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SPECIAL
F IFTH
EDI TI ON
EDUCATION
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES
FOR SCHOOL PROFESSIONALS
MARILYN FRIEND
Professor Emerita, Department of Specialized Education Services
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
New York, NY
A01_FRIE6802_05_SE_FM_ppi-xxxiv.indd 1 06/02/17 10:51 pm

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Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in
this textbook appear on the appropriate pages within the text.
Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the
Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet
addresses listed in this textbook will change.
Photo credits are on page xxxiii and constitute a continuation of this copyright page.
Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011, 2008, by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Friend, Marilyn Penovich, 1953– author.
Title: Special education : contemporary perspectives for school professionals
/Marilyn Friend, Professor Emerita, Department of Specialized Education
Services, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : Pearson, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016056924| ISBN 9780134489056 (loose-leaf text) | ISBN
0134489055 (loose-leaf text)
Subjects: LCSH: Special education—United States. | Inclusive
education—United States.
Classification: LCC LC3981 .F75 2018 | DDC 371.90973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016056924
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-13-448905-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448905-6

About the Author
MARILYN FRIEND has been a professional educator for more than 40 years.
She has worked as a general education teacher and a special education
teacher, as well as a university professor, teacher educator, researcher, and
staff developer. She is past president of the Council for Exceptional Children,
the largest professional association for educators who work with students
with disabilities and gifts/talents, and she was the 2016 recipient of the
Teacher Education Division/Pearson Excellence in Special Education Teacher
Education Award. Her specific areas of expertise include collaboration among
school professionals, inclusive practices, co-teaching, and specialized instruc-
tion. What makes Dr. Friend unique is the balance among her professional
activities: Although she recently retired as Chair and Professor of Special
Education, Department of Specialized Education Services, The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro, she has always maintained close contact with
elementary, middle, and high school professionals, assisting educators in ru-
ral, suburban, and urban school districts to refine their practices for meeting
diverse student needs. She has extensive accomplishments and experiences
as both a scholar and as a knowledgeable practitioner and is widely recog-
nized for her ability to translate research into effective classroom, school, and
district/system practice.
iii

Preface
THIS BOOK WAS ORIGINALLY WRITTEN FOR THE SAME REASON, I am sure, as
many before it: As a university faculty member preparing teachers, I was dissatis-
fied with all the textbooks intended to introduce school professionals to special
education. Some books were so technical that I doubted a preservice educator
would retain the material included; others overly simplified this complex disci-
pline. Yet others presented views that seemed out of touch with the realities of
contemporary schooling. My goal in Special Education: Contemporary Perspec-
tives for School Professionals was to write a text that would provide teacher
candidates and other preprofessionals and early-career professionals—general
educators, special educators, administrators, and related services providers—a
solid grounding in contemporary special education concepts and practices. I
wanted to produce an introductory book that clearly relied on the strong re-
search base for this field and that not only aligned with current legislation but
also placed that research and law within the very real and sometimes unclear
and challenging world of students and educators, classrooms and schools, fami-
lies and communities. Across five editions of this textbook, that goal has not
changed. I hope this edition improves outcomes for students with disabilities and
gifts/talents by substantially influencing the knowledge and skills of their teach-
ers and other professionals who touch their lives at school.
New to This Edition

Special education changes rapidly, and in this fifth edition of Special Education:
Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals, great care has been taken to
provide information that reflects the most current research and issues influenc-
ing the field. In addition, each chapter has been carefully reviewed, and updated
references, examples, and strategies have been added. These are several of the
most significant changes in this edition:
• Integration of the most current legislation affecting education and special education. The
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), the reauthorization of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act, now guides expectations, policy, and practice
in U.S. schools, and its principles are reflected in this textbook. The most
significant example relates to response to intervention (RTI): ESSA empha-
sizes the use of a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS), a tiered, schoolwide
approach that incorporates both the academic emphasis of RTI as well as
the elements of positive behavior supports. This broader conceptualization
of support systems for students can have a strong influence on prevention
of the need for special education as well as the assessment and eligibility
process.
• Updated diagnostic information. Since the fourth edition, a major revision has
been published of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) of the American Psychiatric Association. Although educational de-
termination of the presence of a disability is separate from medical diagnosis,
the DSM-5 nonetheless selectively but significantly affects school practices.
One clear example concerns autism. In DSM-5, the previously distinct sub-
type called Asperger syndrome was dropped because of a lack of evidence
that clearly distinguished it from a more general diagnosis. This change is
reflected in the fifth edition of Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives
for School Professionals.
• Videos that clarify concepts and illustrate the realities of students with disabilities, their
families, and their teachers. The availability of powerful video clips has greatly
iv

Preface v
expanded in the years since the fourth edition, and this resource has been
tapped for the fifth edition. A great deal of care has gone into selecting vid-
eos for these purposes: First, some videos are intended to succinctly sum-
marize critical concepts related to special education or a specific disability
or to summarize such information presented in text. Second, some videos
depict children or youth with disabilities and/or their families, and these are
included to make real what otherwise might be abstract understandings of
them. Finally, several videos illustrate interventions or techniques effective
when teaching students with disabilities, thus giving teacher candidates a
glimpse into their future profession.
• Issues facing the field of special education. Perhaps because of the complexity of
the needs that students with disabilities may have, the field continues to face
ongoing and new issues. In this edition, such issues have been embedded
in chapters where they are most relevant. For example, a discussion of the
ongoing disproportionate representation of some students in special educa-
tion is addressed in Chapter 3, updated information about co-teaching and
other collaborative practices integral to special education is incorporated
into Chapter 4, and the contentious topic of seclusion and restraint of stu-
dents with challenging behaviors is addressed in Chapter 7.
• The most recent research, data, and thinking about key topics in special education.
Up-to-date information is essential for today’s professional educators, and
this edition provides it. For example, all data related to the numbers of stu-
dents receiving special education, their placements, their representation in
various disability categories, and other facts about them have been updated.
In addition, over 800 new references have been added, an indicator of the
careful review of each concept presented and the search for the most con-
temporary thinking available about those concepts.
• New stories about students with disabilities and their families. Professionals who will
work with students with disabilities need to understand the perspectives of
students and families. Toward that end, new stories about students with dis-
abilities and their experiences in public schools are included. This is most
clearly seen in the chapter-opening vignettes; 14 of these have been replaced
with new stories.
• More examples of strategies and teaching techniques. Although this book is not in-
tended to comprehensively address teaching methods, each chapter includes
research-based, specific strategies that address the learning and behavior
needs of students with disabilities. Teacher candidates also are reminded
throughout that many of the strategies presented in one chapter are easily
and effectively used with students described in other chapters.
• Instructional and assistive technology. Technology seems to change almost on a
daily basis, and the technology options included in the fifth edition have
been carefully reviewed and revised to ensure that they reflect those new and
improved options. At the same time, dated technology or options that are no
longer available have been removed.
• Time lines that provide snapshots of the history of important events. Most profession-
als agree that teacher candidates should have a perspective on the develop-
ment of the field of special education. However, they also note the need for
such information to be presented in a succinct way. In the fifth edition, each
chapter in which a historical view is appropriate includes an updated time
line that captures key events in a way that can be quickly scanned and under-
stood. This approach allows for considerable historical detail to be provided
in an easily understood format.
• Websites that lead readers to valuable resources. The amount and quality of in-
formation available to educators through the Internet has exploded. In this
new edition, every chapter includes new electronic sources of information,

vi Preface
instructional strategies, and tools teachers will find valuable as they gather
data, plan instruction, and learn about critical issues in the field. Those web-
based resources also enable readers to extend their knowledge by exploring
professional organizations representing individuals with disabilities and other
special needs, investigating in more depth topics that could only be briefly
introduced in the textbook, and discovering additional teaching strategies.
And those are just a few of the highlights. The fifth edition of Special Edu-
cation: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals reflects along every
dimension the most current information about special education.
Setting a Context
Two sets of experiences shaped my approach to writing this text. The first is my
university work with preservice and practicing teachers in both general educa-
tion and special education. I’ve had the privilege of taking a leadership role in
developing two undergraduate special education teacher education programs:
one that resulted in dual licensure and one that resulted in a special education
major. I’ve also participated in creating several new graduate special education
programs: alternative routes to licensure, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees.
In addition, I’ve engaged in the collaborative, imaginative, and analytical work
of revisioning special education teacher preparation to be responsive to the de-
mands of this 21st century society. These experiences inform the goal I have for
an introductory special education course: to inspire and foster enthusiasm and
yet not shy away from the need to discuss the often complex and occasionally
contentious issues that confront the field. We need school professionals who
have foundational knowledge, extraordinary assessment and instructional skills,
flexible thinking, and an understanding of and respect for the perspectives of
colleagues and parents. Those elements are strongly represented in this text. I
wanted to draw students into the material, to personalize it so that they feel the
book is speaking to them and encouraging them to be the professionals needed
for tomorrow’s schools.
The second set of experiences reflected in this text is my work in schools.
Observing, collaborating with, and teaching educators and administrators as they
interact with pupils has taught me that children and youth can accomplish goals
that sometimes are difficult even to imagine, as long as their teachers and other
service providers believe in them and work together. I am firmly committed to
inclusive practices—the way they can and should be. That is, I believe that all
learners should be welcomed members of their learning communities. The goal
is educating students in typical settings—but not abandoning effective practices
or focusing on where students are seated to the exclusion of all other factors.
Sometimes decisions for separate instructional settings have to be made, but in
inclusive schools, they are cautious decisions that take into account both the
costs and benefits to students and are revisited often. And so this textbook also
reflects those beliefs: Early-career professionals should be optimistic about the
potential of their students, but they also should be well schooled in the decision-
making processes, settings, and instructional procedures that can best ensure
that potential is realized.
The Plan of the Book

To introduce teacher candidates to a field as broad and complex as special edu-
cation requires making decisions about what is most important to include, what
just cannot be addressed, and what order to present and depth to provide on crit-
ical topics. The overall organization of Special Education: Contemporary Perspec-
tives for School Professionals reflects those decisions. Core concepts related to the
field of special education are introduced in Chapter 1, “Understanding Special

Preface vii
Education,” and Chapter 2, “The Personnel and Procedures of Special Education.”

Chapter 3, “Multicultural Perspectives,” explores several essential dimensions
of diversity and multicultural issues as they relate to students with disabilities.
Chapter 4, “Collaboration in Special Education,” examines the increasingly central
role that collaboration plays in the work of all of today’s school professionals.
Chapters 5 through 15 comprise the categorical segment of the text, each one
devoted to a separate category of disability or special learning need (e.g., atten-
tion deficit–hyperactivity disorder and giftedness). Each of these chapters goes
beyond the mere characterizing of students; the emphasis is on understanding
and teaching them.
Topics Integrated into Every Chapter

Although some readers might prefer that the topic of parents be addressed in a
single chapter, this approach belies the centrality of families in their children’s
education. Hence, the perspectives of parents and families are addressed in each
chapter in a section designed to address issues pertaining to the overall chapter
topic. Likewise, although it is not possible to provide extensive coverage of in-
structional practices in an introductory text, in each categorical chapter a section
is devoted to providing examples of research-based strategies and approaches in
order to give readers a sense of the ways they can have a positive impact on stu-
dents. These strategies usually apply to several groups of students, but they are
embedded where they seem most applicable. An additional example of an inte-
grated topic is inclusion. Each categorical chapter explores inclusive practices re-
lated to particular groups of students—sometimes to highlight positive practices,
sometimes to illustrate that more work is needed, and sometimes to examine the
necessity of settings other than general education classrooms. One other topic is
addressed in this manner: the history of the field. It worries me that in our zeal to
prepare professionals who can meet the extraordinarily high expectations set for
them today, we sometimes forget to give them a sense of the development of the
field of special education and how today’s practices are a result of that develop-
ment. A brief examination of how the field of special education came to be what
it is today seems appropriate, as does a similar analysis of the development of
the disability specialty areas.

viii Preface
REAL WORLD EXPERIENCES

In addition to presenting the theories, concepts, and day-to-day realities of the
field of special education, I’ve also attempted to bring to life the experiences and
powerful stories of people with disabilities and their parents and families.
Chapter-Opening Vignettes
Chapter-opening vignettes describe the JONAS
Students with Speech and Language Disorders
directions that she now is expected to follow in middle

261
experiences of elementary, middle school, Jonas is in first grade. Looking at him, Jonas appears to school. Her special education teacher even referred her
be an average 6-year-old, full of energy, interested in to the nurse to check for a possible hearing loss, since
everything, and rapidly learning. However, when Jonas Savannah sometimes seemed not to recognize when
speaks to his teacher or classmates, frustration fol- she was spoken to. However, Savannah’s neurologist
and high school students as they relate lowed by anger too often is the result. Jonas has re-
ceived speech-language therapy since the age of 3 when
his pediatrician finally agreed with his parents that his
clarified that this was actually a symptom of her recep-
tive language problems. In casual and comfortable so-
cial situations, Savannah functions without a problem,
to the topics discussed in each chapter. speech and language development problems were not but when under pressure to participate in class or dur-
about being a “late talker,” and he was diagnosed as ing stressful academic activities, she is unlikely to be
having developmental apraxia of speech, a disorder in able to find the correct words. Savannah is receiving
which the pathway between the brain and the muscles special education in language arts, and she works
These individuals’ experiences are ref- of the mouth that are needed to produce clear speech
is damaged. He receives special education services for
his communication disorder. Jonas is eager to commu-
twice weekly with a speech-language therapist. Her
teachers and parents know that Savannah’s recovery is
likely to take far longer than anyone had anticipated.
erenced at key points in the chapter as

nicate, but his words are difficult to understand, and
he often cannot produce sentences of more than a few DAVID
words. For example, instead of saying “go together,” he David is an 11th-grade student at Walt Whitman High
says “go-etter.” When he is excited or anxious, his School. He is enrolled in a program with a vocational
well. The vignettes can form the basis

9
speech problems are more apparent, and the frustra- emphasis, learning important skills for getting and
tion and anger are the result of not being able to make keeping a job when he leaves school at age 22. He
himself understood. During preschool, Jonas received spends part of the day in special education classes,
for applying information and strate-

speech-language therapy three times each week; he part of the day in general education classes such as
now receives it twice each week, with his teacher and physical education, and part of the day in a vocational
Students with Speech and parents helping him practice at other times. A new
concern also is emerging, which may possibly be re-
school, where he is learning skills to work as a data
entry specialist. David has received speech-language
gies from the chapter, and they can be a Language Disorders

lated to Jonas’s challenges in producing subtle but dis-
tinct sounds of language: He is also experiencing
significant difficulty in reading.
services since he was a toddler, but the types of services
have changed over time. When he was young, his
speech-language therapist emphasized proper use of
launching point for discussions of issues

his lips and tongue to accurately produce sounds.
SAVANNAH Gradually, emphasis shifted to language skills such as
Right before the beginning of fifth grade, Savannah vocabulary development. As he enters this final part of
Learning LO9.1 Outline the development of the speech and language disorders field, define was in a serious car accident that caused a traumatic his schooling, the focus now is on assisting David to
influencing the field, including inclusive Outcomes LO9.2

LO9.3
speech and language disorders, and explain their prevalence and causes.
Describe characteristics of individuals with speech and language disorders.
Explain how speech and language disorders are identified.
brain injury as well as significant physical injuries. For
that entire school year, Savannah received special edu-
cation either at the hospital, at the rehabilitation cen-
initiate conversations and ask questions and to under-
stand idioms that he may encounter in the workplace
(e.g., “That was a piece of cake.” “Let’s get this up and
LO9.4 Outline how learners with speech and language disorders receive their
practices, collaboration, and response to

ter, or at her home. Savannah’s physical injuries have running.”). Another priority is making sure that David
education. long since healed, and outwardly she appears similar appropriately makes eye contact with teachers, work
LO9.5 Describe recommended educational practices for students with speech and to her peers, but she still has significant cognitive and supervisors, and peers. David’s speech-language thera-
language disorders. communication problems. For example, Savannah still pist consults with the professionals who are working
intervention.
LO9.6 Explain the perspectives and concerns that parents and families of students encounters difficulty understanding the complex with David so that they also emphasize these skills.
with speech and language disorders may have.
LO9.7 Identify trends and issues influencing the field of speech and language
disorders.
Students with Visual Impairments 379

