(PDF Download) Diaz Rico 6th Edition Lynne T Diaz Rico Fulll Chapter
(PDF Download) Diaz Rico 6th Edition Lynne T Diaz Rico Fulll Chapter
(PDF Download) Diaz Rico 6th Edition Lynne T Diaz Rico Fulll Chapter
com
https://ebookmeta.com/product/diaz-rico-6th-
edition-lynne-t-diaz-rico/
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWLOAD EBOOK
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-crosscultural-language-and-
academic-development-handbook-6th-edition-lynne-t-diaz-rico/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/urban-shadow-1st-edition-andrew-
medeiros-mark-diaz-truman/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/fodor-s-puerto-rico-10th-edition-
fodors-travel-guides/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/roberto-clemente-the-pride-of-
puerto-rico-1st-edition-gerry-boehme/
Insight Guides Puerto Rico Travel Guide eBook 7th
Edition Insight Guides
https://ebookmeta.com/product/insight-guides-puerto-rico-travel-
guide-ebook-7th-edition-insight-guides/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/perspectives-on-synchronicity-
inspiration-and-the-soul-1st-edition-rico-sneller/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/strength-training-for-men-and-
women-over-50-1st-edition-alicia-diaz-lee-davidson/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/a-concise-introduction-to-robot-
programming-with-ros2-1st-edition-francisco-martin-rico/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/border-folk-balladeers-critical-
studies-on-americo-paredes-1st-edition-roberto-cantu-editor/
A01_DIAZ3257_07_SE_FM.indd 1 3/7/17 8:08 PM
TESOL P–12 Professional Teaching Standards
Standard 1.a. Language as a System: Candidates demonstrate understanding of language as a system, Chapter 2
including phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics, and semantics, and support ELLs as they acquire English
language and literacy in order to achieve in the content areas.
Standard 1.b. Language Acquisition and Development: Candidates understand and apply theories and Chapter 3
research in language acquisition and development to support their ELLs’ English language and literacy learning
and content-area achievement.
Standard 2. Culture as It Affects Student Learning: Candidates know, understand, and use major theories Chapter 9
and research related to the nature and role of culture in their instruction. They demonstrate understanding of
how cultural groups and individual cultural identities affect language learning and school achievement.
Standard 3.a. Planning for Standards-Based ESL and Content Instruction: Candidates know, Chapter 5
understand, and apply concepts, research, and best practices to plan classroom instruction in a supportive
learning environment for ELLs. They plan for multilevel classrooms with learners from diverse backgrounds
using standards-based ESL and content curriculum.
Standard 3.b. Implementing and Managing Standards-Based ESL and Content Instruction: Chapter 5
Candidates know, manage, and implement a variety of standards-based teaching strategies and techniques for
developing and integrating English listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Candidates support ELLs’ access to
the core curriculum by teaching language through academic content.
Standard 3.c. Using Resources and Technology Effectively in ESL and Content Instruction: Chapters 4, 5
Candidates are familiar with a wide range of standards-based materials, resources, and technologies, and choose,
adapt, and use them in effective ESL and content teaching.
Standard 4.a. Issues of Assessment for English Language Learners: Candidates demonstrate Chapter 7
understanding of various assessment issues as they affect ELLs, such as accountability, bias, special education
testing, language proficiency, and accommodations in formal testing situations.
Standard 4.b. Language Proficiency Assessment: Candidates know and can use a variety of standards- Chapter 7
based language proficiency instruments to show language growth and to inform their instruction. They
demonstrate understanding of their uses for identification, placement, and reclassification of ELLs.
Standard 4.c. Classroom-Based Assessment for ESL: Candidates know and can use a variety of Chapter 7
performance-based assessment tools and techniques to inform instruction for in the classroom.
Standard 5.a. ESL Research and History: Candidates demonstrate knowledge of history, research, Chapters 6, 11
educational public policy, and current practice in the field of ESL teaching and apply this knowledge to inform
teaching and learning.
Standard 5.b. Professional Development, Partnerships, and Advocacy: Candidates take advantage Chapters 10, 11
of professional growth opportunities and demonstrate the ability to build partnerships with colleagues and
students’ families, serve as community resources, and advocate for ELLs.
TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching Standards. Reproduced with permission of TESOL International Association.
The Crosscultural,
Language, and Academic
Development Handbook
A Complete K–12 Reference Guide
Lynne T. Díaz-Rico
California State University, San Bernardino
Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with
permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.
Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book.
However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable
that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change.
Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2010, 2006, 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and
permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in
a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work,
please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
—LTD-R
iv
Introduction xiv
Acknowledgments xv
SUMMARY 56
LEARNING MORE 57
Further Reading 57
Web Search 57
Exploration 57
Experiment 57
SUMMARY 94
LEARNING MORE 95
Further Reading 95
Web Search 95
Exploration 95
Collaboration 95
5 Content-Area Instruction 96
Principles of Support for English Learners in Academic Content Areas 97
A Model for SDAIE 98
Teacher Attitude 100
Content 100
Connections 103
Comprehensibility 104
Interaction 106
Content-Area Application 108
Social Studies 109
Literature 111
Mathematics 113
Science 116
The Visual and Performing Arts 119
Physical Education 120
Instructional Needs beyond the Classroom 121
SUMMARY 122
LEARNING MORE 122
Further Reading 122
Web Search 122
Exploration 122
Discussion 122
SUMMARY 149
LEARNING MORE 149
Further Reading 149
Web Search 149
Exploration 150
Looking at Classrooms 150
References 287
Name Index 309
Subject Index 317
The presence of many linguistic and ethnic minority students in the United States has challenged
educators to rethink basic assumptions about schooling. In the past, school models and methods
were based on the notions that students shared the same cultural background and spoke the same
language. This assumption is no longer sufficient to meet the needs of today’s students. There is
an urgent need to provide a high-quality education for students in the United States whose native
language is not English and/or whose culture differs from that of the U.S. “mainstream.” This calls
for increased expertise on the part of classroom teachers, administrators, and community leaders.
Today’s students come from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. But the cultural pat-
terns of schools and classrooms may not ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to
succeed. Culture is a part of the educational process that has been invisible but that can no longer
remain so. By understanding the influence of culture, educators can avoid inadvertently advantag-
ing those students who share the dominant culture while neglecting those students whose cultures
differ from the mainstream. Culture includes more than the habits and beliefs of students and
teachers; the school itself is a culture in which the physical environment, daily routines, and inter-
actions advantage some and yet may alienate others. Educators now need a foundation of cultural
awareness and second-language acquisition theory to adapt schools to the needs of multicultural
and multilingual students.
xiv
A book like this could not have been written without the help and support of numerous individuals.
The teachers and students with whom I have worked have given me insights and examples. My col-
leagues have shared their experiences and expertise. In addition to those who gave so much support
to previous editions, I would also like to thank those who have made this sixth edition a reality.
It goes without saying that I owe homage to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
for their work in designing California’s CLAD credential and its revision, the CTEL authorization.
I want to thank the teacher education and TESOL master’s students at CSUSB as well as my
colleagues in TESOL and in the Department of Teacher Education and Foundations at CSUSB who
have enriched my understanding of the teaching–learning process as it relates to second-language
learners, and who have participated with me in research and curriculum development.
I am grateful also to those who provided helpful reviews of the manuscript for this edition:
Anaida Colon-Muniz, Chapman University; Stephanie A. Dhonau, University of Arkansas at Little
Rock; Cheryl McElvain, Santa Clara University; Nancy Vincent Montgomery, Southern Methodist
University; and Mary Amanda Stewart, Texas Women’s University.
