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SPECIAL
F IFTH
EDI TI ON
EDUCATION
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES
FOR SCHOOL PROFESSIONALS
MARILYN FRIEND
Professor Emerita, Department of Specialized Education Services
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
New York, NY
Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the
Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet
addresses listed in this textbook will change.
Photo credits are on page xxxiii and constitute a continuation of this copyright page.
Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011, 2008, by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use
material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department,
One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-13-448905-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448905-6
MARILYN FRIEND has been a professional educator for more than 40 years.
She has worked as a general education teacher and a special education
teacher, as well as a university professor, teacher educator, researcher, and
staff developer. She is past president of the Council for Exceptional Children,
the largest professional association for educators who work with students
with disabilities and gifts/talents, and she was the 2016 recipient of the
Teacher Education Division/Pearson Excellence in Special Education Teacher
Education Award. Her specific areas of expertise include collaboration among
school professionals, inclusive practices, co-teaching, and specialized instruc-
tion. What makes Dr. Friend unique is the balance among her professional
activities: Although she recently retired as Chair and Professor of Special
Education, Department of Specialized Education Services, The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro, she has always maintained close contact with
elementary, middle, and high school professionals, assisting educators in ru-
ral, suburban, and urban school districts to refine their practices for meeting
diverse student needs. She has extensive accomplishments and experiences
as both a scholar and as a knowledgeable practitioner and is widely recog-
nized for her ability to translate research into effective classroom, school, and
district/system practice.
iii
iv
expanded in the years since the fourth edition, and this resource has been
tapped for the fifth edition. A great deal of care has gone into selecting vid-
eos for these purposes: First, some videos are intended to succinctly sum-
marize critical concepts related to special education or a specific disability
or to summarize such information presented in text. Second, some videos
depict children or youth with disabilities and/or their families, and these are
included to make real what otherwise might be abstract understandings of
them. Finally, several videos illustrate interventions or techniques effective
when teaching students with disabilities, thus giving teacher candidates a
glimpse into their future profession.
• Issues facing the field of special education. Perhaps because of the complexity of
the needs that students with disabilities may have, the field continues to face
ongoing and new issues. In this edition, such issues have been embedded
in chapters where they are most relevant. For example, a discussion of the
ongoing disproportionate representation of some students in special educa-
tion is addressed in Chapter 3, updated information about co-teaching and
other collaborative practices integral to special education is incorporated
into Chapter 4, and the contentious topic of seclusion and restraint of stu-
dents with challenging behaviors is addressed in Chapter 7.
• The most recent research, data, and thinking about key topics in special education.
Up-to-date information is essential for today’s professional educators, and
this edition provides it. For example, all data related to the numbers of stu-
dents receiving special education, their placements, their representation in
various disability categories, and other facts about them have been updated.
In addition, over 800 new references have been added, an indicator of the
careful review of each concept presented and the search for the most con-
temporary thinking available about those concepts.
• New stories about students with disabilities and their families. Professionals who will
work with students with disabilities need to understand the perspectives of
students and families. Toward that end, new stories about students with dis-
abilities and their experiences in public schools are included. This is most
clearly seen in the chapter-opening vignettes; 14 of these have been replaced
with new stories.
• More examples of strategies and teaching techniques. Although this book is not in-
tended to comprehensively address teaching methods, each chapter includes
research-based, specific strategies that address the learning and behavior
needs of students with disabilities. Teacher candidates also are reminded
throughout that many of the strategies presented in one chapter are easily
and effectively used with students described in other chapters.
• Instructional and assistive technology. Technology seems to change almost on a
daily basis, and the technology options included in the fifth edition have
been carefully reviewed and revised to ensure that they reflect those new and
improved options. At the same time, dated technology or options that are no
longer available have been removed.
• Time lines that provide snapshots of the history of important events. Most profession-
als agree that teacher candidates should have a perspective on the develop-
ment of the field of special education. However, they also note the need for
such information to be presented in a succinct way. In the fifth edition, each
chapter in which a historical view is appropriate includes an updated time
line that captures key events in a way that can be quickly scanned and under-
stood. This approach allows for considerable historical detail to be provided
in an easily understood format.
• Websites that lead readers to valuable resources. The amount and quality of in-
formation available to educators through the Internet has exploded. In this
new edition, every chapter includes new electronic sources of information,
instructional strategies, and tools teachers will find valuable as they gather
data, plan instruction, and learn about critical issues in the field. Those web-
based resources also enable readers to extend their knowledge by exploring
professional organizations representing individuals with disabilities and other
special needs, investigating in more depth topics that could only be briefly
introduced in the textbook, and discovering additional teaching strategies.
And those are just a few of the highlights. The fifth edition of Special Edu-
cation: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals reflects along every
dimension the most current information about special education.
Setting a Context
Two sets of experiences shaped my approach to writing this text. The first is my
university work with preservice and practicing teachers in both general educa-
tion and special education. I’ve had the privilege of taking a leadership role in
developing two undergraduate special education teacher education programs:
one that resulted in dual licensure and one that resulted in a special education
major. I’ve also participated in creating several new graduate special education
programs: alternative routes to licensure, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees.