260
FIRSTHAND ACCOUNT
GROWING UP AND HAVING GOALS
Back to the Cases
M09_FRIE6802_05_SE_C09_pp260-286.indd 260-261 25/01/17 11:20 am
BILLY,
a 10th-grade
I used to go on campouts. In
summer camp, I earned a Polar
job training, one week is learn-
ing how to be independent, and
Each chapter concludes by asking readers to go Back to the Cases to apply
student, has
an inherited
disorder called Norrie disease, which is
Bear patch. We had to go down
to the lake and jump in at 6:30
in the morning! I also went on
one week is for technology.
Ms. Pickens: When I think of the ups what they have learned to the students they met at the beginning of the
and downs of schools, I’ve seen
carried by females; he has been blind
since birth and has a moderate hearing
a ski trip—it was my first time
ever skiing. They put the skis on
both ends. One TVI was good
with one-to-one in her class-
chapter. In some instances, questions are asked that require readers to
loss. The disease runs in his family; his me, and they led me down this room, but she didn’t communi-
maternal grandparents are blind, as are
two cousins. But to Billy, a lack of vision
slope, and after I got help the
first couple of times, I was do-
cate with the teachers, and I had
to step in because of the com-
analyze student characteristics and discuss how their success could be fos-
in no way limits his experiences or life am- ing it all by myself. I didn’t even
tered. In others, situations educators are likely to encounter are outlined,
munication breakdown. And
bitions. Billy, his mom Ms. Pickens, and fall! I was also selected to go to sometimes she would push Billy
his TVI Ms. Deere, a former nurse with a leadership institute for two too hard; I want him to be in-
and readers are asked how they would respond. In yet others, readers are
four years of K–12 teaching experience, days, but I got a really terrible dependent, but for some things
participated in this conversation: cold and I couldn’t go. he needed more guidance. But
Back to school, math is the I’ll tell you that Ms. Deere, she
Billy: I want to go to UNC Chapel
asked to integrate learning across chapters to consider educational strat-

most challenging subject—it re- communicates with the teachers
Hill, and I want to study jour-
ally keeps me going, keeps me and with me, and she’s an ad-
nalism. My best subject is Eng-
working. vocate for Billy, and she has no
lish. I want to write books for
both children and adults, fiction
books and nonfiction books. I
Ms. Deere: I go to Algebra with Billy
because when he brailles his
work, I have to write above it so
problem saying to me, “Mama,
back off!” Sometimes I have to
catch myself when I’m answer-
egies for the highlighted stu- 418 Chapter 13
started writing my first book a
couple of summers ago. Here is
how it started:
his teacher can get immediate
feedback; it is a priority in there.
ing questions for him; I turn
around and say, “OK, Billy, you dents. This feature provides Back to the Cases
I don’t co-teach—I’m just there answer that question. You have
instructors with an effec-
One thing I’ve always had
trouble with is in math—coordi- to interpret the braille because a brain and you can think!” He’s Now that you’ve read about physical disabilities and other MyEdLab Case Study 13.2
nate planes and stuff like that. it’s Nemeth code. Also, Billy growing up. health impairments, look back at the student stories at
uses an audio graphing calcula- KRYSTLE. You will be attending Krystle’s IEP meeting, and
So my dad was using states as
an example. He was giving me
maps and talking about the
tor, and he’s had to learn how
to use it, so I help with that.
Billy: I’m learning how to use a GPS
system called Trekker. I take it
to landmarks and record them,
tive summative activity for the beginning of this chapter. Then, answer the questions
about each of their cases.
you’ve already been alerted that many different opinions
exist among members of the IEP team on priorities for
Krystle’s education for the upcoming year. Some members
each chapter—one that can
Great Plains, but I really wasn’t We also work on the calcu- like to the mobile units behind MyEdLab Case Study 13.1
lator in the resource room, and are most concerned about Krystle’s academic achieve-
understanding it. So he said it the school. And then I say the RYAN. Ryan probably faces a challenging school year as he ment and the fact that she seems to be falling further be-
would be better if we would go we focus on compensatory skills room number I’m supposed to enters first grade and continues treatment for leukemia. As hind with each passing day, despite intensive reading
out there. So first we went to
the Grand Canyon. And then
we went to lots of other places.
and technology use. Billy also re-
ceives instruction for orientation
and mobility and some occupa-
go to, and it gives me directions
on how to get there. I can record
other places, too, like the store
be completed by individual Ryan’s mother has become more knowledgeable about his
disorder and the course of treatment that he will need, she
instruction in the special education classroom. Others are
voicing grave concern about Krystle’s mental health and
has begun to worry. She is concerned that Ryan will get social functioning, emphasizing that unless she becomes
We went to Ohio, and at the
National Football League Hall
tional therapy services, all in the
resource room. And for sum-
mers, I really push students going
I go to.
Teachers should never try students or as a collabora- further and further behind academically, to the point that
he will never catch up. Therefore, she has gone to the school
comfortable with her strengths, challenges, and self-iden-
tity, she is unlikely to accelerate her learning rate.
of Fame my dad read everything to do stuff for a person. It will
tive effort.
and asked for Ryan to spend half of each school day in the
to me. And now I’ve been to 49 to camps where they learn many cripple them. They should make special education classroom. She agrees that inclusion is a MyEdLab Case Study 13.3
states, and I’m going to Hawaii skills. Billy is going for a month the person think for themselves. good idea, but for her son she believes that the small, struc-
this summer. So now I’m writing this summer. It’s not for aca- And they should never lump you JEFFREY. Jeffrey is adjusting to many life changes. He
tured environment and one-to-one or small-group special-
this book, and it’s called, The demics; it will help him get ready into a category with all blind wants to keep a positive attitude, but sometimes he is
ized instruction possible in the special education classroom
for life after high school . . . and overwhelmed by the challenges he faces. Think about the
World as I See It, and it’s about children, because everyone is in- is the best option. As you reflect upon the best educational
they have so much fun! impact of Jeffrey’s injury on his academic achievement, so-
my adventures and my trips. dividual—they learn differently. environment for Ryan, imagine you are part of the team
cial interactions, behavior, and outlook for the future.
I’ve done lots of other Billy: It’s divided. One week I’m go- Source: Courtesy of Debra Pickens and Deborah Deere. determining how to best serve Ryan’s needs.
things. I was a Boy Scout, and ing to learn cooking, one week is
Firsthand Accounts
M12_FRIE6802_05_SE_C12_pp354-383.indd 379
Firsthand Accounts allow teachers, other

27/01/17 2:51 pm
school professionals, students, and parents

the chance to share, in their own words, their
experiences and perspectives about life and
learning related to special needs. Their words
convey the core message of this book—that
individuals with disabilities should be thought
of in terms of their unique potential and
abilities.
M13_FRIE6802_05_SE_C13_pp384-418.indd 418 23/01/17 5:57 pm

Preface ix
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES
This text emphasizes contemporary information for practicing teachers: teaching
approaches, strategies, ideas, and tips that are always based on empirically vali-
dated, peer-reviewed research findings. The goal is not to offer a comprehensive
set of teaching methods but instead to demonstrate to novice educators how
effective instructional practices can profoundly and positively influence student
success.
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 469
DATA-DRIVEN DECISIONS Data-Driven Decisions

RTI for Students with Gifts and Talents Data-Driven Decisions focuses on the increasing importance in
Although RTI has been discussed throughout this text
as a means for identifying and addressing students who
struggle to learn, it also is being used as a means of serv-
principles of RTI already explained, it adds elements such
as the following (Bianco & Harris, 2014; Montana Office
of Public Instruction (OPI), 2009):
today’s schools of data collection and use for instructional decision
140 Chapter 5
ing students who are gifted and talented. Based on the
making. Topics addressed include formative assessment in class-
been studied in students with learning disabilities include excessive out-of-seat
Percent of
All Students Instructional Emphasis
rooms,Video
assessment
Example for special education eligibility, data-based aca-
behavior, talk-outs, and physical and verbal aggression.
One of the difficulties in discussing the behavior characteristics of students
with learning disabilities is the fact that a significant number of these students
Tier 1 80–90 • Research-based strategies used for all students
• Even high achievers should be challenged
• Screening related giftedness should compare students to other students their age
demic interventions,
from data tools on the web, data-based
deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
attention behavior
have comorbid (i.e., occurring simultaneously) learning disabilities and
. In fact, it is estimated that between 16%
• Flexibly arranged small-group instruction in the general education classroom may contribute to
differentiation interventions,
YouTubecollaborating around data, apps for gathering data,
and 31% of students with LD also have ADHD (Wei, Yu, & Shaver, 2014). This
comorbidity factor raises the possibility that the behavior problems of some stu-
dents with learning disabilities are, in fact, symptoms of a second disorder. De-
Tier 2 5–10 • 20–60 minutes per day of instruction in addition to that offered as part of Tier 1
• Assessment procedures that take into account the possibility of a student being twice exceptional
• Ongoing monitoring to ensure students are continuing to progress, that they are not reaching a
RTI and data, data to select technology, and many more.
MyEdLab
Video Example 5.2
tails about the characteristics of students with ADHD are covered in Chapter 6.
The Positive Behavior Supports provides one example of educators’ efforts to
Video Example 5.2 provides brief
learning ceiling
interviews with three students with
help students with learning disabilities learn appropriate classroom behavior
• Setting may be the general education classroom or a separate setting, depending on need through an emphasis on social skills.
LD, focused on friendship, which
Tier 3 1–8 • Intended only for the very small group of students who are so extraordinarily gifted that they re- can help you to better understand Of course, no student with a learning disability has all of the characteristics
quire significantly different educational experiences to reach their potential how they perceive themselves and just described, and the impact of a problem in any of these areas depends on
• Strategies may include acceleration, curriculum compacting, dual enrollment, and other ap- explain their disabilities to others. many factors, including student supports from family, teachers, and friends.
proaches that take the student away from typical educational practices (https://www.youtube.com/
• Core curriculum may be replaced with more advanced options watch?v=P0nX2q2Q_Fg)
• Assessment is ongoing to ensure the student is making progress
Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 221
If you’d like to read more about the types of instruc- Department of Education (OPI) (2009) is helpful: http://
tional interventions, the manual published by the Montana INSTRUCTION IN
opi.mt.gov/pub/RTI/Resources/RTI_Gifted_Talented.pdf ACTION P O S I TI V E BEHAVIOR S U P P OR T S
Numbered Heads Together Improving Behavior Through Social Skills Instruction
are appropriately challenged so that they learn in a way that is commensurate with Most students with specific learning disabilities have diffi- After the first book is read, the social skill addressed is
Numbered Heads Together is one example of a research- 5. Call the groups back together. Call a number (1 to 3
their abilities. The Data-Driven Decisions feature explains more about this approach. culty navigating social interactions, which leads to behavior explicitly introduced and steps for implementing it are
based cooperative learning approach that can be effective or 1 to 4), and have the students in the class with that
for teaching academic content and social interaction skills number stand. problems. Addressing this dimension of students’ learning taught and practiced.
toMyEdLab
students with emotional
Self-Check 15.3and behavior disabilities (Hunter 6. Call on one of the standing students to answer the disabilities is critical for their success. Students are paired with a classmate to read one of the
& Haydon, 2013). Here are the steps to follow to implement question. If there is more than one correct answer, additional books and to role play the needed social skills,
MyEdLab Heads
Application Exercise 15.4: Underrepresentation Types of Social Skills Problems
Numbered Together: continue to call on students. with teacher feedback provided.
7. Ask the rest of the class to agree or disagree with the Skill deficit—the student has never learned the skill
MyEdLab
1. AssignApplication
students toExercise 15.5: Performance
heterogeneous Assessment
groups of three or Targeted students practice the social skills with classmates,
four. Students should be seated near one another. stated answer. Performance deficit—the student knows the skill but does not
but they also receive additional opportunities to apply the
8. Award points or rewards. This can be done in several use it when appropriate
How Learners Who Are Gifted and
2. Have students assign themselves numbers from 1 to
3 or 4. ways. Some teachers use a positive approach: As long Self-control deficit—the student’s lack of self-control results in
skills during small-group reading instruction.
Data are gathered prior to implementation and after teach-
Talented Receive Their Education
3. Ask the class a question. as each student called on gets a correct answer, all
teams are rewarded. Other teachers give each team one
problem behaviors, which interfere with learning and apply-
ing a social skill, including student knowledge and the skill
4. Have students “put their heads together” so that they ing social skills (Kavale & Forness, 2012)
Students who are gifted and talented receive their education in a variety
“pass” so that of ifset-
a member does not answer correctly, and appropriate use of the skill.
can determine the correct answer or several answers,
tings. No data are available to indicate the amount of time they thespend
team stillin ahas par- an opportunity to be rewarded. Example of Social Skills Instruction Social skill instruction delivered in this manner is efficient
depending on the type of question that was asked.
ticular setting, and decisions about placement often depend on the breadth and Womack, Marchant, and Borders (2012) noted that so- in terms of time use and situates learning in the context of
Students are instructed to be sure that every member Source: Based on Maheady, L., Harper, G. F., & Mallette, B. (2001). Peer-mediated instruction and
level of a student’s abilities as well as on the program options generally
interventions and studentsavailable
with mild disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 22(1), 4–14. cial skills instruction delivered in isolation has seldom been real life. It also fosters a high level of student engagement
of their group knows the answer(s). Copyright © 2001 by Pro-Ed, Inc.
based on local and state policies. shown to be effective. Instead, they recommend embedding and builds student self-confidence. Finally, it incorporates
social skills instruction in the classroom literature program peer-mediated instruction (including feedback and media-
Early Childhood Education by following these general steps: tion), which research suggests is an effective approach (e.g.,
Identify a social skill needed by a student (e.g., taking turns, Lo, Correa, & Anderson, 2014). How does this approach
With the exception of children who are prodigies—that is, those who have abili-
Positive Behavior Supports

bullying) have the potential to address the three types of social skills
Instruction in Action
ties so remarkable that they come to the attention of researchers and the media
peer-mediated instruction are Select several children’s books that address that skill, using two deficits noted?
at an early age—relatively littlepeer tutoring
attention hasand
beencooperative learning.
paid to young In peer
children who
tutoring, each student works with one other student to practice math facts, re- to four books to address each skill, usually over a 2-week period.
view vocabulary, or complete another instructional task. One student is the tutor,
Instruction in Action highlights teaching applica-
or the student responsible for acting as the peer teacher; the other student is the
tutee, or the student answering the questions. In one successful peer-tutoring
Positive Behavior Supports illustrates the contem-
tions for specially designed instruction delivered by
approach, called reciprocal tutoring, both students take both roles in a single
tutoring session.
porary emphasis on understanding the function of
MyEdLab Self-Check 5.2
In cooperative learning, students work in groups of three or four. They have
special education teachers or other professionals
M15_FRIE6802_05_SE_C15_pp451-483.indd 469
a specific task to complete, play assigned roles (e.g., note taker), and take ac-
countability for the learning. One cooperative learning method, called “Num-
23/01/17 6:01 pm
student problematic behavior and designing andMyEdLab Application Exercise 5.3: Bridget
in various educational settings, including examples

bered Heads Together,” combines the skills and learning efforts of students with
a bit of luck; it is described in the Instruction in Action feature.
implementing specific strategies in order to reduce
For peer tutoring and cooperative learning to be effective with students with
for individual or small-group situations. The feature
EBD, teachers must implement it carefully, following methods that have been
demonstrated through research to produce positive outcomes. In addition, stu-
inappropriate and increase appropriate behavior. In
provides sample lessons, tips, techniques, ideas, and
dents should receive instruction in appropriate leadership, communication, deci-
sion-making, and trust-building skills. Finally, teachers or others implementing
this feature, readers also will find discussions that
peer tutoring and cooperative learning should assess its impact on student
approaches for working with students with special
achievement and monitor student behavior in these instructional arrangements
(Lo, Mustian, Brophy, & White, 2011).
deepen their understanding of the behavior chal-
educational needs, whether in a separate setting or
Teacher-Led Instruction lenges their students may present and resources to
One final area of intervention should be mentioned. Students with emotional and
general education classroom.
behavior disorders clearly struggle with academic achievement, and evidence
increasingly points to the importance of using specific programs and procedures
help respond to them.
to help them learn (e.g., Kelly & Shogren, 2014; Nikolaros, 2014). In addition,
many of the strategies that make instruction effective for all students are particu-
larly important for these students, including the following:
• Keep lesson objectives clear.
• Deliver lessons in a lively manner, and make sure that studentsThe
are engaged
Personnel andbyProcedures of Special Education 51
frequently using participation strategies.
PROFESSIONAL EDGE Professional Edge
Involving Students in the IEP Process
Professional Edge describes conceptual material,
Most professionals agree that students should play an ac- • Have students send reminders to key participants,
tive role in developing their IEPs and participating in their
M07_FRIE6802_05_SE_C07_pp193-228.indd 221
implementation. Here are some ideas for involving students
either by sending e-mails or composing letters, with
assistance as needed.
20/01/17 5:25 pm cutting-edge trends, and contemporary issues rele-
in the IEP process:
• Prepare to assist students by increasing your own un-
• Involve students in meeting preparation, for example,
by having them make name tags for participants. vant to today’s teachers. Included are new and some-
• Ask students to write a paragraph about their strengths
derstanding of student-led IEP meetings. One helpful
resource is Getting the Most Out of IEPs: An Educator’s Guide and needs.
• Assist students to draft IEP goals they consider impor-
times controversial topics that experts in the field
to the Student-Directed Approach (Thoma & Wehman,
2010).
• Provide students with materials that teach them about
tant to their education.
• Ensure that students, even those who are young, attend are talking about right now. It also provides a place
all or part of the IEP meeting.
IEPs. One example is Student-Led IEPs: A Guide for Student
Involvement (McGahee, Mason, Wallace, & Jones, 2001). • Help students to rehearse parts of the IEP meeting they
will lead.
in the textbook to provide critical “nuggets” of in-
• Create an IEP scavenger hunt so that students gather in-
formation that will help them participate in the meeting.
• Have students read fiction books about individuals with
• Teach students self-advocacy skills so that they can
communicate their IEP goals to all their teachers. formation that novice educators need (e.g., dealing
• Involve students in monitoring their progress in achiev-
disabilities to help them voice their own strengths and
special needs. ing IEP goals, perhaps preparing first-person reports to
share with parents.
with student death, responding to a student having
• Involve students in the assessment, for example, by hav-
ing them complete interest inventories. Source: Based on Konrad, 2008.
a seizure).
Required Components of the IEP
Although the forms on which IEPs are written vary somewhat across states and
local school districts, IDEA spells out clearly the components that must be in-
cluded in every IEP (Winterman & Rosas, 2014). As you read the following sec-
tions, you may wish to have an IEP form from your state on hand so that you can
see how the required components are addressed. (You should be able to down-
load a sample from your state’s Department of Education website.)
Present Level of Performance