To all those who have provided linguistic and cultural support not only to English learners but
also to those who have struggled to adapt to a new culture, I salute you. To the researchers and
authors who provided valuable insights into this process, my deepest thanks for your pioneering
efforts. Finally, I thank my editors Julie Peters and Drew Bennett, content producers Megan Moffo
and Miryam Chandler, and the rest of the Pearson editorial staff for their efforts in producing this
book.
xv
Part One represents learning the foundations of instruc- may influence groups of learners to react in similar ways to
tion: knowledge about the learner, about the structure of classroom instruction. Chapter 2 introduces language struc-
language, and about the process of acquiring a second lan- ture and functions. Chapter 3 offers insights from classic and
guage. Chapter 1 explores the learner, with a focus on the contemporary research in second-language acquisition and
psychological factors in language learning that make individual development, particularly in the context of the classroom.The
language learners unique, as well as the sociocultural factors accompanying figure highlights Part One of the theoretical
that situate the learner in the context of cultural patterns that model presented in the introduction.
Part Four:
Culture
• Cultural Diversity in the United States
• Culturally Responsive Schooling
• The Role of the Family in Schools
Part Three:
Assessment
Theoretical Model for CLAD Learning: Learning about the Learner, Language Structure, and Second-Language Acquisition
© Zurijeta/Shutterstock
Imagine experiencing the cultural shock of being in a new country, in a new culture, and not being able to speak the
language. That was the predicament that I found myself in when I first came to the United States from Colombia.
I was nervous and scared.When I was taking English classes at a local community college, the worst experience that
I had was when a classmate said, “You think that you’re good because everybody applauded you? You’re not! Your
English is awful.”
I could not believe what I heard. His words struck me like lightning in a thunderstorm. My reaction was plastered
on my face, and I couldn’t disguise it. Ms. Tjandra, my ESL teacher, noticed the devastated look on my face, and she
asked me,“Are you okay, Nelsy?” Tears filled my eyes. I said,“Ms.Tjandra, a classmate told me that my English was awful
and that people only applauded for me at my oral presentation because they felt pity for me.”
Ms. Tjandra, with a sweet and compassionate tone, said to me, “Nelsy, there is nothing wrong with your English.
Your English is fine. He is just jealous because you are smart and have a career. Don’t pay attention to him—he doesn’t
deserve your friendship. Keep studying English because you are going to be successful and get to places that he can
only dream of.” Her words of encouragement lifted my spirits. It was at that moment that I knew learning English was
not an option but a passport: to my freedom, to better opportunities, to a new life . . .
(Jackson, N. (2016). Personal Communication.)
With the help of her English-language development teachers, Nelsy Jackson acquired the English-
language academic preparation needed to become a certified teacher so she, in turn, can help others.
Learning a second language connects people across cultures, making it possible for immigrants to
achieve their dreams and aspirations. This crosscultural process enriches everyone.
Teachers in the United States are increasingly expected to educate students whose native
languages are not English and whose cultural backgrounds vary considerably from that of the
American mainstream culture. Although the teaching profession includes educators from minority
cultures in the United States as well as from other countries, the majority of the profession remains
the white, middle-class, usually monolingual teacher who can benefit from teacher education that
includes specialized methods and strategies for the effective education of culturally and linguisti-
cally diverse (CLD) students.
Moreover, research has documented the effectiveness of long-term primary-language educa-
tion. However, numerous classrooms contain students speaking various home languages. Thus
English-language development (ELD) classrooms that require modified instruction in English
become increasingly important. Teachers with a strong interest in language acquisition and a sense
of compassion for the difficulties faced by CLD students are often the most successful in promoting
their academic success.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.1 Click here to check your understanding of this
section’s content.
Statistics, 2015a). This amounts to about 8.5 percent of all elementary and secondary students
in the United States (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). The District of Columbia and six
states (Alaska, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas) had 10 percent or more
English learners in their public schools. Leading the states, California has 22.3 percent, a total
of 1.392 million students (83.7 percent of whom were Spanish speaking); Texas was second,
with 773,732 students. Other states—Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, and W ashington—
also had more than 100,000 English learners. The majority of English learners in the U.S.
were Spanish speaking (71 percent). Chinese (4 percent) and Vietnamese (3 percent) constitute
the second- and third-largest demographic groups of English learners (Ruiz Soto, Hooker, &
Batalova, 2015).
Taking a closer look at the largest source of English learners, according to U.S. Census (2015b)
data, there are 55.5 million Hispanics in the U.S., comprising 17.4 percent of the total population.