In addition, I’ve engaged in the collaborative, imaginative, and analytical work
of revisioning special education teacher preparation to be responsive to the de-
mands of this 21st century society. These experiences inform the goal I have for
an introductory special education course: to inspire and foster enthusiasm and
yet not shy away from the need to discuss the often complex and occasionally
contentious issues that confront the field. We need school professionals who
have foundational knowledge, extraordinary assessment and instructional skills,
flexible thinking, and an understanding of and respect for the perspectives of
colleagues and parents. Those elements are strongly represented in this text. I
wanted to draw students into the material, to personalize it so that they feel the
book is speaking to them and encouraging them to be the professionals needed
for tomorrow’s schools.
The second set of experiences reflected in this text is my work in schools.
Observing, collaborating with, and teaching educators and administrators as they
interact with pupils has taught me that children and youth can accomplish goals
that sometimes are difficult even to imagine, as long as their teachers and other
service providers believe in them and work together. I am firmly committed to
inclusive practices—the way they can and should be. That is, I believe that all
learners should be welcomed members of their learning communities. The goal
is educating students in typical settings—but not abandoning effective practices
or focusing on where students are seated to the exclusion of all other factors.
Sometimes decisions for separate instructional settings have to be made, but in
inclusive schools, they are cautious decisions that take into account both the
costs and benefits to students and are revisited often. And so this textbook also
reflects those beliefs: Early-career professionals should be optimistic about the
potential of their students, but they also should be well schooled in the decision-
making processes, settings, and instructional procedures that can best ensure
that potential is realized.
Chapter-Opening Vignettes
Chapter-opening vignettes describe the JONAS
Students with Speech and Language Disorders
experiences of elementary, middle school, Jonas is in first grade. Looking at him, Jonas appears to school. Her special education teacher even referred her
be an average 6-year-old, full of energy, interested in to the nurse to check for a possible hearing loss, since
everything, and rapidly learning. However, when Jonas Savannah sometimes seemed not to recognize when
speaks to his teacher or classmates, frustration fol- she was spoken to. However, Savannah’s neurologist
and high school students as they relate lowed by anger too often is the result. Jonas has re-
ceived speech-language therapy since the age of 3 when
his pediatrician finally agreed with his parents that his
clarified that this was actually a symptom of her recep-
tive language problems. In casual and comfortable so-
cial situations, Savannah functions without a problem,
to the topics discussed in each chapter. speech and language development problems were not but when under pressure to participate in class or dur-
about being a “late talker,” and he was diagnosed as ing stressful academic activities, she is unlikely to be
having developmental apraxia of speech, a disorder in able to find the correct words. Savannah is receiving
which the pathway between the brain and the muscles special education in language arts, and she works
These individuals’ experiences are ref- of the mouth that are needed to produce clear speech
is damaged. He receives special education services for
his communication disorder. Jonas is eager to commu-
twice weekly with a speech-language therapist. Her
teachers and parents know that Savannah’s recovery is
likely to take far longer than anyone had anticipated.
Students with Speech and parents helping him practice at other times. A new
concern also is emerging, which may possibly be re-
school, where he is learning skills to work as a data
entry specialist. David has received speech-language
intervention.
LO9.6 Explain the perspectives and concerns that parents and families of students encounters difficulty understanding the complex with David so that they also emphasize these skills.
with speech and language disorders may have.
LO9.7 Identify trends and issues influencing the field of speech and language
disorders.
FIRSTHAND ACCOUNT
GROWING UP AND HAVING GOALS
Back to the Cases
M09_FRIE6802_05_SE_C09_pp260-286.indd 260-261 25/01/17 11:20 am
BILLY,
a 10th-grade
I used to go on campouts. In
summer camp, I earned a Polar
job training, one week is learn-
ing how to be independent, and
Each chapter concludes by asking readers to go Back to the Cases to apply
student, has
an inherited
disorder called Norrie disease, which is
Bear patch. We had to go down
to the lake and jump in at 6:30
in the morning! I also went on
one week is for technology.