A student’s IEP must include accurate and current information about any domain
in which a concern exists, including academic achievement, social functioning,
behavior, communication skills, physical skills, vocational skills, and others as
appropriate. Collectively, this information is referred to as the present level of
academic achievement and functional performance (sometimes shortened to the
acronym PLOP or, in some states, PLAFP). This IEP component often comprises
individual and group achievement test scores, teacher ratings of student behav-
iors, and scores on assessments completed by specialists such as speech-
A01_FRIE6802_05_SE_FM_ppi-xxxiv.indd
language pathologists and 9 occupational therapists. However, present level of 02/02/17 1:06 pm
tors are not likely to be successful. A variety of options should be considered,
including offering programs at times that are convenient for parents; locating
programs in community centers, libraries, or other settings that are possibly
more familiar and comfortable for parents than the school; and creating op-
tions such as packets of print or electronic materials that can be accessed by
parents (e.g., information sent home; information on a school or teacher web-
site; information that can be disseminated by school social workers through
home visits).
Support Groups
x Preface
For some families, one of the most helpful options is a support group that
includes the parents of other students with emotional and behavior disabilities
(Mendenhall, Arnold, & Fristad, 2016; National Dissemination Center for Chil-
42 Chapter 2
dren with Disabilities, 2010). In support groups, parents share information
CUTTING-EDGE INFORMATION
about local resources and services, trade ideas for addressing specific prob- what to do next. Raekwon, the fourth-grader you met at the beginning of the
chapter, might be a student discussed by an intervention assistance team.
lems, and obtain the reassurance of knowing that they are not alone in dealing
with day-to-day challenges. Although school professionals might arrange to Response to Intervention
An alternative option for addressing serious student learning problems was ap-
start a support group, parents take the lead and give the group its identity and proved in the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA. Originally intended to contribute to
direction. More common than school-based support groups are those that the early identification of possible learning disabilities, 17 states now mandate its
use for that purpose (Hauerwas, Brown, & Scott, 2013), but nearly all states pro-
exist in the local community. Teachers can help parents access this type of vide guidelines to local districts that want to use this data-based approach to
assistance by keeping at hand details about such groups or knowing who at
The field of special education is multifaceted, fast moving, and continually influ-
school (such as the counselor or social worker) can provide the needed
address students’ learning and behavior problems (Zirkel, 2011). This approach,
briefly introduced in Chapter 1, is called response to intervention (RTI).
RTI has two main purposes (Kavale & Spaulding, 2008):
information. enced by new ideas. Teachers and other educational professionals are encour- Did You Know?
The traditional approach to iden- 1. To ensure that students receive research-proven remediation and other sup-
tifying learning disabilities, which ports as soon as they are identified as having academic difficulties, even in
aged to maintain their connection and to find inspiration from this universe of relies on a significant discrepancy
existing between ability and
kindergarten, rather than waiting until an academic or behavior gap has
grown significantly and, perhaps, to the point that it cannot be closed
information. In this fifth edition, careful attention has been paid to updating leg- achievement, has been criticized
as a “wait to fail” approach. RTI is
2. To ensure that professionals gather high-quality data to document the effec-
tiveness of those remedial strategies and supports and to guide their decision
MyEdLab Application Exercise 7.10: Perspectives of Parents and Families with EBDs designed to address learning gaps making about possible referral for special education services
islative and litigative information and presenting the most current statistics and
MyEdLab Application Exercise 7.11: Collaborative Relationships
as soon as they are recognized
instead of waiting for them to The ongoing use of data to determine whether a student is responding to the
continuous progress monitoring become so great that they interventions being implemented is referred to as .
other data related to the field. constitute a disability. In Technology Notes, you can see how this type of data collection is much more
easily accomplished by using a variety of readily available technology.
TECHNOLOGY NOTES
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field Teacher Data Collection Technology Tools
of Emotional and Behavior Disorders Many free or low-cost tools are available to teachers to
facilitate the data collection necessary as part of interven-
Google Sheets
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/u/0/?pref=2&pli=1
ing to decide if a student’s academics or behaviors are a
Many trends and issues related to the field of emotional and behavior disorders serious concern. Several examples include the following:
One of the most versatile tools for data collection is a
simple spreadsheet, such as the free Google Sheets. For
have been
290 introduced
Chapterelsewhere
10 in this chapter. For example, you have learned Teacher’s Assistant Pro example, on a spreadsheet, you can create a separate
about the controversy that exists about the definition of this disability and con- http://www.teachersassistantpro.com/
sheet for each student of concern in a single file, list be-
haviors being recorded horizontally across the top of
cerns about
FIGUREinclusive
10.1 practices. However,
Time Line if you asked experienced
of the Development professionals
of the Field of Autism Spectrum Disorder
This iPad/iPhone app (free for limited access; low cost
the spreadsheet and dates of data collection vertically,
for unlimited access) is designed to enable teachers to
to name the most important issues, they probably would include two topics as easily track student behavior, whether accomplishments
with your tallies or other data in the cells. These data can
then be transformed into charts, printed, or transmitted
significant for the field: (a) the continuing difficulty that students and their fami- or problems. Teachers can create a file for each of their
via e-mail.
students, customize the types of behaviors they want to
lies face in obtaining essential mental health services and (b) the controversy track, tally students’ behaviors, and e-mail either recent
Notemaster
surrounding the use1943 1944
of seclusion and restraint 1949
with students 1950s
with emotional and 1965 1967
or all records of student behaviors to parents or 1980
others.
http://www.kabukivision.com/
1990 1991 1992
behavior disabilities. Electronic Daily Behavior Report Card (e-DBRC) Notemaster is a generic note-taking app (a “lite” version is
Leo Kanner, a child Kanner attributes autism Bernard Rimland http://edbrc.tamu.edu/ free) that teachers can use to create templates
Autism is for tracking
added to the
psychiatrist, coins the term to “refrigerator founds the Autism Developed by researchers at Texas A & M University, this students’ academic and social behavior. By creating
Individuals skills
with Disabilities
autism (from the Greek mothers”—that is, Society of America, tool is an electronic version of the classroom daily behavior checklists that can be infinitely duplicated,
Educationteachers
Act as acan
distinct
Trends and Issues Sections

Lorna Wing, through a
word autos, meaning self ) women who are cold and report card that teachers for decades have used to com- track student performance daily or track
seen as the beginning several
category students’
of disability decade of research, concludes
to describe 11 children non-nurturing toward of the trend towardmunicate with parents concerning student behavior and to behavior. The data records can be synced through Google that autism includes a variety
Jim Sinclair,
document a student’s social and behavior skills. The app Docs and then exported for reporting or e-mailing. As an Kathy Grant, and
who were withdrawn; he Hans Asperger, an their children, thus giving awareness and American
Trends and Issues sections conclude each chapter with graphs student behavior,
Autism and a grade or rating
Research is assigned alternative, you may already be using a notes app—such of disorders, from those with
intimated that poor the disorder a strong research on this for each day; it also easily allows data to bePsychiatric Donna Williams
Austrian pediatrician e-mailed and as OneNote or Evernote—that could be used in a similar significant intellectual
Institute (ARI) found Autism
parenting might be the unaware of Kanner’s work, social stigma disorder offers a wayfounded,
to help students Association
analyze their own behavior.adds fashion. disabilities and
a brief look at the most recent developments in the field,
a worldwide Network
cause of the children’s uses the term autism to autism to the communication problems to
network of parents, International
problems describe patients who are Bruno Bettelheim Diagnostic and those with Asperger
professionals, and
02_05_SE_C07_pp193-228.indd 224 and the most interesting—and often still unresolved—
gifted but who are socially
isolated
popularizes the
25/01/17 2:34 pm
researchers dedicated to
Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders
syndrome who generally have A
Technology Notes
refrigerator mother idea understanding ASD average or above-average A
questions and dilemmas. through multiple (DSM) intelligence A

publications th
Technology Notes showcases examples of the wide ar-

ray of technology applications for teaching students

with exceptional needs in special or general educational
diagnosed with this disorder (Braun et al., 2015; Centers for Disease Control and
Did You Know? Prevention, 2016). Research related to autism now settings. Theongoal
is focused is to ensure that novice teachers un-
identifying
Autistic savant refers to a person causes (e.g., Siu et al., 2016; Li, Zou, & Brown, 2012;derstand
Lo-Castro &that the2014).
Curatolo, lightning pace at which technologi-
who has extraordinary skills that Other efforts are focused on validating medical treatments (e.g. Berghaum &
others do not have (although not Ogilvie, 2016; McCormick, Hepburn, Young, & Rogers, cal 2015),
solutions arepsycho-
identifying emerging holds immense promise for
all individuals who are savants have logical therapies (e.g. Braida et al., 2015; Salazar etthe achievement
al., 2015), ofedu-
and evaluating students with disabilities and other
autism). Examples of these skills cational interventions (e.g. Delmolino, Hansford, Bamon, Fiske, & LaRue, 2013;
include mathematical calculations Rotheram-Fuller, & Hodas, 2015; Virues-Ortega, special Rodriguez,needs
& Yu, and
2013).toIt encourage
is readers to seek out even
(e.g., figuring the day of the week likely this work will eventually clarify the nuancesmore
for any date in history), memory
information
of autism about technology for teaching stu-
and the most effec-
tive approaches for students with this disorder.
feats (e.g., knowing every entry in dents, gathering data, and collaborating with colleagues.
a dictionary), and musical ability
(e.g., playing any piece of music Definitions of Autism Spectrum Disorder
after hearing it just one time).
As is true for many other disabilities, the language related to autism requires a
brief explanation. The traditional term used for this group of students is autism,
and that is the term used in IDEA and many state special education laws. The
Did You Know? term autism spectrum disorder (ASD), first used by Wing and Gould (1979), clari-
fies that this disorder occurs in many forms and cannot be described in any one
Did You Know? highlights tidbits
way; ASD of has
information
rapidly become orthe
re-term of choice among professionals in the
field. In fact, as will be discussed later in this chapter, this term was recently
sources related to selected chapter topics. These brief
adopted by the psychiatric community to replace several other terms formerly
inserts point readers to additional resources,
used to describe present
this disability.
research, or provide pertinent information
Federal Definition intended to
assist novices to better understand
Accordingthe text autism
to IDEA, material.
is defined as follows:
i. Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal
and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident
before age three, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in re-
petitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmen-
tal change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory
experiences.
ii. Autism does not apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely
affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance.
iii. A child who manifests the characteristics of autism after age three could
be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria in paragraph (c)(1)(i) of this
section are satisfied. (IDEA 20 U.S.C. §1401 [2004], 20 C.F.R. §300.8[c][1]
[i–iii])

Preface xi
AIDS TO UNDERSTANDING
Learning Outcomes and Summaries of Content
Learning Outcomes begin each chapter to focus reader thinking about
the topics to be covered in the upcoming pages, and these are directly
associated with the chapter’s section headings. Each chapter ends with a
Summary of the main ideas of the chapters, and these bring the chapter
full circle by being organized based on the opening learning outcomes.
MyEducationLabTM
Video Examples 3 Learning
Multicultural Perspectives
LO3.1 Explain the concept of culture.
In all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of special educa- Outcomes LO3.2
LO3.3
Describe how culture affects the learning process.
Analyze the disproportionate representation of students who are racially and
ethnically diverse in special and gifted education, explaining factors that con- Multicultural Perspectives 77
tion principles or concepts in action. These video examples most of-• Better teacher preparation regarding cultural differences and potential biases LO3.4
tribute to this situation and the role of response to intervention or multi-
tiered systems of support in improving it.
Identify recommended educational practices for diverse students in special
ten show students and teachers working in classrooms. They sometimes• Improved
and gifted education.
strategies for behavior management, because discipline is one of the LO3.5 Examine challenges to and opportunities for developing collaborative rela-
tionships with racially and ethnically diverse families.
major reasons students are referred for special education services LO3.6 Consider issues and trends influencing the education of diverse students in
show students or teachers describing their thinking or experiences. • Prevention and early intervention, such as those used in response to interven-
tion (RTI) and multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), topics addressed later
special and gifted education, including those related to where students live
and those related to sexual orientation.
in this chapter
• Increased attention to possible bias in the assessment process for determining
Self-Checks special education eligibility

• Increased family involvement in decision making regarding strategies and in-
terventions to address student needs
Throughout the chapters, you will find MyEducationLabTM: Self-Check Each of these ideas requires focused and significant effort, and all of them
64
demonstrate the complexity of this issue. Only through such efforts, however, is
quizzes. There are three to six of these quizzes in each chapter. They area more equitable education system likely to emerge—one that results in all stu-
dents being represented proportionately in both special and gifted education.

meant to help you assess how well you have mastered the concepts RTI and MTSS represent efforts being made to address these priorities, and this
is the topic of Data-Driven Decisions.
covered in the section you just read. These self-checks are made up of
self-grading multiple-choice items that not only provide feedback on MyEdLab Application Exercise 3.3: Factors Leading to Disproportionate Representation
whether you answered the questions correctly or incorrectly, but also MyEdLab Application Exercise 3.4: Interpreting Data
provide you with rationales for both correct and incorrect answers.
Recommended Practices for Diverse
Students with Special Needs
Application Exercises Given the significant impact that culture plays in the educational process, in-
creasing attention has been given to culturally responsive instruction (Utley &
Also at the end of each section, you can find one or two application exercises Obiakor, 2015). Although additional research is needed in this area, several
promising practices have been identified with respect to the education of cultur-
that can challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learn- ally diverse students, including those with disabilities. Two types of practices are
important: Some of these practices relate to eliminating bias in the process by
ing in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises are usually which students are determined to be eligible for special education, and others
focus on the nature of instruction for diverse learners who have disabilities. Note
constructed-response items. Once you provide your own answers to the ques- that recommended practices related to students considered for gifted and tal-
ented programs are outlined in Chapter 15.
tions, you receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.
Promising Practices in Referral and Identification
As you have learned, the adverse effects of poverty on the learning process and
the existence of cultural dissonance between teachers and students can compli-
Advanced Data and Performance Reporting cate the identification process for culturally diverse students with disabilities
(Sullivan & Bal, 2013). For example, students who are preoccupied with satisfy-
Aligned to National Standards

ing basic needs (e.g., hunger, safety, and a sense of belonging) may not perform
well academically and hence may be at increased risk for special education refer-
ral, a likely scenario for Makenson, who was introduced at the beginning of the
chapter. Similarly, students whose cognitive styles or behaviors are not under-
Advanced data and performance reporting helps educators quickly identify gaps stood or embraced by their teachers may be at increased risk for special educa-
tion referral (Dedeoglu & Lamme, 2011). Several steps can be taken to ensure
in student learning and gauge and address individual and classroom performance. fairness in the identification process.
Redesigning the Prereferral and Intervention Process

Educators easily see the connection between coursework, concept mastery, and
As you learned in Chapter 2, before a referral for special education is officially
national teaching standards with highly visual views of performance made, reports.
the educators involved come together as a team to develop a deep under-
standing of the student’s learning or behavior difficulties and to suggest
Data and assessments align directly to national teaching standards, including The
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), and support reporting for state and
accreditation requirements.
M03_FRIE6802_05_SE_C03_pp064-092.indd 77 20/01/17 5:08
Study Plan Specific to Your Text

MyEducationLabTM gives students the opportunity to test themselves on key con-
cepts and skills, track their own progress through the course, and access person-
alized Study Plan activities.
The customized Study Plan is generated based on students’ pretest results.
Incorrect questions from the pretest indicate specific textbook learning outcomes
with which the student is struggling. The customized Study Plan suggests spe-
cific enriching activities for particular learning outcomes, helping students focus.

xii Preface
Personalized Study Plan activities may include e-book reading assignments and
review, practice, and enrichment activities.
After students complete the enrichment activities, they take a posttest to see
the concepts they’ve mastered or areas where they still may need extra help.
MyEducationLabTM then reports the Study Plan results to the instructor. Based
on these reports, the instructor can adapt course material to suit the needs of
individual students or for the entire class.
Assignments and Activities

Designed to enhance students’ understanding of concepts covered in class,
these assignable exercises show concepts in action (through videos, cases,
and/or student and teacher artifacts). They help students deepen content
knowledge and synthesize and apply concepts and strategies they have read
about in the book. (Correct answers for these assignments are available to the
instructor only.)
Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions

These unique learning units help students practice and strengthen the skills that
are essential to effective teaching. After examining the steps involved in a core
teaching process, students are given an opportunity to practice applying this skill
via videos, student and teacher artifacts, and/or case studies of authentic class-
rooms. By providing multiple opportunities to practice a single teaching concept,
each activity encourages a deeper understanding and application of concepts, as
well as the use of critical thinking skills. After practice, students take a quiz that
is transmitted to the instructor gradebook for performance reporting.
IRIS Center Resources

The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu),
funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education Pro-
grams (OSEP), develops training enhancement materials for preservice and prac-
ticing teachers. The center works with experts from across the country to create
challenge-based interactive modules, case study units, and podcasts that provide
research-validated information about working with students in inclusive set-
tings. In the MyEducationLabTM course, we have integrated this content where
appropriate.
Teacher Talk
This feature emphasizes the power of teaching through videos of master teach-
ers, who tell their own compelling stories of why they teach. Each of these
featured teachers has been awarded the Council of Chief State School Officers
Teachers of the Year award, the oldest and most prestigious award for teachers.
Course Resources
The Course Resources section of MyEducationLabTM is designed to help students
put together an effective lesson plan, prepare for and begin a career, navigate
the first year of teaching, and understand key educational standards, policies,
and laws.
It includes the following:
• The Lesson Plan Builder is an effective and easy-to-use tool that students
can use to create, update, and share quality lesson plans. The software also
makes it easy to integrate state content standards into any lesson plan.

