano.)

I will have saved a lot of money by

Will have + Participio summer!
Future perfect
pasado (Para verano, habré ahorrado mucho
dinero)

I’ll have been playing football for 10

Future perfect Will have been + verbo years this december.
continuous con -ing (Habré jugado 10 años al fútbol para est
diciembre.)
EJERCICIOS
A/ Completa estas frases con la forma correcta del presente.
 María ___________ the guitar every tuesday. (play – present simple)
 __________ a lot this semester. (study – present continuous)
 I _______________ running for 2 hours now. (run – present perfect)
B/ Escribe cuál de estos tiempos se utiliza en las siguientes frases.
1. I was playing with my sister. __________________
2. I had been studying for this test for so long. __________________
3. Sara had already finished the assignment. ___________________
4. We stopped to get gas before we left. ___________________
5. We will be here on time. _____________________
6. My brother is going to visit me soon. __________________________
7. They are leaving soon. _____________________
8. I will come to pick you up. __________________________
9. They will have the assignment done by monday. ___________________
10. I will have been living in this town for many years. _______________________
Respuestas
A/ plays, am studying, have run
B/ past continuous, past perfect continuous, past perfect, past simple, future simple,
future continuous, present continuous, future simple, future perfect, future perfect
continuous