Ms. Pickens: When I think of the ups what they have learned to the students they met at the beginning of the
and downs of schools, I’ve seen
carried by females; he has been blind
since birth and has a moderate hearing
a ski trip—it was my first time
ever skiing. They put the skis on
both ends. One TVI was good
with one-to-one in her class-
chapter. In some instances, questions are asked that require readers to
loss. The disease runs in his family; his me, and they led me down this room, but she didn’t communi-
maternal grandparents are blind, as are
two cousins. But to Billy, a lack of vision
slope, and after I got help the
first couple of times, I was do-
cate with the teachers, and I had
to step in because of the com-
analyze student characteristics and discuss how their success could be fos-
in no way limits his experiences or life am- ing it all by myself. I didn’t even
tered. In others, situations educators are likely to encounter are outlined,
munication breakdown. And
bitions. Billy, his mom Ms. Pickens, and fall! I was also selected to go to sometimes she would push Billy
his TVI Ms. Deere, a former nurse with a leadership institute for two too hard; I want him to be in-
and readers are asked how they would respond. In yet others, readers are
four years of K–12 teaching experience, days, but I got a really terrible dependent, but for some things
participated in this conversation: cold and I couldn’t go. he needed more guidance. But
Back to school, math is the I’ll tell you that Ms. Deere, she
Billy: I want to go to UNC Chapel
Firsthand Accounts
M12_FRIE6802_05_SE_C12_pp354-383.indd 379
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES
This text emphasizes contemporary information for practicing teachers: teaching
approaches, strategies, ideas, and tips that are always based on empirically vali-
dated, peer-reviewed research findings. The goal is not to offer a comprehensive
set of teaching methods but instead to demonstrate to novice educators how
effective instructional practices can profoundly and positively influence student
success.
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 469
Instruction in Action
ties so remarkable that they come to the attention of researchers and the media
peer-mediated instruction are Select several children’s books that address that skill, using two deficits noted?
at an early age—relatively littlepeer tutoring
attention hasand
beencooperative learning.
paid to young In peer
children who
tutoring, each student works with one other student to practice math facts, re- to four books to address each skill, usually over a 2-week period.
view vocabulary, or complete another instructional task. One student is the tutor,
Instruction in Action highlights teaching applica-
or the student responsible for acting as the peer teacher; the other student is the
tutee, or the student answering the questions. In one successful peer-tutoring
Positive Behavior Supports illustrates the contem-
tions for specially designed instruction delivered by
approach, called reciprocal tutoring, both students take both roles in a single
tutoring session.
porary emphasis on understanding the function of
MyEdLab Self-Check 5.2
In cooperative learning, students work in groups of three or four. They have
special education teachers or other professionals
M15_FRIE6802_05_SE_C15_pp451-483.indd 469
a specific task to complete, play assigned roles (e.g., note taker), and take ac-
countability for the learning. One cooperative learning method, called “Num-
23/01/17 6:01 pm
student problematic behavior and designing andMyEdLab Application Exercise 5.3: Bridget
Support Groups
x Preface
For some families, one of the most helpful options is a support group that
includes the parents of other students with emotional and behavior disabilities
(Mendenhall, Arnold, & Fristad, 2016; National Dissemination Center for Chil-
42 Chapter 2
dren with Disabilities, 2010). In support groups, parents share information
CUTTING-EDGE INFORMATION
about local resources and services, trade ideas for addressing specific prob- what to do next. Raekwon, the fourth-grader you met at the beginning of the
chapter, might be a student discussed by an intervention assistance team.
lems, and obtain the reassurance of knowing that they are not alone in dealing
with day-to-day challenges. Although school professionals might arrange to Response to Intervention
An alternative option for addressing serious student learning problems was ap-
start a support group, parents take the lead and give the group its identity and proved in the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA. Originally intended to contribute to
direction. More common than school-based support groups are those that the early identification of possible learning disabilities, 17 states now mandate its
use for that purpose (Hauerwas, Brown, & Scott, 2013), but nearly all states pro-
exist in the local community. Teachers can help parents access this type of vide guidelines to local districts that want to use this data-based approach to
assistance by keeping at hand details about such groups or knowing who at
The field of special education is multifaceted, fast moving, and continually influ-
school (such as the counselor or social worker) can provide the needed
address students’ learning and behavior problems (Zirkel, 2011). This approach,
briefly introduced in Chapter 1, is called response to intervention (RTI).
RTI has two main purposes (Kavale & Spaulding, 2008):
information. enced by new ideas. Teachers and other educational professionals are encour- Did You Know?
The traditional approach to iden- 1. To ensure that students receive research-proven remediation and other sup-
tifying learning disabilities, which ports as soon as they are identified as having academic difficulties, even in
aged to maintain their connection and to find inspiration from this universe of relies on a significant discrepancy
existing between ability and
kindergarten, rather than waiting until an academic or behavior gap has
grown significantly and, perhaps, to the point that it cannot be closed
MyEdLab Self-Check 7.6
information. In this fifth edition, careful attention has been paid to updating leg- achievement, has been criticized
as a “wait to fail” approach. RTI is
2. To ensure that professionals gather high-quality data to document the effec-
tiveness of those remedial strategies and supports and to guide their decision
MyEdLab Application Exercise 7.10: Perspectives of Parents and Families with EBDs designed to address learning gaps making about possible referral for special education services
islative and litigative information and presenting the most current statistics and
MyEdLab Application Exercise 7.11: Collaborative Relationships
as soon as they are recognized
instead of waiting for them to The ongoing use of data to determine whether a student is responding to the
continuous progress monitoring become so great that they interventions being implemented is referred to as .
other data related to the field. constitute a disability. In Technology Notes, you can see how this type of data collection is much more
easily accomplished by using a variety of readily available technology.