Preface xiii
• The Certification and Licensure section is designed to help students pass

licensure exams by giving them access to state test requirements, overviews
of what the tests cover, and sample test items.
The Certification and Licensure section includes the following:
• State Certification Test Requirements: Here, students can click on a
state and be taken to a list of state certification tests.
• Students can click on the Licensure Exams they need to take in order to
find
• Basic information about each test
• Descriptions of what is covered on each test
• Sample test questions with explanations of correct answers
• National Evaluation SeriesTM by Pearson: Here, students can see the
tests in the National Evaluation Series (NES), learn what is covered on
each exam, and access sample test items with descriptions and rationales
of correct answers. Students can also purchase interactive online tutori-
als developed by Pearson Evaluation Systems and the Pearson Teacher
Education and Development group.
• ETS Online PraxisTM Tutorials: Here, students can purchase interactive
online tutorials developed by ETS and by the Pearson Teacher Education
and Development group. Tutorials are available for the Praxis I® exams
and for select Praxis II® exams.
• The Licensure and Standards section provides access to current state and
national standards.
• The Preparing a Portfolio section provides guidelines for creating a high-
quality teaching portfolio.
• Beginning Your Career offers tips, advice, and other valuable information on:
• Résumé Writing and Interviewing: Includes expert advice on how to
write impressive résumés and prepare for job interviews.
• Your First Year of Teaching: Provides practical tips to set up a first class-
room, manage student behavior, and more easily organize for instruction
and assessment.
• Law and Public Policies: Details specific directives and requirements
needed to understand the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
• The Multimedia Index aggregates resources in MyEducationLabTM by asset
type (e.g., video or artifact) for easy location and retrieval.
Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration of this exciting new online
teaching resource.
Support Materials for Instructors

The following resources are available for instructors to download on www
.pearsonhighered.com/educators. Instructors enter the author or title of this
book, select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources”
tab to log in and download textbook supplements.
Instructor’s Resource Manual and

Test Bank (0-13-444488-4)
The Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank provides a multitude of activities
and ideas to help instructors teach their courses, whether traditional or online.
Each chapter provides a teaching outline, learning activities and handouts, and a
variety of test items.

xiv Preface
PowerPointTM Slides (0-13-448817-2)

The PowerPointTM slides include key concept summarizations, diagrams, and
other graphic aids to enhance learning. They are designed to help students un-
derstand, organize, and remember core concepts and theories.
TestGen (0-13-448818-0)
TestGen is a powerful test generator that instructors install on a computer and
use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for the text. Assessments, in-
cluding equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both print
or testing online.
TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. In-
structors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and
create tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options,
such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also
called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, orga-
nized by chapter and ready for use in creating a test, based on the associated
textbook material.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file—PC
TestGen Testbank file—MAC
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodle Test Bank (zip)
Sakai Test Bank (zip)

Acknowledgments
Textbooks are not produced in isolation. They always involve expertise and
input from a team that carries out myriad roles and responsibilities, from the an-
nouncement that it’s time to work on a revision until and through the point in
time that the book is produced. Through the entire revision process, collabora-
tion is the norm. And so I want to be sure to give credit and deep thanks to all
the many individuals who provided wonderful ideas as well as encouragement
and support throughout the revision process. First, the marvelous professionals
at Pearson who take a book from concept to reality should be acknowledged,
especially Kevin Davis, Carolyn Schweitzer, Alicia Reilly, Janelle Rogers, and Anne
McAlpine.
In a textbook revision, comments from reviewers are both welcomed and
dreaded. They provide invaluable information leading to beneficial changes for
readers, even if sometimes their insights involve spending hours reading to re-
think a key topic or restructuring a chapter to more effectively discuss its ma-
terial. They may never realize how influential their comments, concerns, and
suggestions are in decisions about what to keep, what to add, what to delete, and
how to improve content and features. Their reasoned and constructive input was
instrumental in the preparation of this fifth edition of the book and in ensuring
its accuracy and relevance. They are Judy Stuart (Furman University), Perianne
R. Bates (Ohio University), and Cynthia Michlin (Arizona State University).
Yet another group of individuals must be mentioned among those who
helped bring this project to fruition: the wonderful people who package the
book and turn manuscript into a textbook. I would particularly like to thank the
team members at Thistle Hill Publishing Services, Angela Urquhart and Andrea
Archer, for their meticulous attention to detail.
A special acknowledgment is owed to Dr. Tammy Barron. With superb or-
ganization and attention to detail, she diligently worked to identify updated re-
search and other reference materials that could be used to revise each chapter,
checked all the web resources to ensure the links were active, and offered ideas
for topics to enhance or simplify. I made this comment after she—as a doctoral
student—assisted me in preparing the fourth edition, but it is still appropriate for
the fifth: I suspect that before too long she’ll be writing her own books—she’s
already a tremendously skilled professional.
Finally, these acknowledgments would not be complete without mentioning
the other people in my life who support me no matter the projects that I am
pursuing. My husband Bruce Brandon is the best cheerleader anyone could ever
have: He acts as a sounding board for new ideas, reads and responds to drafts
of manuscript, asks insightful questions, and searches the popular press for rel-
evant articles. He also is infinitely patient with my need for hours of quiet writing
time. He has said more often than any writing spouse deserves, “What can I do
to help?” His love and patience mean everything to me. The rest of my family—
my mom (Mary Ellen Penovich) and brother and sister-in-law (Dan and Cindy
Penovich)—also offered encouragement and sympathy, as did my mother-in-law
(Lorena Brandon). I appreciate their support and good-natured teasing about my
need to try to save the world.
xv

In memory of Howard B. Brandon
Your kindness made the world a better place,

and your spirit will always be with us

Brief Contents
1 Understanding Special Education 1

2 The Personnel and Procedures of Special Education 31
3 Multicultural Perspectives 64
4 Collaboration in Special Education 93
5 Students with Specific Learning Disabilities 124
6 Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 160
7 Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 193
8 Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 229
9 Students with Speech and Language Disorders 260
10 Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder 287
11 Students with Deafness and Hearing Loss 321
12 Students with Visual Impairments 354
13 Students with Orthopedic Impairments, Traumatic Brain
Injury, and Other Health Impairments 384
14 Students with Severe and Multiple Disabilities 419

15 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 451
xvii

This page intentionally left blank
Contents
1 Understanding Special Parent Participation in Special Education 19

Barriers to Parent Participation 19
Education 1 Strategies to Encourage Parent Participation 20
Learning Outcomes 1 Critical Topics Influencing Special Education 20
Concepts That Define Special Education 3 Inclusive Practices and Access to the General
Special Education 4 Curriculum 21
Related Services 4 Formal and Informal Definitions 21 The Debate About
Inclusion 22 Research on Inclusive Practices 23
Supplementary Aids and Services 5
Inclusive Practices in This Text 24
Development of the Special Education Field 5 Collaboration 24
Early History 5 Collaboration Definition 24 Easier Said Than
The Beginnings of Today’s Education System 7 Done 25
Discrimination and a Call for Change 8 Accessible and Effective Instruction 25
Research and Rethinking of Assumptions 8 Rigor and Accountability 25 Evidence-Based
Litigation for the Rights of Students with Disabilities 9 Practices 26 Prevention Through Response to
A Federal Response: Protecting Students with Intervention and a Multi-Tiered System of Support 27
Disabilities 10 Assistive and Instructional Technology 27
Early Laws for Students with Disabilities 10 Positive Behavior Supports 28
Refinements to the Law 10 Special Education as a
Summary 29
Continuing Story 10
Back to the Cases 30
Laws Affecting Students with Disabilities 11
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
2
of 2004 12
The Personnel and
Zero Reject 12 Free Appropriate Public
Education 12 Least Restrictive Environment 12 Procedures of Special
Nondiscriminatory Evaluation 12 Parent and
Family Rights to Confidentiality 13 Procedural Education 31
Safeguards 13 Learning Outcomes 31
Other Legislation Related to Special Education 13 The Professionals Who Work in Special
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 13 Education 33
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 14 Special Education Teachers 33
Students Who Receive Special Education 15 Bilingual Special Educator 34 Early Childhood Special
Prevalence of Students with Disabilities 15 Educator 34 Adapted Physical Educator 34
Special Education for Young Children 17 Related Services Professionals 34
Students with Special Needs Not Specifically Included in Speech-Language Pathologist 34 School
IDEA 17 Psychologist 35 School Counselor 35
School Social Worker 35 School Nurse 36
Students Who Are Gifted or Talented 17 Students with
Educational Interpreter 36 Occupational
Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 17 Students
Therapist 36 Physical Therapist 36
at Risk for School Failure 18
Others Who Work in Special Education 37
Parent and Family Roles in the Education of Children
with Disabilities 18 General Education Teacher 37 Paraeducator 37
Parents 37
Parents and Their Children with Disabilities 18
Additional Service Providers 38
xix

xx Contents
Determining Student Eligibility for Special

Education Services 40
Initial Consideration of Student Problems 40
3 Multicultural
Perspectives 64
General Education Interventions 40 Response to Learning Outcomes 64
Intervention 42 Multi-Tiered Systems of Support 43 Understanding Culture 66
Screening 44
Elements of Culture 66
Special Education Referral and Assessment 44
Macroculture and Microculture 67
Parents’ Rights 45 Assessment Components 46
Culture and Race 68
Assessment Procedures 46 Decision Making for Special
Education 47 Preparing the IEP 48 Deciding Culture and Learning 69
About Placement 48 The Content of Instruction 69
Monitoring for Students with Disabilities 48 Cognitive Styles 70
Annual Review 48 Three-Year Reevaluation 48 Field Independence 70 Field Sensitivity 70
Understanding the Individualized Education Effects of Cultural Dissonance 71
Program 49 Academic Challenges 71 Behavior Challenges 71
Members of the IEP Team 49
Diversity in Special and Gifted Education 73
Required Components of the IEP 51
Representation in Special Education 73
Present Level of Performance 51 Annual Goals 52
Continuum of Placements 73 Why Disproportionality
Short-Term Objectives or Benchmarks 52 Special
Matters 73
Education and Related Services 52 Supplementary Aids
and Services 53 Assistive Technology 53 Representation in Gifted Education 74
Participation with Peers Who Do Not Have Disabilities 53 Factors Contributing to Disproportionate
Accommodations for State and District Testing 53 Representation 74
Dates and Places 53 Transition Service Needs and
Poverty 74 Systemic Bias 75
Transition Services to Be Provided 53 Age of
Majority 54 Measurement of Progress 54 Recommended Practices for Diverse Students with
Other Considerations 54 Special Needs 77
Placement Options for Students with Promising Practices in Referral and Identification 77
Disabilities 54 Redesigning the Prereferral and Intervention Process 77
The Continuum of Special Education Placements 55 Alternative Assessment Strategies 78 Universal
Screening and Early Intervention 79
General Education 56 Resource Class 56
Separate Class 56 Separate School 57 Promising Practices in Instruction 79
Residential Facility 57 Additional Placement Differentiated Instruction 79 Universal Design for
Settings 57 Changes in Placement 58 Learning 79 Multicultural Education 80
Resolving Disagreements Regarding Special Instruction for English Language Learners 82
Education 59 Bilingual Education 82 English as a Second
Dispute Resolution 59 Language 82 Sheltered English 83
Mediation 59 Putting It All Together 83
Due Process Hearing 60 Parents and Families of Diverse Students with
Issues Related to Special Education Professionals and Disabilities 84
Procedures 61 Parents of Diverse Learners and Participation in Their
Special Education Teacher Changing Roles and Children’s Education 86
Responsibilities 61 Factors That Educators Directly Influence 86
Response to Intervention and Multi-Tiered Systems of Factors Beyond the Direct Influence of Educators 87
Support: Issues in Implementation 62 Developing Collaborative Relationships 87
Summary 63

Contents xxi
Issues and Trends Affecting Diverse Exceptional Collaboration with Parents and Families 116
Learners 88 Families and Collaboration 116
Geography as an Element of Diversity 88 Building Partnerships with Parents 117
Urban Education 88 Rural Education 90 Issues Related to Collaboration in Special
Sexual Orientation 90 Education 118
Summary 91 Working with Paraeducators 118
Back to the Cases 92 Time for Collaboration 119
The Effectiveness of Collaboration 120
4
Summary 122
Collaboration in Special
Education 93
Learning Outcomes 93
Understanding Collaboration
Characteristics of Collaboration
95
96
5 Students with Specific
Learning Disabilities 124
Collaboration Is Voluntary 96 Collaboration Is Learning Outcomes 124
Based on Parity 96 Collaboration Requires a Mutual Understanding Learning Disabilities 126
Goal 96 Collaboration Involves Shared Responsibility
Development of the Learning Disabilities Field 126
for Key Decisions 97 Collaboration Includes Shared
Accountability for Outcomes 97 Collaboration Requires Definitions of Learning Disabilities 127
Sharing Resources 97 Collaboration Is Emergent 97 Federal Definition 127 Alternative Definitions 128
Collaboration in the Context of IDEA 98 Essential Dimensions of a Definition of Learning
Disabilities 129
Essential Elements of Collaboration 99
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 129
Personal Belief System 100
Causes of Learning Disabilities 130
Communication Skills 100
Physiological Causes 130 Curriculum and
Effective Communication Strategies 100
Environmental Contributors 132
Communication Habits to Avoid 102
Interaction Processes 103 Characteristics of Individuals with Learning
Disabilities 132
Create a Climate for Problem Solving 103 Identify
the Problem 103 Generate Alternatives 104 Cognitive Characteristics 132
Assess the Potential Solutions and Select One or Attention 133 Perception 133 Memory 133
More for Implementation 104 Implement the Information Processing 133
Intervention 104 Evaluate the Intervention Outcome Academic Characteristics 134
and Decide Next Steps 104 Additional Considerations
for Problem Solving 105 Reading 134 Oral Language 134 Written
Language 135 Mathematics 137
Programs and Services 105
Social and Emotional Characteristics 138
Supportive Context 105
Social Perception and Social Competence 138
Applications of Collaboration for Schools 106 Motivation 139
Teams 107 Behavior Characteristics 139
Understanding Team Concepts 107 Team Identifying Learning Disabilities 141
Effectiveness 107 Special Education Teams 108
Traditional Approach to Assessment for Learning
Co-Teaching 108 Disabilities 141
One Teach, One Observe 110 Parallel Teaching 111 Formal Assessments 141 Classroom
Station Teaching 111 Alternative Teaching 111 Assessments 142 Criteria for Eligibility 143
Teaming 112 One Teach, One Assist 112
Selecting a Co-Teaching Approach 112 Other Co- RTI for Identifying Students Who Have Learning
Teaching Considerations 113 Disabilities 144
Consultation 114 Three-Tiered Models in Response to Intervention 145

Criteria for Eligibility 146

xxii Contents
Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses 146 Social and Emotional Characteristics 172
Educating Students with Learning Disabilities 147 Self-Esteem 172 Social Functioning 172
Early Childhood 147 Behavior Characteristics 172
Elementary and Secondary School Services 147 Comorbidity with Other Disorders 173
Inclusive Practices 148 Identifying Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity
Transition and Adulthood 150 Disorder 174
Transition Planning 150 Model Transition Initial Referral 174
Practices 151 Assessment 174
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Medical Assessment 174 Continuous Performance
with Learning Disabilities 151 Tests 175 Parent Assessment 175 Teacher and
School Assessment 175 Additional Considerations for
Direct Instruction 152
IDEA Eligibility 176 ADHD or Gifted 176
Strategy Instruction 153
Eligibility 176
Parent and Family Perspectives 155
Educating Students with Attention Deficit–
Parents as Partners 155 Hyperactivity Disorder 177
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Learning Early Childhood 177
Disabilities 156
Elementary and Secondary School Services 179
Issues Related to Response to Intervention 156
Transition and Adulthood 179
Transition to Post-Secondary Options for Students with
Specific Learning Disabilities 157 Recommended Educational Practices for
Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity
Summary 159 Disorder 180
Back to the Cases 159 Medication 180
Parent and Professional Education 183
6 Students with Attention

Deficit–Hyperactivity
Parent Education
Environmental Supports
183 Professional Education
183
183
Behavior Interventions 184

Disorder 160 Rewards 184 Low-Involvement Strategies 185
Learning Outcomes 160 Token Economy 186
Understanding Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Instructional Interventions 187
Disorder 162 What Are the Perspectives of Parents and
Development of the ADHD Field 162 Families? 188
Terminology Related to ADHD 163 Parenting Children with ADHD 188
Definition of Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Supporting Students by Supporting Parents 189
Disorder 163
Trends and Issues Affecting the ADHD Field 189
Prevalence of Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity
Young Children with ADHD 189
Disorder 164
The Ethical and Professional Dilemma 189
Prevalence Based on Gender 165 Prevalence Based on
Race and Poverty 165 ADHD in Adolescents and Adults 190
Causes of Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 165 Outcomes for Adults Diagnosed as Children 190
Identification of ADHD in Adolescents and Adults 190
Physiological Factors 166 Environmental
Factors 168 The Knowledge Base on Treatment for ADHD 191
Characteristics of Individuals with Attention Summary 192
Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 168 Back to the Cases 192
Cognitive Characteristics 168
Academic Characteristics 171