Adding the 3.5 million residents of Puerto Rico, the total number of Latinos surpasses 59 million.
In the United States, 62 million residents—about one-fifth of the population—speak a language
other than English while at home (Boyle, 2014); of these, 62 percent (38.4 million) are Spanish-
speaking (in all, the U.S. Census Bureau reports the presence of 382 languages in the U.S.). Between
2000 and 2010, the Latino population increased by 43 percent (15.2 million), accounting for more
than half of the 27.3 million increase in the total population of the United States. In the coming
decades, Latinos will account for more than 60 percent of the national’s population growth between
2005 and 2050.
In today’s American public school system, Latinos are by far the largest minority group, num-
bering more than 12.4 million in the country’s elementary, middle, and high schools. In 2012,
nearly 24 percent, or slightly less than one in four, of all preK-12 students enrolled in U.S. public
schools were Latino; this is expected to rise to 29 percent in 2024 (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2015b). There are 17.1 million Latinos ages 17 and younger in the U.S.; therefore as
they mature, their children will comprise a large group of students in the schools for many years
to come.
These population demographics indicate that all states need to provide services for English
learners, with the need greatest in California, New Mexico, New York, Florida, Illinois, and
Texas, serving Hispanics or Asian/Pacific Islanders. The linguistic and cultural variety of English
learners suggests that more and more teachers serve as intercultural and interlinguistic educators—
those who can reach out to learners from a variety of backgrounds and offer effective learning
experiences.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.2 Click here to check your understanding of this
section’s content.
Psychological Factors
The Learner’s Background
Learner’s name ________________________________________________________________________ Age ______________ Gender (M / F)
Grade ____________ L1 proficiency ___________________________________________________________________________________
Type of bilingualism _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Previous L2 experience _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessed L2 level: Reading _________________ Writing _________________ Listening _________________ Speaking _________________
Prior academic success _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Likes/dislikes ________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Social–Emotional Factors
Self-esteem ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Motivation ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Anxiety level __________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitudes toward L1/L2 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitudes toward the teacher and the class __________________________________________________________________________________
Cognitive Factors
Stage of L2 acquisition ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cognitive style/Learning style ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Learning strategies _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sociocultural Factors
Family acculturation and use of L1 and L2 _______________________________________________________________________________________
Family values ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Institutional support for language-minority students ____________________________________________________________________________
Sociocultural support for L1 in the classroom environment ________________________________________________________________________
be divided into three categories: background factors, social–emotional factors, and cognitive fac-
tors. Teachers can help students be aware of those psychological factors that further their language
learning and can work with students to ensure that these factors promote rather than impede their
learning.
and given name. The names are always given in this order and cannot be reversed because doing so
would denote a different person—Nguyên Van Hai is different from Hai Van Nguyên. In Taiwan
the family name also goes first, followed by given names. Puerto Ricans, as well as other Hispanics,
generally use three names: a given name, followed by the father’s surname and then the mother’s
surname. If one last name must be used, it is generally the father’s surname. Thus, Esther Reyes
Mimosa can be listed as Esther Reyes. If the first name is composed of two given names (Hector
Luis), both are used. This person may have a brother who is Hector José; for either to be called
simply Hector would represent a loss of identity.
In many cultures, adults are referred to by their function rather than their name. In Hmong,
xib fwb means “teacher,” and Hmong children often use the English term teacher in the classroom
rather than a title plus surname, as in “Mrs. Jasko.” Middle-class European-American teachers
may consider this to be rude rather than realizing this is a cultural difference.
Osgood (2002) suggested ways to enlist native-English-speaking students to make friends with
newcomers: Challenge them to teach a new student their names and to learn the new student’s first
and last names, using recess, lunchtime, or free time to accomplish this task.
Adapted Instruction
Students’ Names
• Understand the use and order of names, and pronounce them correctly.
• Don’t change a student’s name, apply a nickname, or use an “English” version of a student’s name (even at the
student’s request) without first checking with a member of the student’s family.