TECHNOLOGY NOTES
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field Teacher Data Collection Technology Tools
of Emotional and Behavior Disorders Many free or low-cost tools are available to teachers to
facilitate the data collection necessary as part of interven-
Google Sheets
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/u/0/?pref=2&pli=1
ing to decide if a student’s academics or behaviors are a
Many trends and issues related to the field of emotional and behavior disorders serious concern. Several examples include the following:
One of the most versatile tools for data collection is a
simple spreadsheet, such as the free Google Sheets. For
have been
290 introduced
Chapterelsewhere
10 in this chapter. For example, you have learned Teacher’s Assistant Pro example, on a spreadsheet, you can create a separate
about the controversy that exists about the definition of this disability and con- http://www.teachersassistantpro.com/
sheet for each student of concern in a single file, list be-
haviors being recorded horizontally across the top of
cerns about
FIGUREinclusive
10.1 practices. However,
Time Line if you asked experienced
of the Development professionals
of the Field of Autism Spectrum Disorder
This iPad/iPhone app (free for limited access; low cost
the spreadsheet and dates of data collection vertically,
for unlimited access) is designed to enable teachers to
to name the most important issues, they probably would include two topics as easily track student behavior, whether accomplishments
with your tallies or other data in the cells. These data can
then be transformed into charts, printed, or transmitted
significant for the field: (a) the continuing difficulty that students and their fami- or problems. Teachers can create a file for each of their
via e-mail.
students, customize the types of behaviors they want to
lies face in obtaining essential mental health services and (b) the controversy track, tally students’ behaviors, and e-mail either recent
Notemaster
surrounding the use1943 1944
of seclusion and restraint 1949
with students 1950s
with emotional and 1965 1967
or all records of student behaviors to parents or 1980
others.
http://www.kabukivision.com/
1990 1991 1992
behavior disabilities. Electronic Daily Behavior Report Card (e-DBRC) Notemaster is a generic note-taking app (a “lite” version is
Leo Kanner, a child Kanner attributes autism Bernard Rimland http://edbrc.tamu.edu/ free) that teachers can use to create templates
Autism is for tracking
added to the
psychiatrist, coins the term to “refrigerator founds the Autism Developed by researchers at Texas A & M University, this students’ academic and social behavior. By creating
Individuals skills
with Disabilities
autism (from the Greek mothers”—that is, Society of America, tool is an electronic version of the classroom daily behavior checklists that can be infinitely duplicated,
Educationteachers
Act as acan
distinct
Technology Notes
refrigerator mother idea understanding ASD average or above-average A
AIDS TO UNDERSTANDING
Learning Outcomes and Summaries of Content
Learning Outcomes begin each chapter to focus reader thinking about
the topics to be covered in the upcoming pages, and these are directly
associated with the chapter’s section headings. Each chapter ends with a
Summary of the main ideas of the chapters, and these bring the chapter
full circle by being organized based on the opening learning outcomes.
MyEducationLabTM
Video Examples 3 Learning
Multicultural Perspectives
LO3.1 Explain the concept of culture.
In all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of special educa- Outcomes LO3.2
LO3.3
Describe how culture affects the learning process.
Analyze the disproportionate representation of students who are racially and
ethnically diverse in special and gifted education, explaining factors that con- Multicultural Perspectives 77
tion principles or concepts in action. These video examples most of-• Better teacher preparation regarding cultural differences and potential biases LO3.4
tribute to this situation and the role of response to intervention or multi-
tiered systems of support in improving it.
Identify recommended educational practices for diverse students in special
ten show students and teachers working in classrooms. They sometimes• Improved
and gifted education.
strategies for behavior management, because discipline is one of the LO3.5 Examine challenges to and opportunities for developing collaborative rela-
tionships with racially and ethnically diverse families.
major reasons students are referred for special education services LO3.6 Consider issues and trends influencing the education of diverse students in
show students or teachers describing their thinking or experiences. • Prevention and early intervention, such as those used in response to interven-
tion (RTI) and multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), topics addressed later
special and gifted education, including those related to where students live
and those related to sexual orientation.
in this chapter
• Increased attention to possible bias in the assessment process for determining
demonstrate the complexity of this issue. Only through such efforts, however, is
quizzes. There are three to six of these quizzes in each chapter. They area more equitable education system likely to emerge—one that results in all stu-
M03_FRIE6802_05_SE_C03_pp064-092.indd 64 20/01/17 5:08 pm
provide you with rationales for both correct and incorrect answers.
Recommended Practices for Diverse
Students with Special Needs
Application Exercises Given the significant impact that culture plays in the educational process, in-
creasing attention has been given to culturally responsive instruction (Utley &
Also at the end of each section, you can find one or two application exercises Obiakor, 2015). Although additional research is needed in this area, several
promising practices have been identified with respect to the education of cultur-
that can challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learn- ally diverse students, including those with disabilities. Two types of practices are
important: Some of these practices relate to eliminating bias in the process by
ing in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises are usually which students are determined to be eligible for special education, and others
focus on the nature of instruction for diverse learners who have disabilities. Note
constructed-response items. Once you provide your own answers to the ques- that recommended practices related to students considered for gifted and tal-
ented programs are outlined in Chapter 15.
tions, you receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.