Contents xxiii
7 Students with Emotional and

Behavior Disorders 193
Requirements for Interventions in IDEA
Functional Behavior Assessment
Intervention Plan 218
217
217 Behavior
Learning Outcomes 193 Examples of Specific Interventions 220

Understanding Emotional and Behavior Peer-Mediated Instruction 220 Teacher-Led
Disorders 195 Instruction 221
Development of the Field of Emotional and Behavior Perspectives of Parents and Families 222
Disorders 195
The Impact of Having a Child with an Emotional or
Definitions of Emotional and Behavior Disorders 195 Behavior Disorder 222
Federal Definition 196 Criticism of the Federal Building Positive Relationships 223
Definition of Emotional Disturbance 197 Other
Parent Education 224 Support Groups 224
Considerations in Defining Emotional and Behavior
Disorders 198 Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Emotional
Prevalence of Emotional and Behavior Disorders 198 and Behavior Disorders 224
Prevalence by Gender 199 The Problem of Access 225
Causes of Emotional and Behavior Disorders 199 Creating a Promising Future 225
Biological Factors 199 Psychosocial Factors 199 Use of Restraints and Seclusion 226
Making Sense of the Factors Contributing to Emotional and Summary 227
Characteristics of Individuals with Emotional and
8
Behavior Characteristics 201
Students with Intellectual
Emotional Characteristics 203
Social Characteristics 204
and Developmental
Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 205 Disabilities 229
The Question of Cause and Effect 205 Learning Outcomes 229
Emotional and Behavior Disorders and Comorbidity 205 Understanding Intellectual Disabilities 231
Identifying Emotional and Behavior Disorders 206 Development of the Field of Intellectual Disabilities 231
Assessment 206 Definitions of Intellectual Disabilities 232
Formal Assessments 206 Classroom Federal Definition 233 American Association on
Assessments 207 Other Assessment Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
Strategies 207 Definition 233 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
Eligibility 208 Definition 234
Eligibility Criteria 208 Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities 234

Other Prevalence Considerations 234
Educating Learners with Emotional and Behavior
Disorders 208 Causes of Intellectual Disability 235
Early Childhood 209 Prenatal Causes of Intellectual Disabilities 235
Perinatal Causes of Intellectual Disability 238
Postnatal Causes of Intellectual Disability 238
Inclusive Practices 211
Characteristics of Individuals with Intellectual
Transition and Adulthood 212 Disabilities 239
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 239
with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 213
Cognitive Functioning 240
The Importance of Prevention 213
Social, Behavioral, and Emotional Characteristics 242
Early Intervention 213 Positive Behavior
Social Characteristics 242 Adaptive Behavior
Supports 215
Characteristics 242 Additional Behavior
The Effectiveness of Collaboration 215 Characteristics 244 Emotional Characteristics 244

xxiv Contents
Physical and Medical Characteristics 244 Concepts to Describe Speech and Language
Disorders 264
Identifying Intellectual Disabilities 245
Elements of Language 264 Language Disorders 264
Assessment 245
Elements of Speech 266 Speech Disorders 267
Assessment of Intellectual Functioning 245 Assessment
Prevalence of Speech and Language Disorders 268
of Adaptive Behavior 245 Assessment of Medical
Factors 246 Distinguishing Between Speech and Language Prevalence
Data 268 Other Prevalence Considerations 269
Eligibility 246
Causes of Speech and Language Disorders 269
How Learners with Intellectual Disabilities Receive
Their Education 247 Biological Causes 269 Environmental Causes 269
Making Sense of the Factors Contributing to Speech and
Early Childhood 247 Language Disorders 270
Characteristics of Individuals with Speech and
Inclusive Practices 250 Language Disorders 270
Transition and Adulthood 250 Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 270
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Academic Characteristics 270 Speech and Language
with Intellectual Disabilities 251 Disorders and Reading 271
Task Analysis 252 Social and Emotional Characteristics 271
Peer-Mediated Instruction 253 Behavior Characteristics 271
Perspectives of Parents and Families 254 Speech and Language Disorders and Other
Parents’ Reactions to Having a Child with an Intellectual Disabilities 272
Disability 254 Identifying Speech and Language Disorders 272
Parent’s Concerns 255 Assessment 273
Professionals’ Interactions with Parents of Children with Speech Assessments 273 Language Assessments 273
Intellectual Disabilities 256 Assessment for Students Whose First Language Is Not English
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Intellectual or Whose Use of English Is Nonstandard 274
Disabilities 256 Eligibility 274
Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Today’s How Learners with Speech and Language Disorders
Schools 256 Receive Their Education 275
Which Curriculum? 257 The Dilemma of High-Stakes Early Childhood 275
Testing 257 The Importance of Early Intervention 275 Approaches
Postsecondary Education for Students with Intellectual for Early Speech and Language Intervention 276
Disabilities 258 Elementary and Secondary School Services 276
Summary 259 Inclusive Practices 277
Back to the Cases 259 Transition and Adulthood 277
Recommended Educational Practices for Students
with Speech and Language Disorders 279
9 Students with Speech and

Language Disorders 260
Speech-Language Services and Literacy Instruction
Communication Using Technology 279
279
Learning Outcomes 260 Augmentative and Alternative Communication 279

Understanding Speech and Language Technology for Language Practice 281
Disorders 262 Perspectives of Parents and Families 281
Development of the Study of Speech and Language Helping Parents to Develop Children’s Language
Disorders 262 Skills 282
Emergence of a Profession 262 Contemporary Diversity and Speech and Language Interventions 282
Practices 263
Definition of Speech and Language Disorders 263

Contents xxv
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Speech and How Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Language Disorders 283 Receive Their Education 303
Differences versus Disorders in a Multicultural Early Childhood 303
Society 283 Elementary and Secondary School Services 304
Language Differences 283 Other Cultural Influences Inclusive Practices 304
on Communication 285
Exploring the Autism Inclusion Collaboration Model 304
The Use of Evidence-Based Practices 285
Summary 286
Back to the Cases 286 with Autism Spectrum Disorder 308
Environmental Supports 308
10 Students with Autism

Spectrum Disorder 287
Visual Supports
Assistive Technology
Instructional Practices
308 Home Base
311
311
309

Priming 312 Discrete Trial Interventions 312
Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder 289 Prompting 312
Development of the Field of Autism Spectrum Social Skills Supports 313
Disorder 289
Instruction 313 Social Stories 314
Refining Understanding 289 SOCCSS 314
Definitions of Autism Spectrum Disorder 290 Perspectives of Parents and Families 315
Federal Definition 290 Definition of the American Family Needs for Information and Support 316
Psychiatric Association 291 Making Sense of the
The Roles of Siblings 317
Definitions 292 Prevalence of Autism Spectrum
Disorder 292 Other Prevalence Considerations 293 Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Autism
Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder 293 Spectrum Disorder 318
Biological Factors 293 Autism Spectrum Assessment, Diagnosis, and Prevalence 318
Disorder and the Brain 294 Environmental Evidence-Based Interventions 318
Factors 294 Autism and Immunizations 295 Training and Support 319
Characteristics of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Summary 320
Disorder 295
Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 295
Rote Memory 296 Theory of Mind 296
Problem Solving 297
Social and Emotional Characteristics 297
Language Disorders 297 Other Language
11 Students with Deafness
and Hearing Loss 321
Problems 297 Immaturity 298 Communicative Learning Outcomes 321
Intent 298 Understanding Deafness and Hearing Loss 323
Behavior Characteristics 299 Development of the Field of Deaf Education 323
Self-Stimulatory Behaviors 299 Generalization Definitions of Deafness and Hearing Loss 324
Difficulties 299 Sensory Issues 299 Federal Definitions 325 Additional Information on
Identifying Autism Spectrum Disorder 300 Definitions 325 Deaf Culture 326
Assessment Related to Characteristics of Autism 301 Prevalence of Hearing Loss 326
Cognitive Ability, Academic Achievement, and Adaptive Hearing Loss and Other Disabilities 326
Skills 301 Developmental Measures 301 Causes of Hearing Loss 327
Behavior Assessment 301
Prelingual Causes of Hearing Loss 327 Postlingual
Eligibility 302 Causes of Hearing Loss 327 Types of Hearing
Loss 328 Degree of Hearing Loss 329

xxvi Contents
Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Deaf or Hard

of Hearing 330
Hearing Loss and Child Development 330
12 Students with Visual
Impairments 354
Impact on Communication 330 Experiential Learning Outcomes 354
Learning 331 Understanding Visual Impairments 356
Cognitive Characteristics 331 Development of the Visual Impairment Field 357
Academic Characteristics 333 Early Thinking and Services 357 Residential Schools in
Language 333 Reading 334 Written the United States 357 The Emergence of Public School
Language 335 Mathematics 335 Programs 357 Other Historical Developments 358
Social and Emotional Characteristics 335 Definitions of Visual Impairment 358
Behavior Characteristics 336 Functional Definitions 358 IDEA Definition 359
Clinical Definitions 359
Identifying a Hearing Loss 336
Prevalence 360
Audiological Evaluation 336
Other Prevalence Information 360
Other Assessments 338
Causes of Visual Impairment 360
Determination of Eligibility 338
Structure of the Eye and How It Works 361 Additional
How Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Examples of Visual Impairments 362
Receive Their Education 338
Characteristics of Individuals with Visual
Early Childhood 339 Impairments 362
Elementary and Secondary School Services 339 Cognitive Characteristics 363
General Education Classroom 340 General Education Academic Characteristics 364
Classroom with Supplementary Instruction 340
Separate Class for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Braille Literacy Skills 364 Print Literacy Skills 366
Hearing 340 Other Settings 340 Social and Emotional Characteristics 368
Inclusive Practices 340 Behavior Characteristics 368
Transition and Adulthood 342 Identifying Visual Impairment 369
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Assessment 369
Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 344 Eligibility 370
Integrated Vocabulary and Concept Development 344 How Learners with Visual Impairments Receive Their
Experiential Ladder of Learning 345 Education 371
Visual Teaching Strategies 345 Early Childhood 371
Accommodations for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Elementary and Secondary School Services 371
Hearing 347
Consultant Model 372
Perspectives of Parents and Families 347 Itinerant Teaching Model 372 Resource Model 373
The Voices of Parents 347 Special Classes and Schools 373 Inclusive
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Deaf Practices 374
Education 348 Transition and Adulthood 375
Universal Newborn Hearing Screening 348 Recommended Educational Practices for Students
Cochlear Implants 349 with Visual Impairments 376
Bilingual–Bicultural Approach 351 Instruction in the Expanded Core Curriculum 377
Summary 352 Principles of Special Methods 378

Need for Concrete Experiences 378 Need for Unifying
Experiences 378 Need for Learning by Doing 378
Perspectives of Parents and Families 378
Parent Perspectives 380

Contents xxvii
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Visual Eligibility 404

Impairment 380 How Learners with Physical and Health Disabilities
Shortage of Fully Prepared Personnel 381 Receive Their Education 404
Limited Continuum of Placement Options 382 Early Childhood 404
Summary 382 Elementary and Secondary School Services 405
Back to the Cases 383 Inclusive Practices 406
Postsecondary Education 407 Practical Matters of
13 Students with Orthopedic

Impairments, Traumatic
Adulthood 407 Career Choice 408
with Physical and Health Disabilities 409
Brain Injury, and Other Access to Education 409
Health Impairments 384 Aids for Posture and Mobility 409 Aids for
Communication 409 Aids for Learning 411
Related Services 411
Understanding Physical and Health Factors Related to the Illness, Injury, Condition, or
Disabilities 386 Disorder 412
Development of the Field of Physical and Health School Reentry 412 Responding to Emergencies 412
Disabilities 386
Perspectives of Parents and Families 413
Increasing Attention for an Ignored Group 387
Parent Experiences 413
Looking at the Big Picture 388
Advice to School Professionals 415
Key Concepts for Understanding Physical and Health
Disabilities 388 Trends and Issues Affecting the Fields of Orthopedic
Understanding Orthopedic Impairments 389 Impairments, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Other
Health Impairments 415
Federal Definition 389 Neurological Disorders 390
Musculoskeletal Disorders 392 Professionals Prepared to Work with Students with Physical
Disabilities 415
Understanding Traumatic Brain Injury 393
Access to Technology 416
Federal Definition 393 Types of Traumatic
Brain Injury 393 The Effects of Traumatic Brain Summary 417
Injury 394 Prevalence and Causes 394 Back to the Cases 418
Understanding Other Health Impairments 395
14 Students
Federal Definition 395 Examples of Health
Impairments 395 with Severe and
Characteristics of Individuals with Orthopedic Multiple Disabilities 419
Impairments, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Other Learning Outcomes 419
Health Impairments 400
Understanding Severe or Multiple Disabilities 421
Cognitive and Academic Characteristics 400
Development of the Field of Severe and Multiple
Behavior, Emotional, and Social Characteristics 401 Disabilities 421
Behavior Characteristics 401 Emotional A Changing Climate and Advocacy 421
Characteristics 402 Social Characteristics 402
Definitions of Severe and Multiple Disabilities 422
Physical and Medical Characteristics 403
Federal Definitions 422 TASH Definition 423
Identifying Physical and Health Disabilities 403
Prevalence of Students with Severe and Multiple
Assessment 403 Disabilities 424
Assessment of Medical Condition and Physical Causes of Severe and Multiple Disabilities 424
Functioning 403 Assessment of Intellectual Functioning,
Labels and Their Limitations 425
Academic Achievement, Language, and Related Areas 403
Assessment of Behavior 404

xxviii Contents
Characteristics of Individuals with Severe and Integrated Delivery of Related Services 447
Multiple Disabilities 425 Summary 449
Cognitive Characteristics 426 Back to the Cases 450
Educational Implications 426
Academic Characteristics 427
Literacy 427 Oral Language
Mathematics 429
Social and Emotional Characteristics
428
430
15 Students Who Are Gifted
and Talented 451
Behavior Characteristics 431 Learning Outcomes 451
Challenging Behaviors 431 Understanding Giftedness 453
Assessment of Students with Severe and Multiple Development of the Field of Giftedness 453
Disabilities 432 Emergence of a Profession 453 Recent Changes in the
Assessment for Instruction 432 Field 454
Standardized Assessment 432 Definition of Giftedness 454
Authentic Forms of Assessment 433 Alternative Conceptualizations of Giftedness 457
A Final Word on Definitions 457
Person-Centered Approach 433 Functional–Ecological
Assessment 433 Portfolio Assessment 434 Prevalence 458
How Learners with Severe and Multiple Disabilities Prevalence, Race, and Gender 459 Determining
Factors 459
Receive Their Education 435
Early Childhood 435 Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and
Talented 459
Elementary and Secondary Education 436
Cognitive Characteristics 460
Inclusive Practices 437
Ability to Manipulate Abstract Symbol Systems 461
Partial Participation 437 Paraprofessional Power of Concentration 461 Unusually Well
Support 438 Developed Memory 461 Early Language Interest and
Transition and Adulthood 439 Development 461 Curiosity 461 Preference for
Supported Employment 440 Community-Based Independent Work 462 Multiple Interests 462
Instruction 440 Ability to Generate Original Ideas 462
Recommended Educational Practices for Students Academic Characteristics 462

with Severe and Multiple Disabilities 440 Social and Emotional Characteristics 463
Meaningful and Individualized Curriculum 441 Sense of Justice 463 Altruism and Idealism 463
Sense of Humor 464 Emotional Intensity 465
Making the Core Curriculum Meaningful 441
Perfectionism 465 High Level of Energy 465
Collaborative Approaches for Education 441 Strong Attachments and Commitments 465 Aesthetic
Active Family Involvement 442 Collaboration on the Sensitivity 465
Team 443 Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and
Positive Behavior Supports 443 Talented 466
Inclusive Education 444 Considerations for Identifying Giftedness 466
Perspectives of Parents and Families 444 Underlying Principles of Effective Assessment 467
Family Members’ Views of Their Children 444 Two-Stage Assessment Process 467 Measures to Match
Considering Cultural Diversity 445 Programs 467 Other Considerations 467
Equity 467
Trends and Issues Affecting the Field of Severe and
Authentic Assessment 468
Multiple Disabilities 446
Dynamic Assessment 468 Spatial Ability 468
Accountability of Academic Performance for All
Eligibility 468
Students 446
Response to Intervention and Students Who Are Gifted
The Status of Alternate Assessment 446
and Talented 468

Contents xxix
How Learners Who Are Gifted and Talented Receive Trends and Issues Affecting Students Who Are Gifted
Their Education 469 and Talented 479
Early Childhood Education 469 Talent Development 479
The Debate on Early Intervention 470 Identification and Programming for Underrepresented
Elementary and Secondary Education 470 Groups 480
Grouping 470 Full-Time and Part-Time Separate Students Who Are Twice Exceptional 480 Effective
Classes 471 Special Schools 471 Differentiation 480
Homeschooling 471 Alternative Program Models 482
Inclusive Practices 471 Technology-Based Options 482 Opportunities External
Transition and Adulthood 472 to Schools 482
Special Challenges 472 Supporting Adolescents Who Summary 483

Are Gifted and Talented 473 Back to the Cases 483
Who Are Gifted and Talented 473
Appendix CEC Knowledge and Skill
Curriculum Compacting 473
Acceleration 474
Standards Common Core 484
High School Variations on Acceleration 474
Enrichment 475 Glossary 489
Differentiation 475 References 497
Problem-Based Learning 476
Interventions for Diverse Populations 476
Name Index 571
Perspectives of Parents and Families of Students Who Subject Index 585
Are Gifted and Talented 478
Parent Strategies for Encouraging Their Children 478

Special Features
FIRSTHAND ACCOUNT 15 Principles to Guide the Use of Restraint and
Seclusion 227
A “Quirky Kid” Goes to Middle School 38
Promoting Friendships 244
Welcome to Holland 255
Recognizing Language Disorders 265
Temple Grandin, A Truly Exceptional Person 292
Interacting with Students Who Stutter 268
My Biggest Dream for Him Is to Just Be Happy 306
Understanding Dialects 283
Growing Up and Having Goals 379
Keeping Up with Research on ASD 294
Potential Benefits and Barriers of Inclusive Practices for
SPEAKING FROM EXPERIENCE Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 342
It’s All About the Kids 109 Five Most Common Causes of U.S. Childhood Visual
Impairment 362
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORTS First Aid for Seizures 397
Classroom Practices That Foster Positive Behavior 58 Universal Precautions for School Professionals 398
Cultural Influences on Behavior 72 Returning to School 413
Improving Behavior Through Social Skills Instruction 140 When a Student Dies 414
Using a Token Economy 186 Resolving the Pullout Service Dilemma 448
Key Components of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support Teaching to Diverse Student Needs Through Multiple
Programs 214 Intelligences (MI) 458
Behavior Contracts 219 Girls and Giftedness 460
Linking Speech and Language Disorders and Emotional Students Who Are Twice Exceptional 481
and Behavior Disabilities 272
Power Card: Teaching Appropriate Behavior Using Special INSTRUCTION IN ACTION
Interests 313
Resources on Response to Intervention and Multi-Tiered
SOCCSS in Practice 315 Systems of Support 44
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies 337 Multicultural Teaching: Bringing Learning to Life 80
Addressing Behavior for Students with Traumatic Brain Response to Intervention, Multi-Tiered Systems of Support,
Injuries 401 and Collaboration 99
Paraprofessionals as Facilitators of Education 428 Getting Off to a Great Start with Co-Teaching 113
Tackling the Challenge of Underachievement 464 Helping Students Succeed in Math 137
Using Direct Instruction 152
PROFESSIONAL EDGE
Sample Learning Strategies 154
Disability Etiquette 22 Executive Function and Strategies for Learning 170
Involving Students in the IEP Process 51 Teaching to Help Students with ADHD Succeed 187
Supporting Parents: From Possible Confusion to Teaching Anger Management Skills 213
Clarification 85
Numbered Heads Together 221
Finding Time for Collaboration 121
Using Task Analysis 252
Understanding Dyslexia 135
Peer Tutoring 253
Learning Disability Criteria 142
Traditional versus Classroom-Based Services for Students
ADHD in Girls 166 with Speech and Language Disorders 278
The Promise of Resiliency 201 Breaking the Code on Code-Switching 284
Youth Suicide—You Can Make the Difference 204 Visual Schedules and Task Cards 309
xxxi

xxxii Special Features
Travel Card 310 Technology for Classroom Support 341

Accommodations for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Listening to Learn 366
Hearing 346 Access Through Computers for Students with Visual
Accommodating Instruction for Students with Visual Impairments 367
Impairments 375 Making the Impossible Possible 408
Students with Physical and Health Disabilities in General Augmentative Communication Devices 429
Education Classes 407
Using Switches to Foster Participation and
Positioning, Seating, and Mobility 410 Independence 438
When You Can’t Plan Ahead: Quick Tips for Educators in The Power of the Internet 475
General Education Classrooms 430
Functional–Ecological Assessment of Learning DATA-DRIVEN DECISIONS
Environments 434
Response to Intervention/Multi-Tiered Systems of Support
Ensuring Access to the Core Curriculum 442
as Solutions for Disproportionality 76
Instructional Activities Based on Specific Aptitudes 456
Options for Recording Data 144
Problem-Based Learning 477
Students Gathering Data on Their Behavior 185
TECHNOLOGY NOTES Types of Data Professionals Collect 216

Tools for Data Collection 243
Instructional and Assistive Technology Options for Students
with Disabilities 28 Tools for Gathering Data about Students with ASD 302
Teacher Data Collection Technology Tools 42 Filling in the Data Gap 344
Collaborating Through Technology 106 Response to Intervention for Students with Visual
Impairments 370
Neuroscience and Reading Disabilities 131
How Assistive Technology Decisions Are Made 416
Tools for Students with Learning Disabilities 149
Approaches to Alternate Assessment 447
Technology to Help with Daily Tasks 171
RTI for Students with Gifts and Talents 469
Changing Behavior Using Handheld Devices 220
Technology to Accommodate Learning 241
Enhancing Students’ Speech and Language Skills 280
Teaching by Showing . . . for Real 311

Photo Credits
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Stock Photo, p. 4; Frank Leonardo/New York Post Archives /© NYP Holdings,
Inc/Getty Images, p. 8; Spencer Grant/Age Fotostock/SuperStock, p. 14; Hunt-
stock/Getty Images, p. 22; Vikki Martin/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 22; Peter Muller/
Cultura/Getty Images, p. 24; Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit, p. 31; Christina Kennedy/
PhotoEdit, p. 35; Courtesy of the subject, p. 38; Courtesy of the subject, p. 38;
Courtesy of the subject, p. 38; Bill Aron/PhotoEdit, p. 47; Jules Selmes/Pear-
son Education, inc., p. 61; Sam Edwards/Caiaimage/OJO+/Getty Images, p. 64;
Lisa F. Young/Fotolia, p. 70; Vladyslav Starozhylov/123RF, p. 82; Robin Nelson/
PhotoEdit, p. 91; Ian Wedgewood/Pearson Education, inc., p. 93; Angela Hamp-
ton Picture Library/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 97; Shorrocks/Getty Images, p. 116;
Mike Mols/Fotolia, p. 124; iStockPhoto, p. 139; tomazl/E+/Getty Images, p. 151;
ZUMA Press Inc/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 157; Brad Wilson/The Image Bank/Getty
Images, p. 160; ColorBlind Images/The Image Bank/Getty Images, p. 168; Voisin/
Phanie/Science Source, p. 177; Nadezhda1906/Fotolia, p. 183; Aliaksei Lasevich/
Alamy Stock Photo, p. 193; Ted Foxx/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 199; Pixelhead-
photo/Fotolia, p. 205; Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit, p. 217; Stacy Walsh Rosenstock/
Alamy Live News/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 225; Asiseeit/Getty Images, p. 229; David
Grossman/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 232; Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 249; BL/
BSIP SA/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 254; Ted Foxx/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 260; E. Dy-
gas/Photodisc/Getty Images, p. 264; Alan Oddie/PhotoEdit, p. 273; dpa picture
alliance archive/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 281; KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Im-
ages, p. 285; wallybird/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 287; Jules Selmes/Pearson Educa-
tion, inc., p. 291; Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit, p. 298; Asiseeit/Getty Images, p. 305;
Gail Shotlander/Moment Open/Getty Images, p. 309; AMELIE-BENOIST/BSIP/
Alamy Stock Photo, p. 321; WavebreakMediaMicro/Fotolia, p. 326; Jacky Chap-
man/Janine Wiedel Photolibrary/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 335; Erika Schultz/The
Seattle Times/AP Images, p. 343; ZUMA Press Inc/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 350; RE-
UTERS/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 354; FatCamera/Getty Images, p. 363; Comstock/
Stockbyte/Getty Images, p. 365; Roger Askew/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 371; Hunt-
stock/Getty Images, p. 381; Brian Mitchell/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images,
p. 384; Engelsmann/Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 388; Nikki
Kahn/The Washington Post/Getty Images, p. 394; Annette Udvardi Coolidge/
PhotoEdit, p. 402; George Dodson/PH College/Pearson Education, Inc., p. 408;
Christopher Futcher/Getty Images, p. 411; Paul Doyle/Alamy Stock Photo,
p. 419; Don Smetzer, p. 425; Shorrocks/Getty Images, p. 433; Robin Nelson/
PhotoEdit, p. 437; Javier Larrea/age fotostock/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 445;
Fstop123/Getty Images, p. 451; Stuart Monk/Hemera/Getty Images, p. 457;
Jupiterimages/BananaStock/Getty Images, p. 457; Adrian Sherratt/Alamy Stock
Photo, p. 460; The White House Photo Office, p. 460; Photo Researchers, Inc/
Alamy Stock Photo, p. 460; Ian Lishman/Juice Images/Getty Images, p. 468;
Rawpixel/123RF, p. 471; Rex Perry/The Tennessean/AP Images, p. 480
xxxiii
A01_FRIE6802_05_SE_FM_ppi-xxxiv.indd 33 03/02/17 10:01 am

1 Understanding Special
Education
Learning LO1.1 Articulate the foundational concepts that define special education.
LO1.2 Analyze how the history of special education, including key court cases, has
Outcomes shaped its development.
LO1.3 List the provisions in federal legislation that establish current special educa-
tion and related policies and practices.
LO1.4 Describe the students who receive special education services.
LO1.5 Explain the role of parents and families in the education of children with
disabilities.
LO1.6 Analyze critical topics currently influencing the field of special education and
emphasized throughout this text.

2 Chapter 1
EMMA frustration by slapping himself or those around him, or

Emma is an eight-year-old student whose family con- he may scream loudly and refuse to move. Even though
siders her a sweet and funny child. She loves to go his teacher and parents know his behavior actually is a
swimming and has a cat named Whisper who is way for him to communicate that he is unhappy, his
always nearby. However, at school Emma faces a needs are so intense and his behavior can be so disrup-
number of challenges. She has a mild intellectual dis- tive that he receives most of his instruction in a special
ability (formerly called mental retardation) as well as education classroom for students with autism (also
attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a called autism spectrum disorder). A behavior specialist
moderate hearing loss, and delayed motor skills. is assisting his teacher to find ways to help Everett
Emma begins each day with her typical peers in communicate in a more constructive way, and a
Ms. Spellman’s second-grade classroom, and she speech-language therapist also is working with him on
also joins them for science, music, and art as well as communication strategies, including using sign lan-
lunch and recess. However, because of the nature of guage. In addition, Everett’s school has a peer mentor
her special needs, she is taught for 2.5 hours each program, and Everett has a friend Chris (another
day in a special education classroom. Her reading seventh-grade student) who sometimes sits with Ever-
and math instruction there, delivered by special edu- ett at lunch, comes to the classroom to work with him,
cator Ms. Wright, is aligned with the curriculum that and helps him to develop social skills.
all students access, but it emphasizes practical
knowledge and functional skills she will need through-
out her life. Emma also receives speech-language DANIEL
therapy, and the occupational therapist works with Daniel is a sophomore in high school, and he still
her on skills such as grasping a pencil and using scis- struggles to understand why he has so much difficulty
sors. In addition, a school district specialist for stu- learning and how his learning disability affects who he
dents who are deaf or hard of hearing consults with is and how others respond to him. As he thinks about
Ms. Wright once per week. Recently, Ms. Spellman his first nine years of school, he cannot remember a
and Ms. Wright have become concerned that Emma time when school was fun. Even in kindergarten, he
is often isolated when she is in general education set- had difficulty learning his letters and numbers, and he
tings. Most students ignore her, and she has not yet quickly fell behind academically. Though he began
developed skills to join in their conversations and receiving special education services in third grade,
activities. The teachers are discussing several options Daniel’s reading comprehension is at about the fifth-
to address this challenge, for example, creating a grade level, and his math skills are at the seventh-grade
special “lunch bunch” program that would, with level. Teachers generally have been supportive, but
teacher guidance, help classmates better understand sometimes even when they mean well, their actions can
Emma and teach Emma how to engage in group be hurtful. Daniel remembers one teacher who usually
interactions. reduced by half the amount of work he had to do—it
made him feel as though he was too stupid to learn.
For the past two years, Daniel has used recorded books
EVERETT downloaded to his iPod; this has been helpful, as has
Everett is a seventh-grade student whose favorite base- been accessing a computer when he takes tests. But
ball team is the Chicago Cubs, who has considerable he’d rather listen to music instead of boring social
artistic talent, and who would never stop playing com- studies material, and he’d rather take tests like his
puter games if his parents did not put a time limit on friends do—not using the computer. As Daniel looks to
his computer use. Everett also has characteristics that the future, he is concerned. He cannot earn a regular
can cause problems. He is insistent on precise daily diploma unless he passes high-stakes achievement
routines for getting ready for school, beginning his tests in five courses. He’d like to go to the community
schoolwork, moving from activity to activity during the college to become an airplane mechanic, but that
day, and getting ready for bed. In fact, each day his would require having a diploma, and so the looming
teacher provides him with a schedule using pictures so tests make him unsure whether he can pursue this goal.
he knows what will occur. However, any change in a He considers himself fortunate to have many good
routine—for example, if there is a special program at friends who help him with schoolwork, but sometimes
school—greatly upsets Everett. He may express his he is discouraged by the challenges he faces.

Understanding Special Education 3
W hat brings you to the study of children and adults with disabilities and
other special needs? Some people are interested because they have a
child or family member with a disability, and their personal experi-
ences attract them to the field. Others are drawn because of volunteer work spon-
sored by a high school club or a fraternity or sorority. Yet others, such as teachers,
plan careers in which knowledge of individuals with disabilities and special edu-
cation is essential. My own interest in pursuing a career working with individuals
with disabilities came from several experiences, including volunteering during
high school to join individuals with intellectual disabilities in recreational activi-
ties such as bowling and dancing; interacting with friends and neighbors whose
families included members with disabilities; and meeting a little girl named Ranie,
whom I helped in a religious instruction class when it became clear that she
could smile but not read or write. In college, as a volunteer in a separate school
for children with intellectual disabilities, I thought I could do a much better job
than the teacher whose primary goal seemed to be occupying his students’ days
with craft activities, and I became convinced that special education would be a
fascinating and enriching career in which I could truly make a difference.
In 2012, the most recent year for which data are available, approximately
6.7 million children and youth from birth to 21 years of age received special edu-
cation services in U.S. schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015; U.S.
Department of Education, 2014). Although these students have exceptional needs,
it is more important to remember from the outset of your study of the infants,
toddlers, children, youth, and young adults receiving special education that they
are individuals for whom disability is only one small part of their identity. They
are preschoolers with mischief in their eyes and insatiable curiosity; they are
elementary students who enjoy learning in school and playing soccer and getting
a cell phone; they are middle school students grappling with a larger school
environment, who sometimes act like children and sometimes act too grown up
and who want to fit in with their classmates; and they are high school students
who experiment with clothes and hairstyles and piercings to establish their own
identities, cannot live without Facebook, like or dislike certain teachers, and
worry about what they will do after graduation. They are Emma and Everett and
Daniel and other students just like them—or very different from them.
Whatever brings you to be reading this text—whether you are a special edu-
cation teacher or related services provider candidate, a general education teacher
trainee, the parent of a child with a disability, or someone who is merely inter-
ested in understanding this field—what is most critical is that you learn to look at
all individuals, whether they are children or adults, in the context of their strengths
and abilities, their value as individuals, and the contributions that they make to
your life and that you make to theirs. Your perspective and how you learn to work
with children and adults with disabilities as a professional can make all the differ-
ence in the world to the individuals about whom this text is written.
Concepts That Define Special Education

Students in school receive what is often referred to as general education. That is,
they learn from the standard curriculum as taught by their teachers, without the
need for extraordinary supports. For a small percentage of students, however, the
typical programs and services of general education are not adequate. These stu-
dents, carefully identified as having disabilities and educated in the most appro-
priate setting based on their individual needs, receive general education, but they
also receive other programs and services referred to as special education. These
students (along with other students with special needs) are the focus of this text.
When you think about special education, what images come to mind? A teacher
working with a small group of students who struggle to read? A young man in a

4 Chapter 1
wheelchair in chemistry class? A classroom with two teachers, one general educa-
Did You Know? tion and one special education? All of these images may be part of special educa-
The Council for Exceptional Chil- tion, but it is much more than that. As you explore this complex and rapidly changing
dren (www.cec.sped.org) is the field (e.g., Bateman, Lloyd, & Tankersley, 2015; Kauffman, 2015), you quickly will
largest professional organization in learn that it is characterized by a multitude of technical terms and acronyms. Your
the world of teachers, administra- interest undoubtedly is in students and learning to work with them effectively, but
tors, parents, and other individuals it is equally important to understand the technical aspects of special education and
advocating for best practices in the what it offers to students and their families. Three key concepts form the foundation
education of students with disabili-
for all the special services that students with disabilities are entitled to receive
ties. Your campus may have a stu-
dent chapter of this organization.
through public schools. These terms are briefly introduced in the following sections,
and you will learn more about them as you read the other chapters in this book.
Special Education
The first term to consider is the one that has already been introduced: special educa-
tion. It has a precise definition that comes from the federal law that established it:
The term “special education” means specially designed instruction, at no cost to
parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including:
a. instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and
institutions, and in other settings; and
b. instruction in physical education. (20 U.S.C. §1401[29])
That is, special education is the means

through which children who have disabilities
receive an education specifically designed to
help them reach their learning potential. We
will return later in this chapter to the topic of
specially designed instruction as a key part of
special education. Special education teachers
have the primary responsibility for this specially
designed instruction, but general education
teachers, paraeducators, specialists, and other
professionals also may contribute to providing
special education. Emma, Everett, and Daniel,
the students you read about at the beginning of
the chapter, all receive specially designed
instruction tailored to their needs. Perhaps most
importantly, note that special education is not a
place; it is the set of services students receive
By providing special education, re- that may be provided in any school setting.
lated services, and supplementary
aids and services, professionals en-
Related Services
sure that students with disabilities The second component of special education services is called related services,
will reach their potential. and it is defined as follows:
The term “related services” means transportation, and such developmental, cor-
rective, and other supportive services (including speech/language pathology and
audiology services, interpreting services, psychological services, physical and oc-
cupational therapy, recreation, including therapeutic recreation, social work ser-
vices, school nurse services designed to enable a child with a disability to receive
a free appropriate public education as described in the individualized education
program of the child, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, ori-
entation and mobility services, and medical services, except that such medical
services shall be for diagnostic and evaluation purposes only) as may be required
to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education, and includes the
early identification and assessment of disabling conditions in children. The term
does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement
of the device. (20 U.S.C. §1401[26])