Promising Practices in Referral and Identification
As you have learned, the adverse effects of poverty on the learning process and
the existence of cultural dissonance between teachers and students can compli-
Advanced Data and Performance Reporting cate the identification process for culturally diverse students with disabilities
(Sullivan & Bal, 2013). For example, students who are preoccupied with satisfy-
Personalized Study Plan activities may include e-book reading assignments and
review, practice, and enrichment activities.
After students complete the enrichment activities, they take a posttest to see
the concepts they’ve mastered or areas where they still may need extra help.
MyEducationLabTM then reports the Study Plan results to the instructor. Based
on these reports, the instructor can adapt course material to suit the needs of
individual students or for the entire class.
Teacher Talk
This feature emphasizes the power of teaching through videos of master teach-
ers, who tell their own compelling stories of why they teach. Each of these
featured teachers has been awarded the Council of Chief State School Officers
Teachers of the Year award, the oldest and most prestigious award for teachers.
Course Resources
The Course Resources section of MyEducationLabTM is designed to help students
put together an effective lesson plan, prepare for and begin a career, navigate
the first year of teaching, and understand key educational standards, policies,
and laws.
It includes the following:
• The Lesson Plan Builder is an effective and easy-to-use tool that students
can use to create, update, and share quality lesson plans. The software also
makes it easy to integrate state content standards into any lesson plan.
TestGen (0-13-448818-0)
TestGen is a powerful test generator that instructors install on a computer and
use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for the text. Assessments, in-
cluding equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both print
or testing online.
TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. In-
structors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and
create tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options,
such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also
called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, orga-
nized by chapter and ready for use in creating a test, based on the associated
textbook material.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file—PC
TestGen Testbank file—MAC
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodle Test Bank (zip)
Sakai Test Bank (zip)
xv
xvii
2
of 2004 12
The Personnel and
Zero Reject 12 Free Appropriate Public
Education 12 Least Restrictive Environment 12 Procedures of Special
Nondiscriminatory Evaluation 12 Parent and
Family Rights to Confidentiality 13 Procedural Education 31
Safeguards 13 Learning Outcomes 31
Other Legislation Related to Special Education 13 The Professionals Who Work in Special
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 13 Education 33
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 14 Special Education Teachers 33
Students Who Receive Special Education 15 Bilingual Special Educator 34 Early Childhood Special
Prevalence of Students with Disabilities 15 Educator 34 Adapted Physical Educator 34
Special Education for Young Children 17 Related Services Professionals 34
Students with Special Needs Not Specifically Included in Speech-Language Pathologist 34 School
IDEA 17 Psychologist 35 School Counselor 35
School Social Worker 35 School Nurse 36
Students Who Are Gifted or Talented 17 Students with
Educational Interpreter 36 Occupational
Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 17 Students
Therapist 36 Physical Therapist 36
at Risk for School Failure 18
Others Who Work in Special Education 37
Parent and Family Roles in the Education of Children
with Disabilities 18 General Education Teacher 37 Paraeducator 37
Parents 37
Parents and Their Children with Disabilities 18
Additional Service Providers 38
xix
Issues and Trends Affecting Diverse Exceptional Collaboration with Parents and Families 116
Learners 88 Families and Collaboration 116
Geography as an Element of Diversity 88 Building Partnerships with Parents 117
Urban Education 88 Rural Education 90 Issues Related to Collaboration in Special
Sexual Orientation 90 Education 118
Summary 91 Working with Paraeducators 118
Back to the Cases 92 Time for Collaboration 119
The Effectiveness of Collaboration 120
4
Summary 122
Collaboration in Special
Back to the Cases 123
Education 93
Learning Outcomes 93
Understanding Collaboration
Characteristics of Collaboration
95
96
5 Students with Specific
Learning Disabilities 124
Collaboration Is Voluntary 96 Collaboration Is Learning Outcomes 124
Based on Parity 96 Collaboration Requires a Mutual Understanding Learning Disabilities 126
Goal 96 Collaboration Involves Shared Responsibility
Development of the Learning Disabilities Field 126
for Key Decisions 97 Collaboration Includes Shared
Accountability for Outcomes 97 Collaboration Requires Definitions of Learning Disabilities 127
Sharing Resources 97 Collaboration Is Emergent 97 Federal Definition 127 Alternative Definitions 128
Collaboration in the Context of IDEA 98 Essential Dimensions of a Definition of Learning
Disabilities 129
Essential Elements of Collaboration 99
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 129
Personal Belief System 100
Causes of Learning Disabilities 130
Communication Skills 100
Physiological Causes 130 Curriculum and
Effective Communication Strategies 100
Environmental Contributors 132
Communication Habits to Avoid 102
Interaction Processes 103 Characteristics of Individuals with Learning
Disabilities 132
Create a Climate for Problem Solving 103 Identify
the Problem 103 Generate Alternatives 104 Cognitive Characteristics 132
Assess the Potential Solutions and Select One or Attention 133 Perception 133 Memory 133
More for Implementation 104 Implement the Information Processing 133
Intervention 104 Evaluate the Intervention Outcome Academic Characteristics 134
and Decide Next Steps 104 Additional Considerations
for Problem Solving 105 Reading 134 Oral Language 134 Written
Language 135 Mathematics 137
Programs and Services 105
Social and Emotional Characteristics 138
Supportive Context 105
Social Perception and Social Competence 138
Applications of Collaboration for Schools 106 Motivation 139
Teams 107 Behavior Characteristics 139
Understanding Team Concepts 107 Team Identifying Learning Disabilities 141
Effectiveness 107 Special Education Teams 108
Traditional Approach to Assessment for Learning
Co-Teaching 108 Disabilities 141
One Teach, One Observe 110 Parallel Teaching 111 Formal Assessments 141 Classroom
Station Teaching 111 Alternative Teaching 111 Assessments 142 Criteria for Eligibility 143
Teaming 112 One Teach, One Assist 112
Selecting a Co-Teaching Approach 112 Other Co- RTI for Identifying Students Who Have Learning
Teaching Considerations 113 Disabilities 144
Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses 146 Social and Emotional Characteristics 172
Educating Students with Learning Disabilities 147 Self-Esteem 172 Social Functioning 172
Early Childhood 147 Behavior Characteristics 172
Elementary and Secondary School Services 147 Comorbidity with Other Disorders 173
Inclusive Practices 148 Identifying Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity
Transition and Adulthood 150 Disorder 174
Transition Planning 150 Model Transition Initial Referral 174
Practices 151 Assessment 174
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Medical Assessment 174 Continuous Performance
with Learning Disabilities 151 Tests 175 Parent Assessment 175 Teacher and
School Assessment 175 Additional Considerations for
Direct Instruction 152
IDEA Eligibility 176 ADHD or Gifted 176
Strategy Instruction 153
Eligibility 176
Parent and Family Perspectives 155
Educating Students with Attention Deficit–
Parents as Partners 155 Hyperactivity Disorder 177
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Learning Early Childhood 177
Disabilities 156
Elementary and Secondary School Services 179
Issues Related to Response to Intervention 156
Transition and Adulthood 179
Transition to Post-Secondary Options for Students with
Specific Learning Disabilities 157 Recommended Educational Practices for
Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity
Summary 159 Disorder 180
Back to the Cases 159 Medication 180
Parent and Professional Education 183
Causes of Emotional and Behavior Disorders 199 Creating a Promising Future 225
Biological Factors 199 Psychosocial Factors 199 Use of Restraints and Seclusion 226
Making Sense of the Factors Contributing to Emotional and Summary 227
Behavior Disorders 200
Back to the Cases 228
Characteristics of Individuals with Emotional and
Behavior Disorders 201
8
Behavior Characteristics 201
Students with Intellectual
Emotional Characteristics 203
Social Characteristics 204
and Developmental
Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 205 Disabilities 229
The Question of Cause and Effect 205 Learning Outcomes 229
Emotional and Behavior Disorders and Comorbidity 205 Understanding Intellectual Disabilities 231
Identifying Emotional and Behavior Disorders 206 Development of the Field of Intellectual Disabilities 231
Assessment 206 Definitions of Intellectual Disabilities 232
Formal Assessments 206 Classroom Federal Definition 233 American Association on
Assessments 207 Other Assessment Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
Strategies 207 Definition 233 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
Eligibility 208 Definition 234
Physical and Medical Characteristics 244 Concepts to Describe Speech and Language
Disorders 264
Identifying Intellectual Disabilities 245
Elements of Language 264 Language Disorders 264
Assessment 245
Elements of Speech 266 Speech Disorders 267
Assessment of Intellectual Functioning 245 Assessment
Prevalence of Speech and Language Disorders 268
of Adaptive Behavior 245 Assessment of Medical
Factors 246 Distinguishing Between Speech and Language Prevalence
Data 268 Other Prevalence Considerations 269
Eligibility 246
Causes of Speech and Language Disorders 269
How Learners with Intellectual Disabilities Receive
Their Education 247 Biological Causes 269 Environmental Causes 269
Making Sense of the Factors Contributing to Speech and
Early Childhood 247 Language Disorders 270
Elementary and Secondary School Services 247
Characteristics of Individuals with Speech and
Inclusive Practices 250 Language Disorders 270
Transition and Adulthood 250 Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 270
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Academic Characteristics 270 Speech and Language
with Intellectual Disabilities 251 Disorders and Reading 271
Task Analysis 252 Social and Emotional Characteristics 271
Peer-Mediated Instruction 253 Behavior Characteristics 271
Perspectives of Parents and Families 254 Speech and Language Disorders and Other
Parents’ Reactions to Having a Child with an Intellectual Disabilities 272
Disability 254 Identifying Speech and Language Disorders 272
Parent’s Concerns 255 Assessment 273
Professionals’ Interactions with Parents of Children with Speech Assessments 273 Language Assessments 273
Intellectual Disabilities 256 Assessment for Students Whose First Language Is Not English
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Intellectual or Whose Use of English Is Nonstandard 274
Disabilities 256 Eligibility 274
Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Today’s How Learners with Speech and Language Disorders
Schools 256 Receive Their Education 275
Which Curriculum? 257 The Dilemma of High-Stakes Early Childhood 275
Testing 257 The Importance of Early Intervention 275 Approaches
Postsecondary Education for Students with Intellectual for Early Speech and Language Intervention 276
Disabilities 258 Elementary and Secondary School Services 276
Summary 259 Inclusive Practices 277
Back to the Cases 259 Transition and Adulthood 277
Recommended Educational Practices for Students
with Speech and Language Disorders 279