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boldogsággá teszi?
Nincs meg!… az ember szomjának nagy a tenger s a látás
hatalma, a szörnyű tömegnek közelsége több mint félig eloltá a
szomjat, a szenvedélynek akadályra, küzdelemre van szüksége, s
egyetlenegy ellenre, hogy kar vagy ész hatalmával érjen czélt, – s
ime, hol a tömegből a szebbet választhatná czélnak, – nem bír
ránézni a tömegből egyre, hogy azt készebb legyen elemészteni,
mint egy másikat… Ott áll valamennyi, a megfutamodásnak
egyszerű védelmét sem használják s még a menekülés által sem
ingerlik az elszunyadt szenvedélyt.
Megadóztatá az embert a szokatlan látvány, – bámulásnak
csodás érzelme foglalá el a kedélyt s érzi, hogy nem a czirkusz
páholyában ül, honnét pénzért nézi a megszelidített állatot, melynek
szökéseit csak úgy megtapsolja, mint Coriolánt, – s ime
megalázkodik az ember az állatország előtt s e véletlenben oly
szépet talál, hogy az órának emléke le nem marad többé
emlékezetéről.
Odább, odább megyen a szekér s mielőtt húsz ölnyire érnének,
négy fiatal szarvas oly közel megyen át előttük az úton, hogy az első
két ökröt majdnem megállítja, s a béres az ökrökön át ereszti rájok
az ostort, hogy az útból odább terelje őket.
Bowring úr alig fért meg már a szekéren s bizonyosan leugrik, ha
a béres nem figyelmezteti, hogy a szarvasok eszik hátul a szénát.
Lassan hátracsúszik az angol és látja, hogy öt darab szarvas
kullog utánuk, falánkan czibálva a szénát, s bármennyit legyezi
feléjök az ostort, annál inkább döfödik egymást a helyért s a mint
Bowring úr lenyúlt egyik kézzel, a szarvasok egyikének a szarvát
könnyen megrázhatta.
Lehetetlen többé szekéren maradni, Bowring lekéredzett s
minthogy nem tudta a tájékozást, egy másik kisbéresre bizták a
szekeret s Bowring úr Pistával a vadászkör felé vezettette magát.
A látvány érdekessége nem maradt el tőlük, a szarvascsoportok
szüntelen váltogatták egymást és Bowring úr rég font gondolatainak
végre nyelvet adott, s magának is hangosan mondá:
– Ez országnak mindene van, hanem rá kell találni; mert nincsen
egy-egy árva könyv, mely e tündérkertet kitárná előttünk!
X.
(Egygyel több lövés, mint kéne.)
Alig mentek egy negyedórányira, – előtaláltak egy urasági

vadászt, ki Bowring urat keresé, s el akará vezetni kitüzött
állomásáig, hogy a vadászatban részt vehessen, mert már felálltak a
vadászok, s ilyenkor az állomást elhagyni sem nem szabad, de nem
is tanácsos, a folytonos puskázás alatt; mert minden állomáson
három-négy fegyver szolgált a vadász kényelmére, oly temérdek
vala a vad.
– Ma nem birnék egyet is lelőni, – mondja Bowring –
kimondhatatlanul szánom ezt a vadat.
– Akkor ajánlanám, – mondja a körvadász – maradjon belül a
körvonalon, hol bizonyosan nagyszerü látvány lesz, a mint az
üldözött vad összekeveredik.
– No, hát én itt maradok, – mondja Bowring, utasítást kérve, hogy
körülbelül mennyire mehet be! – de mégis, hogy maga ne legyen,
Pistát kisérőnek magánál tartotta.
A lőfegyverek szakadatlanul durrogának, s a lövéshang irányából
könnyen tájékozhatá magát az angol, s minthogy már szerteszét
szaladgáltak a vadak, sőt csoportosulni kezdének, utasitása szerint
egy vastag fánál állt meg Bowring úr, hogy valamikép föl ne bökje
valami megriasztott szarvas.
Bowring inte Pistának, hogy keressen magának valamely
alkalmas helyet, valamely makkfa mellett, mely jóval vastagabb, mint
a többi, hogy minden oldalról elfödje az állatok elől s így tova ne
riaszszák őket. Pista tehát engedelmeskedék s néhány száz
lépéssel tovább ment s itt egy fa mellé áll, de ekkor vette észre, hogy
a legrosszabb helyre állt, mert a vadászállomások idáig hajolván ki,
a szélső tanyáktól alig volt ötven lépésnyire; hanem már késő
visszamennie! mert éppen ezen pillanatban roppant el kétszer is a
fegyver, tehát érdekében állt nem mozdulni, különben is
elegendőképen födözve lévén a hátulról jöhető lövések ellen.
Pistát itt hagyjuk a fánál, s magunk kimegyünk a vonalra, mely az
erdőnyilások hosszán volt elosztva, s a Pistához legközelebb eső
részen a két fiatal jó barátot látjuk, Pistához közelebb az ifjú Baltayt,
s a legközelebbi állomáson Dunay barátját, ki a jó pajtástól nem
akart elválni.
A vadak nem hagyának magukra váratni, s ez oldalon élénk
puskaropogás lőn, s minthogy a vadaskert falazata nem igen volt
távol, az üldözött vadnak itt vissza kellett fordulnia, ha menekülni
vágyott.
Mint egy kis csorda csomósult össze a vad, s a vezető nyomán
oly következetesen ment az egész csapat, hogy egy vonásnyira ki
nem tért az utból még akkor sem, ha valamelyik sebjében
összerogyott; hanem akkor valamennyi föltartott fejjel gázolt át a
párátlan testen.
Bowring úr feszesen megállt egy helyben és becsületére válik
angol hidegvérűségének, hogy el nem dült ijedtében, midőn az
előbbeni tizenhat ágas mellette oly közel ment a fánál, hogy kezét
hátán húzhatta volna végig.
Föltartott fejjel ment elől a kevély vad, s utána oly közel a másik,
hogy szügyével az elsőnek farához ért, – és hasonló helyzetben
követé a másodikat a harmadik, ezt a negyedik, – s így egymásután
az ötveneseket a hatvanasok, azokat pedig a többi, egész a százig,
a mint Bowring úr megszámlálá: de sőt már a vége felé mindeniket
megérinté kézzel, kivált a sebzetteket, melyek erősen vérző sebeik
daczára nyugodtan, bár reszketegen követték a csapást, – és
Bowring urat sajátszerű érzelmek közt részelteték e vadon is
gyönyörű látványban, melyből még csak egy hiányzék, a legutolsó
szarvas, mely már nem bir odább hatolni, fejét lankadtan veti még föl
néha, s nyakán egy tenyérnyi piros szalagnak csokra most bomlik ki,
s a mint fejét mozdítani igyekszik, a szellő Bowring úr arczához
lebbenti, s az angol végtére is kidűl szerepéből, s mielőtt tájékozná
magát…
De nem mondjuk el még a végét.
A szabados utána bolondult az állatnak, mely már alig birt menni,
csak egy nagy csapatnak érkezése verte föl benne a végerőt
elkisérni a többit, a meddig elbirja még vérevesztett lába.
A szabados egy fa mellé huzódott, midőn a csapatnak
elvonulását látta, s míg így szemlélődnék a bokrokból, lassankint
elvonult a csapat, velük a vörös-szalagos, és helyette tisztán a
béresnek alakját látja meg, a mint az féloldalt fordulva áll mereven
egy helyben, s oly nyugodtan, mintha készen várná, hogy czélba
lőjenek rá.
Megint néhány szarvas akar a vonalon átvágni, az állomásokon
szakadatlanul szól a puska, egy lövéssel több vagy tán kevesebb, –
a szabados a sűrűben oly kényelmes helyen áll, lehetetlen, hogy vad
lelke, mely a boszúra oly szomjas, hogy hatszor is rálőne jó
alkalommal, semmit sem késik, hanem nekifogja a fegyvert és a
béresre durrantja.
A béres mozdulatlanul áll, – egy lövéssel több, vagy kevesebb,
akár jobbról, akár balról; meg sem gondolja, hogy az utóbbi reá
czéloztatott, csak a szabados látja, hogy sértetlenül áll, míg a
vadászállomáson egy jaj-szóval az ifjú Baltay élettelenül rogyott
össze.
A szabados a sűrüben észrevétlenül tünt el; Pistát a lövés nem
zavará, csak gróf Dunay rémült el, midőn barátját halva összerogyni
látta, s a két szomszéd ijedten rohant a késő segítségre, látván,
hogy barátja agyon van lőve, a két vadász önkéntelenül kérdé
egymást:
A két szomszéd ijedten rohant a késő segitségre.
– Lőtt ön?
– Igen! – mondja a másik – és ön?
– Szintén lőttem! mondja amaz is éppen úgy öntudatlanul, mint a
másik, mintha e körülményben keresné a véletlen nagy
szerencsétlenségnek okát.
Minthogy a seb némileg azon oldalon volt, melyről Dunay állt,
még a gróf maga is megdöbbent azon gondolatnál, hátha csakugyan
ő lőtte agyon!
Míg a szerencsétlen barát barátjának hulláját emelé karjaiba,
addig az angol mellett a szarvas rogyott össze, s a hidegvérű ember
megindultan emelé térdére a szalagos állatot, melynek
végvonaglásában is jól esett, hogy egy ember ápolgatja, ki aztán a
szalagot úrnőjének visszaszolgáltatja.
Midőn a lelődözötteket összeszámlálnák, azt mondja az angol a
hullára nézve:
– Egygyel több lövés, mint kéne!
XI.
(Két szomszéd, két gyász.)
Föltették a szarvast a szekérre, hogy úrnőjéhez szállítsák, míg a