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Speech and How Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Language Disorders 283 Receive Their Education 303
Differences versus Disorders in a Multicultural Early Childhood 303
Society 283 Elementary and Secondary School Services 304
Language Differences 283 Other Cultural Influences Inclusive Practices 304
on Communication 285
Exploring the Autism Inclusion Collaboration Model 304
The Use of Evidence-Based Practices 285
Transition and Adulthood 305
Summary 286
Recommended Educational Practices for Students
Back to the Cases 286 with Autism Spectrum Disorder 308
Environmental Supports 308
14 Students
Federal Definition 395 Examples of Health
Impairments 395 with Severe and
Characteristics of Individuals with Orthopedic Multiple Disabilities 419
Impairments, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Other Learning Outcomes 419
Health Impairments 400
Understanding Severe or Multiple Disabilities 421
Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 400
Development of the Field of Severe and Multiple
Behavior, Emotional, and Social Characteristics 401 Disabilities 421
Behavior Characteristics 401 Emotional A Changing Climate and Advocacy 421
Characteristics 402 Social Characteristics 402
Definitions of Severe and Multiple Disabilities 422
Physical and Medical Characteristics 403
Federal Definitions 422 TASH Definition 423
Identifying Physical and Health Disabilities 403
Prevalence of Students with Severe and Multiple
Assessment 403 Disabilities 424
Assessment of Medical Condition and Physical Causes of Severe and Multiple Disabilities 424
Functioning 403 Assessment of Intellectual Functioning,
Labels and Their Limitations 425
Academic Achievement, Language, and Related Areas 403
Assessment of Behavior 404
Characteristics of Individuals with Severe and Integrated Delivery of Related Services 447
Multiple Disabilities 425 Summary 449
Cognitive Characteristics 426 Back to the Cases 450
Educational Implications 426
Academic Characteristics 427
Literacy 427 Oral Language
Mathematics 429
Social and Emotional Characteristics
428
430
15 Students Who Are Gifted
and Talented 451
Behavior Characteristics 431 Learning Outcomes 451
Challenging Behaviors 431 Understanding Giftedness 453
Assessment of Students with Severe and Multiple Development of the Field of Giftedness 453
Disabilities 432 Emergence of a Profession 453 Recent Changes in the
Assessment for Instruction 432 Field 454
Standardized Assessment 432 Definition of Giftedness 454
Authentic Forms of Assessment 433 Alternative Conceptualizations of Giftedness 457
A Final Word on Definitions 457
Person-Centered Approach 433 Functional–Ecological
Assessment 433 Portfolio Assessment 434 Prevalence 458
How Learners with Severe and Multiple Disabilities Prevalence, Race, and Gender 459 Determining
Factors 459
Receive Their Education 435
Early Childhood 435 Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and
Talented 459
Elementary and Secondary Education 436
Cognitive Characteristics 460
Inclusive Practices 437
Ability to Manipulate Abstract Symbol Systems 461
Partial Participation 437 Paraprofessional Power of Concentration 461 Unusually Well
Support 438 Developed Memory 461 Early Language Interest and
Transition and Adulthood 439 Development 461 Curiosity 461 Preference for
Supported Employment 440 Community-Based Independent Work 462 Multiple Interests 462
Instruction 440 Ability to Generate Original Ideas 462
How Learners Who Are Gifted and Talented Receive Trends and Issues Affecting Students Who Are Gifted
Their Education 469 and Talented 479
Early Childhood Education 469 Talent Development 479
The Debate on Early Intervention 470 Identification and Programming for Underrepresented
Elementary and Secondary Education 470 Groups 480
Grouping 470 Full-Time and Part-Time Separate Students Who Are Twice Exceptional 480 Effective
Classes 471 Special Schools 471 Differentiation 480
Homeschooling 471 Alternative Program Models 482
Inclusive Practices 471 Technology-Based Options 482 Opportunities External
Transition and Adulthood 472 to Schools 482
xxxi
Teacher Data Collection Technology Tools 42 Filling in the Data Gap 344
Collaborating Through Technology 106 Response to Intervention for Students with Visual
Impairments 370
Neuroscience and Reading Disabilities 131
How Assistive Technology Decisions Are Made 416
Tools for Students with Learning Disabilities 149
Approaches to Alternate Assessment 447
Technology to Help with Daily Tasks 171
RTI for Students with Gifts and Talents 469
Changing Behavior Using Handheld Devices 220
Technology to Accommodate Learning 241
Enhancing Students’ Speech and Language Skills 280
Teaching by Showing . . . for Real 311
xxxiii
W hat brings you to the study of children and adults with disabilities and
other special needs? Some people are interested because they have a
child or family member with a disability, and their personal experi-
ences attract them to the field. Others are drawn because of volunteer work spon-
sored by a high school club or a fraternity or sorority. Yet others, such as teachers,
plan careers in which knowledge of individuals with disabilities and special edu-
cation is essential. My own interest in pursuing a career working with individuals
with disabilities came from several experiences, including volunteering during
high school to join individuals with intellectual disabilities in recreational activi-
ties such as bowling and dancing; interacting with friends and neighbors whose
families included members with disabilities; and meeting a little girl named Ranie,
whom I helped in a religious instruction class when it became clear that she
could smile but not read or write. In college, as a volunteer in a separate school
for children with intellectual disabilities, I thought I could do a much better job
than the teacher whose primary goal seemed to be occupying his students’ days
with craft activities, and I became convinced that special education would be a
fascinating and enriching career in which I could truly make a difference.