másik hullát a jó barátok kisérték el hazáig. Leették a szarvasok a
szénát a szekérről s a kis béres a szekér elején állva, megereszté a
nagy ostort, mely akkorát szólt, hogy a hat ökör szebben megindult,
mint azon jámbor keresztények, kik az isten házában a legelső padot
ülik el, s mindamellett, hogy a szent ige legközelebb ér el hozzájuk,
mégsem ragad meg náluk; mert ők is úgy tesznek, mint a paraszt,
midőn a szekérről föladja a kévét a másiknak, hogy az is adja megint
tovább.
Oly lomhán mászott a hat ökör, hogy az elsőn levő kolomp egyik
oldalától a másikig alig tudott ellóbálódzani, s az egyenes út
elvezetvén őket terelés nélkül is, a béres kiült a szekér oldalára,
leszedte süvege mellől a sörjenyelű pipát, oldalszíjáról leoldá a
zacskót, rágyujtott, s miután a zacskót újra megcsavarván, tenyerén
ismét keményre verte, s illőn elhelyezé, eregetni kezdé a füstöt és
gondolatban megkérődzé mindazt, mit a vadászaton látott.
Míg a fának oldalában vesztegelnie kellett, s a golyók mellette
röpködének, megszülemlék egyszerű lelkében az a gondolat, hogy
hátha oda is elmenne, hol rézből van a puska, s bőgve megy ki
belőle a golyó, mintha nem érne rá külön megsiratni azt a sok
embert, kiket utjában megöl, maga sem tudván, hogy miért?
Az erdő mélyében számtalanszor megütődő puskazaj elvezette
őt gondolatban a csatamezőre, hol danolva megyen az ember
meghalni és nincsen egyetlenegy siránkozó fehércseléd, kinek
özvegysége vagy árvasága belekapaszkodnék a haldoklóba, hogy
erre a világra visszarimánkodja.
Látta a zöld mezőt, melyre nincs letakarva a halotti lepel, mely
messziről már rémületté válik; – itt lehanyatlik az ember, mintha
elfáradt volna, kipatakzik belőle a vér, mint a gyümölcsnek leve, mitől
meg nem undorodik senki; s annyi ember fölé egyetlen óriási domb
kerekedik, mit az uton mérföldnyiről meglát, s a nélkül el nem kerüli,
hogy a vitézek előtt le ne venné süvegét, pedig jól tudja, hogy vissza
nem köszöntenek neki.
Addig-addig járta meg lelkével a csatamezőt, hogy a kolompnak
tompa hangját ágyúzásnak vélte s nem birt hazakerülni a
messzeségből, hova már elment azon a jó lovon, mely ha jó nem
volna, huszár alá nem nyergelték volna. Oly vitézül ölte és vágta már
az ellenséget, hogy ha most az édes anyja sírva hívná, még akkor
sem jönne talán vissza.
A pipa buzgón égett, a kolomp egy nótára verte ki a szokott
hangot, semmi sem zavará meg az ébren álmodozó embert, ki most
éppen azon nyugodott meg, hogy milyen szépen kigondolta az
uristen, hogy ellenség is legyen, hogy a huszároknak legyen majd
mit vágni!
Nem jutott eszébe, hogy a halál az ő kezével végzené a véres
munkát, annak még örvendeni is tudna; de már akképen győződött
meg magában, hogy a jó uristen maga tudja azt legjobban, miért
rendelte el a háborút – és toldalékul hozzágondolta még azt is, – ha
kinek nem tetszik, miért lett ellenséggé.
Megszólamlék benne az erő és mint a levelek közől a bimbó,
kifelé kéredzkedék, s a széles, erős mell alatt nem birt megférni
valami, hanem arra ösztönzé, hogy messze-messze kell még innét
menni.
Összekeveredett a két első ökör, s a kolompnak hangja úgy
meglódult, hogy az elandalodott bérest fölébreszté, mire az végig
nézvén a hat ökrön, s a nagynyelű ostoron, nem mert többé
visszagondolni az elmult kedves tárgyra, s helyette most ezt a
dicsőségtelen ballagást látván, az ostornyélért s a hat ökörért
elszégyenlé magát.
Mintha maga előtt is megröstelné a dolgot, fölkapta a nagy ostort,
s egymásután vagy hatszor durrantá ki a legerősebb hangot, s tán
tovább is folytatná, ha meg nem szólítná egy vastag bajuszú huszár,
ki után vagy harmincz legény párosával jött még az uton lassú
léptetésben.
– Öcsém!… tán valamelyik ökröd nagyot hall? – mondja az
őrmester a béreshez érvén.
– Már ezekkel csak így lehet beszélni! – mondja rá a béres.
– Apád ökrei ezek, öcsém?
– Apámé!… véli a béres, – csakhogy ez az apám másnak is apja
ám.
– Csak nincsen ötven fia ennek az apádnak?
– Ötven nincsen,… katona uram, hanem vagy ötezer mégis van,
s mindnek édes apja.
– Látom, öcsém, jól tart benneteket – mondja még a huszár, –
vagy tán te vagy a legkisebb fia, hogy ilyen pirosra kihizlalt?
– Még én utánam meg lehet kotorni a tálat – katona uram – mert
én herczeg Batthyányi Lajos kenyerét eszem – áldja meg érette az
isten! – magyarázá Pista.
– Most értelek, öcsém!… mosolyog rá az őrmester, egyszersmind
új dologba kapva, mondja: öcsém, sokat kell az ilyen hat ökör mellett
gyalogolni, úgy-e?
– Könnyebben elvégzem, mintha hat felé kellene mennem.
– Nem rúgós valamelyik? – tréfálkodék a huszár odább is.
– Nincsen patkó rajtuk! – viszonzá a béres.
– De nyereg sincs ám rajtuk, öcsém – folytatá még odább is
amaz; – aztán látod, van ám nekünk egy heverő paripánk, s ha
fölülsz rá, nem kell ám olyan hosszú nyelű ostor, mint a mekkora
most van a kezedben, mert elmegy ám az a magas mennyországig
durrogatás nélkül.
– Hátha nem eladó?
– Minden hitvány embernek nem, az igaz – lőn rá a felelet –
hanem már veled csak megalkuszunk öcsém, ha tudnánk, hogy nem
ijedsz meg a magad árnyékától.
– Azt tartom, nem! katona uram, – mondja rá Pista.
– Nohát próbáljuk meg – mondja az őrmester, – állj ki, tartsd szét
az ujjaidat, aztán én megforgatom egypárszor a kardot, s a két első
ujjad között úgy elvágok, hogy a szellőn kívül nem éri más a
kezedet.
Erre a béres megállítja a hat ökröt, ujjait kiterjeszti hogy az
őrmester megtegye a vágást.
– De hátha levágom valamelyik ujjadat, öcsém!
– Én azt nem kérdezem, katona uram, az a maga kötelessége,
hogy jól tudjon vágni, én csak azt vállalom magamra, hogy kiállok…
hát itt van!
– Ember vagy öcsém! – mondja a huszár – annyi, mintha én
vágtam, te meg kiálltad volna, hol hálsz az éjjel?
– A fürgedi pusztán, katona uram, ha tudja merre van!
– Oda tartunk öcsém, ott maradunk egy egész nap, ott meglátjuk
egymást! – mondja a huszár, – fejét csóválva hagyván el ügetést a
szekeret, hogy idején érjék be a pusztát.
Pista lassan ballagtában nagyokat fohászkodott a katonák után, s
minthogy leghátul egy gazdátlan ló nyergelten ment vezetéken,
gondolatjában fölült a gazdátlan lóra, s velük ment, míg csak látta
őket, – azontúl pedig magára maradván ökreivel, mintha a jámbor
állatoknak szarva mindig az ő boldogságát öklelné meg, –
rettenetesképen megutálta őket.
Minthogy előbb már leszállt a szekérről, nagy ostorát
összecsavargatá a szörnyű szélen, s úgy helyezé a szekérbe, mint a
melyet többé nem akarna kézbe venni, s hogy az ökröket ne
láthassa, előttük ballagott; de előbb a kolompot levette, hogy még az
se lármázzék utána, midőn a huszárokra, meg a gazdátlan lóra
gondolt, mert most már az is megsajnálná, ha így szállítanák le a
lóról, pedig még rajt sem volt, hacsak ezután nem lesz.
A szarvas néhány galylyal lefödötten nyugvék a szekéren, s már
nem messze valának a falutól, honnét vesztére szaladt ki ma reggel,
s ime már a pára nem megy vele vissza, – jámborsága most már
csak életlenség s egyetlen jele annak, hogy emberek között járt, az a
vérvörös szalag, mely fölbomlott csokrával még most is nyakában
lóg.
Sorsát nem birta elbeszélni a szabadoson kívül senki, s minthogy
az magától erre úgysem igen volna hajlandó, kövessük inkább a
bérest, kit amaz boszúból hasonlókép ki akart küldeni ebből a
világból, csakhogy az másképen lőn megírva a végzések
könyvében, hol már előre meg van írva az is, hogy jövőre hol
találkoznak még.
Hasztalan siet úgy előre a béres, gondolata mindinkább hátra,
utána marad el azon irányban, merre a huszárok a fürgedi pusztára
tértek el, – s ő most, ha lehetne, egy helyett kettőt lépne, hogy az út
kurtább legyen előtte, csakhogy nem tudta elfeledni, hogy az ökrök
is utána ballagnak, még pedig igen-igen lassan.
Maga sem tudá, hogy e napon a halál ballagott el mellette, s
mintha a sors őt magát fordította volna oldalt, meg kell indulnia azon
úton, hol a halál ágyúszóval fordul neki szemközt, és jó szerencséje
lesz, ha szemközt nem találkozik vele az a golyó, melyre az ő neve
lesz irva, ha tudniillik valamelyikre csakugyan ráírták.
De nagy határt megkerült az ő esze ebben a kis útban, látott
mindent, még a dicsőséget is, mit nemcsak a vezér lát, hanem
meglát az utolsó közvitéz, midőn karját ellenségre emelheti, s a
maga neve mellé amazét is osztja.
Ment, mendegéle s a gyönyörű álmot a faluból kirohanó kutyák
ugatták csak széjjel, tehát megkérdezte a legelső embert, hogy
nagyságos Baltayné asszonyság kastélya merre van közelebb.
Az útmutatás után könnyen meglelheté, azért az utczán olyan
fordulást tett, hogy a hat ökör kanyarulása a küszöbön meg ne
zökkentse a szekeret, s midőn a kapun minden baj nélkül
bemehetett, egyenesen az erkély alatt állt meg.
A nagyságos asszony éppen akkor lépett ki a kisasszonynyal, s
mindkettő csodálkozva nézé a szokatlan vendéget. Mielőtt azonban
megkérdezték, mi járatban volna, a körülálló cselédeket kérdé sorba
a nagyságos asszony:
– Tehát senki sem látta?
– Én nem láttam, pedig a felső határt végig jártam! – mondja az
egyik.
– Hát te? – kérdik a másikat.
– Biz én sem láttam – nagyságos asszony – mondja a másik, –
pedig még a nádast is majdnem szálonkint összeválogattam: de sem
nyomát, sem magát nem láttam.
– Tehát egyik sem látta? kérdi bánatos arczczal a kisasszony.
– Senki! – lőn az egyhangú válasz, mire a háziasszony az idegen
cselédhez fordult, mintegy előbb kérdvén, mint azt, hogy mi jó
szerencsében fáradt el idáig.
– Fiam!… nem láttál egy szarvast? – kérdi az asszonyság.
– De mennyit; nagyságos asszonyom! – hisz éppen most jövök a
tamási szarvasvadászatról, volt ott annyi, hogy a szénát is leették
erről a szekérről.
– Nem látott egy vörös szalagosat? – kérdi a kisasszony.
– Azt keresik? – kérdi a béres.
– Minden emberünk az után indul ma – mondja a hölgy – de
senki sem leli.
– Azt tartom, nagyságos kisasszony, hogy nem jön az vissza
elevenen.
– Dehogy nem jő, – mondja ismét bizalommal a hölgy, hisz a
legjámborabb állat a világon.
– Az a baja, kérem átossággal, – különben nem hoztam volna
haza ezen a szekéren, – ime! – mondja, leszedvén a galyat, mely
alól a szalag elég hamar ismerőssé tette.
Mély megilletődés fogta el a körülállókat, kik a boldogtalant
leemelték, s a kisasszony a kedvencz állatot zokogva siratta.
Az anya vigasztalni kezdé, anyai eszével átlátván, hogy ennél
nagyobb baj is akad a világon, de a leány csak nem akart
megbékélni, s utóbb már a cselédek is mondtak neki egy-két
vigasztalót, s végre Pista is megszólamlik:
– Soha se búsúljon, nagyságos kisasszony, szebb halállal úgy
sem halhatott meg!
– Szegény kis szarvasom! mondja az úrhölgy.
– Háborúba halt meg biz ez, mint akármi katona, jegyzi meg a
béres.
– Annak is jobb volna, hogy ha otthon halhatna meg!
– Ki tudja, nagyságos kisasszony – fohászkodik a béres, – csak
az a szép halál, künn az ágyúk között, mikor tudja az ember, hogy
nem az orvosságtól hal meg.
*
Midőn a béres kiért az udvarból, a jó barátok, köztök a herczeg
és Bowring úr gróf Dunayval, megérkeztek a szomszéd házhoz, s az
öreget álltában támogatták a Baltay-család utolsó sarjadékának
hullája mellett, annyit mondván el, mennyit a dologból mondani
tudhattak.
Utóbb a barátok szétoszlának, – Baltay egyedül maradt
Andrással, ki a halavány urét néhány lépésnyiről szótalanul nézte,
mintha valamiért itt marasztották volna.
Baltay százfélekép rakván össze a lehetőségeket, az ingerültség
némi élével kérdi a hűséges hajdút, kivel már vagy tizedszer
gondolták ki, vajjon hogyan történhetett e szomorú eset.
– Megmondjam, ki lőtte agyon? – szólamlik meg az öreg lelke
gyanújával.
– Nagyságos uram!… mondja a hajdú megindultan, – ne mondja
ki e szót, – hadd nyugodjék békével a halott; elég szűk lesz neki az a
kis hely, hova leteszszük, inti még odább is – ne temessük el melléje
másnak becsületét!
– Hát kendnek se mondjam meg?
– Nekem se!… szól erős hangon amaz, – mert attól félek, hogy
ha nagyságos uram egyszer botlik, nem lesz mellette mindig a vén
András, hogy fölemelje, s akad olyan ember, ki az ilyen koros embert
megneveti, hogy azt is elbeszéli, a mit tán úgy álmodott.
– Miért ne higyjem azt, a mit más is hisz? – békételenkedik az
öreg.
– No ha azt is el akarja hinni, a mit más hisz – véli András, – azt
se higyje nagyságos uram, a mit én nem hiszek.
– Nem hiszi kend? – kérdé Baltay, nyugalommal nézvén a
hajdúra.
– De nem ám! – mondja amaz – fölkapván a megszokott
feleselési hangot.
– Nem kend faragta meg a rovást?
– De én faragtam meg, az igaz, – nem is mondom, hogy valami
sokat alkudoznám, ha jobb magyar emberért elcserélhetném; de
nagyságos uram, a ki nem dohányzik, bort sem iszik, mindig könyvet
olvas, mitől bolonduljon meg úgy, hogy az embert szarvasnak
nézhesse? Ennyivel megkötötte a csomót a hajdú s dolga után ment
el.
– Nohát, nem mondom, hogy agyonlőtte!… dörmögé az öreg,
aztán mintegy magának is némi igazat akarván adni, toldalékképen
hozzáteszi: – de azt sem mondom, hogy nem lőtte!
Hej! nem volna oly ritka madár az igazság, ha keresni nem kéne.
XII.
(Egy este a pusztán.)
Kiült a sok fényes csillag az ég boltozatjára, midőn a herczeg és

Bowring úr csöndes lépést ereszték a kantárt, hogy a langyos estét a
szabadban élvezzék, nem igen messze lévén a puszta, hova
éjszakára szándékoztak a katonák miatt, kiket a herczeg átmenőben
nem akart egy kis megvendégelés nélkül elereszteni, minthogy úgy
is a legközelebbi faluban kellett volna kitölteni a huszonnégy órai
pihenési időt.
Oly csöndes volt az egész környék, hogy egy kis csengetyűvel
mérföldnyiről össze lehetne harangozni minden embert. Az angol
szívesen elkószált volna egyik pásztortűztől a másikig, szokatlan
levén előtte az éjjeli fény, ez a szokás, hogy a fáradt ember a nap
hosszát még tűzzel is megtoldja.
Néha-néha elveszett az egyik fény, s megint újra előbukkant, a
mint a körüllevők elülték vagy elhasalták, vagy a pásztorember
rávetett egy ölnyi szalmát, hogy a tartóból ki ne alugyék a mécs s
meglássák egymást a beszélgetés mellett, mert már a magyar
ember a képét is szereti megnézni annak, kivel beszél, minthogy a
régi igazságkép a hazugság mindig elránt egy-egy vonást a hazug
ember képén, – s a másik aztán könnyebben hozzáveti, mennyit kell
elengedni abból, mit a másik néha nagyon is ingyen beszél.
Bowring úrnak jól esett ez a szörnyű hallgatagság, mintha csak
még most tudná legelőször életében, minő lehet a nyugalmas
éjszaka, minőt a nagy városon fogadásképen lármáznak el
egymástól az emberek; s itt, hol a nyájőrző kuvaszokon kívül egyéb
éjjeli őr nincsen, oly mély a csend, mintha bekerítették volna fallal, s
a falon kívül ezer ágyúval ijesztenének el minden kis nyikkanást.
Belebb, belebb mentek egyenesen, s mielőtt szemükbe ütköznék
a major, elért hozzájuk egy csöndes harmónia, melynek vékonya-
vastaga szabályosan megvolt, s a vékony a vastag mellé, a vastag a
vékony mellé oly szépen odafért, hogy a vékony nem akart kiebb
látszani a vastag mellől, a vastag pedig engedte a vékonyabbat, mint
a módosabb a szegényt, hogy az is megélhessen.
Mint a hullám, elringatta magát a dal a légben, csalta maga után
az embert, s Bowring úr könnyedén huzá meg a kantárszárat, hogy
a hang után vitesse el magát, s elérje a dalt, azon helyet, hol az
elkezdődött, s ekkép lépésről-lépésre hangzatosabb lőn az
összemért ének.
Meg-megszakadt az ének, s a hézagokban megszólamlik egy
másik, sajátszerű bánatos valami, melyben a hang úgy
elszomorodott, hogy az ember letörölni vágyik azt az égő könyűt,
mely a panasz mellett folyt le. Nem bír a hang fölvergődni, mintha
még oly magasra nyúlt volna az ég, honnét lerimánkodhatná saját
orvosságát, s a mint ez a fájdalom magamagát mondja, oly furcsán
lepi meg a hallgatót is, hogy szinte még a búsulást is megkivánja
bele.
Bowring úr előrehajlék a lovon, a furulyahang jobban elért hozzá,
s az egykedvű angolt megvesztegette e szokatlan hang, nem bírt
tovább a lovon maradni, átadá a kantárt a lovásznak, de a herczeg is
leszállt, s a kövér mezőn csöndesen közelíték meg az ébren levő
népet.
– Csuda ez, vagy madárnak a hangja? – kérdé Bowring a
herczeget.
– Egy ártatlan furulya – mondja a herczeg – valamelyik béres
altatja el magát.
– Nem folytathaták tovább a párbeszédet, alig ötven lépésnyire
értek már a csoporttól, melyben öregek és ifjak, katonák, béresek és
lányok rákezdék a nótát:
Magasan röpül a daru, szépen szól,

Haragszik rám a galambom, mert nem szól.
Ne haragudj édes rózsám sokáig,
Tied leszek, tied leszek koporsóm bezártáig.
Az egyszerű ösztön vezérlé e kart, mely vagy ötven emberből

állt, s az egészséges hangok ércze harangként kondult meg az
angol füleiben, hol a szárazföldnek minden operája egymás hátán ül
már s midőn az inger kifogyott belőle, helyet kér ez ösmeretlen zene,
melyről hirtelenében nem tudja megmondani, imádság-e vagy dal?
hanem megtiszteli mint egy remekművet, s megállt ünnepélyes
érzelemmel, hisz még a vadállatot is megállítá már a zene.
– Herczeg!… köszönöm e ritka meglepetést! – mondja Bowring.
– Talán azt hiszi kegyed, hogy ezeket hintóban hozattam ide egy
éji zenére?
– Legalább is hintón! – mondja az angol.
– Azt tartom, egy szálig béresfajta valamennyi, s azért jöttek
valamivel kiebb a majortól, hogy a hajdút aludni hagyják; mert ha
meghallaná, hihetőleg szétugrasztotta volna az egész hangversenyt.
– Páholyokat ide, herczeg, ilyen zenét aranyokkal szokás
megfizetni.
– Tegye el ön az aranyat; mert ha meghallják, reggelig itt
maradnak énekelni, s a legjava búzámat kinn felejtik, pedig én az
esőtől tartok.
– Miért nem küldi őket a herczeg utazni?
– Csakhogy Ázsiából ide értek, kedves jó barátom, nem hogy
még egész Európát megutazzák.
– Igen, de ritka kar, minőt a milanói Scala egész Olaszországban
nem fogdos össze.
– Kár volna vesződni a kereséssel, indítsa meg barátom a
legelső falut, csak oly jót talál ott, mint ime a pusztán.
– Na, uram, ezt a népet láttam verekedni, hallám énekelni,
országuk tele van szokatlan dolgokkal, most már egyidőre eleget
tapasztalék, visszamegyek Bécsbe, s addig el nem jövök, míg
nekem olyan könyvet nem küld a herczeg, melyet magyar ember írt
meg, s a mi kedves Baltay bácsink elejétől végig elolvasott.
– Csodát akar ön minden áron látni?
– Igen! – mondja Bowring – itt csak csodát lehet látni, s a mely
napon az a könyv készen lesz, higyjen nekem a herczeg,
Magyarország még egyszer újra megszületik és sohasem hal meg!
*
Néhány lépéssel odább menvén a két alak, a hold is
fölkapaszkodott a láthatárra, s a gyalogló urak egy szénaboglya
mellett álltak, ez által födve lévén, mégis hallhatták a beszédet,
vígan enyelegvén a vendég huszárok a pusztai néppel.
Holvagy Pista most ért még csak a vigadozók közé, s az
őrmester jószívű tréfával fogadta a legényt.
– Elaltattad, öcsém, azt a hat cselédet?
– Eleget elfáradtak, nem igen várták, hogy ringassam is őket.
– Hát alkudjunk meg arra a gazdátlan paripára – mondja az
őrmester – fölültetünk reá!
– Föl ne ülj rá, Pista! – mondja egy öreg asszony – mert az
ütközetig meg nem áll ám veled.
– Ellenségre mennek, katona uram? – kérdi Pista.
– Éppenséggel oda sietünk most – felel az őrmester – csak
torony iránt megyünk, hogy jókor odaérjünk, mert már a határon
belül az ellenség.
– Hátha el is fogyasztják akkorra, mire odaérnek? – kérdi
kétkedve a béres.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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New to This Edition

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The Plan of the Book

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Education,” and Chapter 2, “The Personnel and Procedures of Special Education.”

Topics Integrated into Every Chapter

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REAL WORLD EXPERIENCES

directions that she now is expected to follow in middle

erenced at key points in the chapter as

well. The vignettes can form the basis

for applying information and strate-

gies from the chapter, and they can be a Language Disorders

launching point for discussions of issues

influencing the field, including inclusive Outcomes LO9.2

practices, collaboration, and response to

Students with Visual Impairments 379

asked to integrate learning across chapters to consider educational strat-

Firsthand Accounts allow teachers, other

school professionals, students, and parents

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DATA-DRIVEN DECISIONS Data-Driven Decisions

Positive Behavior Supports

in various educational settings, including examples

Present Level of Performance

Trends and Issues Sections

questions and dilemmas. through multiple (DSM) intelligence A

Technology Notes showcases examples of the wide ar-

ray of technology applications for teaching students

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Self-Checks special education eligibility

dents being represented proportionately in both special and gifted education.

Aligned to National Standards

Redesigning the Prereferral and Intervention Process

Study Plan Specific to Your Text

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Assignments and Activities

Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions

IRIS Center Resources

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• The Certification and Licensure section is designed to help students pass