In 2012, the most recent year for which data are available, approximately
6.7 million children and youth from birth to 21 years of age received special edu-
cation services in U.S. schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015; U.S.
Department of Education, 2014). Although these students have exceptional needs,
it is more important to remember from the outset of your study of the infants,
toddlers, children, youth, and young adults receiving special education that they
are individuals for whom disability is only one small part of their identity. They
are preschoolers with mischief in their eyes and insatiable curiosity; they are
elementary students who enjoy learning in school and playing soccer and getting
a cell phone; they are middle school students grappling with a larger school
environment, who sometimes act like children and sometimes act too grown up
and who want to fit in with their classmates; and they are high school students
who experiment with clothes and hairstyles and piercings to establish their own
identities, cannot live without Facebook, like or dislike certain teachers, and
worry about what they will do after graduation. They are Emma and Everett and
Daniel and other students just like them—or very different from them.
Whatever brings you to be reading this text—whether you are a special edu-
cation teacher or related services provider candidate, a general education teacher
trainee, the parent of a child with a disability, or someone who is merely inter-
ested in understanding this field—what is most critical is that you learn to look at
all individuals, whether they are children or adults, in the context of their strengths
and abilities, their value as individuals, and the contributions that they make to
your life and that you make to theirs. Your perspective and how you learn to work
with children and adults with disabilities as a professional can make all the differ-
ence in the world to the individuals about whom this text is written.
wheelchair in chemistry class? A classroom with two teachers, one general educa-
Did You Know? tion and one special education? All of these images may be part of special educa-
The Council for Exceptional Chil- tion, but it is much more than that. As you explore this complex and rapidly changing
dren (www.cec.sped.org) is the field (e.g., Bateman, Lloyd, & Tankersley, 2015; Kauffman, 2015), you quickly will
largest professional organization in learn that it is characterized by a multitude of technical terms and acronyms. Your
the world of teachers, administra- interest undoubtedly is in students and learning to work with them effectively, but
tors, parents, and other individuals it is equally important to understand the technical aspects of special education and
advocating for best practices in the what it offers to students and their families. Three key concepts form the foundation
education of students with disabili-
for all the special services that students with disabilities are entitled to receive
ties. Your campus may have a stu-
dent chapter of this organization.
through public schools. These terms are briefly introduced in the following sections,
and you will learn more about them as you read the other chapters in this book.
Special Education
The first term to consider is the one that has already been introduced: special educa-
tion. It has a precise definition that comes from the federal law that established it:
The term “special education” means specially designed instruction, at no cost to
parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including:
a. instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and
institutions, and in other settings; and
b. instruction in physical education. (20 U.S.C. §1401[29])
– Lőtt ön?
– Igen! – mondja a másik – és ön?
– Szintén lőttem! mondja amaz is éppen úgy öntudatlanul, mint a
másik, mintha e körülményben keresné a véletlen nagy
szerencsétlenségnek okát.
Minthogy a seb némileg azon oldalon volt, melyről Dunay állt,
még a gróf maga is megdöbbent azon gondolatnál, hátha csakugyan
ő lőtte agyon!
Míg a szerencsétlen barát barátjának hulláját emelé karjaiba,
addig az angol mellett a szarvas rogyott össze, s a hidegvérű ember
megindultan emelé térdére a szalagos állatot, melynek
végvonaglásában is jól esett, hogy egy ember ápolgatja, ki aztán a
szalagot úrnőjének visszaszolgáltatja.
Midőn a lelődözötteket összeszámlálnák, azt mondja az angol a
hullára nézve:
– Egygyel több lövés, mint kéne!
XI.
(Két szomszéd, két gyász.)