Age. Second-language acquisition (SLA) is a complex process that occurs over a long period of
time. Although many people believe that children acquire a second language more rapidly than
adults, recent research counters this notion. Although it is true that the kind of instruction varies
greatly according to the age of the learner, there is little evidence to indicate that biology closes
the door to learning a second language at certain ages (see Singleton & Ryan [2004] and Han
[2004] for further discussion of age-related issues in SLA, as well as the Point/Counterpoint box
on page 8).
First-Language Proficiency. Research has shown that proficiency in the first language (L1) helps
students to achieve in school. To learn a student’s strengths in the first language, a teacher, primary-
language-speaking aide, or parent who is fluent in the language of the student may observe a student
working or playing in the primary language and take notes on the child’s language behavior, or
schools may rely on formal testing.
Acceptance of the first language and use of the first language to support instruction pro-
motes a low-anxiety environment for students. A lower anxiety level in turn promotes increased
learning.
Adapted Instruction
First-Language Proficiency
• Monitor students’ fluency in their primary languages and share concerns with parents if students appear to be
dysfluent in their home languages.
• In cooperative groups, allow use of the first language so that students can discuss concepts.
Types of Bilingualism. Cummins (1979) analyzed the language characteristics of the children he
studied and suggested that the level of bilingualism attained is an important factor in educational
development. Limited bilingualism, or subtractive bilingualism, can occur when children’s first
language is gradually replaced by a more dominant and prestigious language. In this case, children
may develop relatively low levels of academic proficiency in both languages. The most positive
cognitive effects are experienced in proficient bilingualism, when students attain high levels of
proficiency in both languages. This is also called additive bilingualism.
Point Counterpoint
Adapted Instruction
Promoting Additive Bilingualism
• Send home newsletters that feature articles by students in English as well as in English learners’ first languages.
• Make sure classroom or community libraries feature books in the home language and encourage students to
check out books in both languages.
• Welcome classroom visitors and volunteers who speak the home language, and ask them to speak to the class
about the importance of proficiency in two languages.
Previous L2 Experience. English learners in the same grade may have had vastly different prior
exposure to English, ranging from previous all-primary-language instruction to submersion in
English—including students with no prior schooling at all. Moreover, no two students have been
exposed to exactly the same input of English outside of class. Therefore, students’ prior exposure
to English and attainment of proficiency are often highly varied.
Although students at the beginner and early-intermediate levels seem to acquire English
rapidly, research has shown that progress between the intermediate and advanced levels is slower
(Goldenberg & Coleman, 2010). This may account for the difficulties experienced by the “long-
term” English learner (Olsen, 2010).
Students who have been overcorrected when first learning English may have “shut down” and
be unwilling to speak. It may take time for a more positive approach to L2 instruction to produce
results, combined with a positive attitude toward L1 maintenance.
Assessed L2 Level. An important part of the knowledge about the learner that a teacher amasses
as a foundation for instruction is the student’s assessed level of proficiency in listening, speak-
ing, reading, and writing in English. This can be obtained during the process of assessment
for placement. In California, the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) is
the designated placement instrument; other states have other ways to assess proficiency. The
student’s L2 level is the beginning point of instruction in English.
Adapted Instruction
Assessing L2 Proficiency Levels
• Be aware that a student’s listening/speaking proficiency may surpass that of reading and writing, or vice versa.
• Assess each language skill independently.
• Use a measure such as the Student Oral Language Observation Matrix (SOLOM) to assess students’ oral
proficiency.
• Use The English–Español Reading Inventory for the Classroom (Flynt & Cooter, 1999) to provide a quick assessment
of reading levels in two languages, or the Flynt/Cooter Comprehensive Reading Inventory-2 (Cooter, Flynt, Cooter,
2014) for English proficiency.
Second-language learners are individuals who vary greatly in their acquisition of a second lan-
guage. However, there appear to be some generally accepted stages of development through which
learners progress. These stages include preproduction, early production, speech emergence, and
intermediate fluency. In preproduction—also called the silent period—the learner is absorbing
the sounds and rhythms of the new language, becoming attuned to the flow of the speech stream,
and beginning to isolate specific words. In this stage, the learner relies on contextual clues for
understanding key words and generally communicates nonverbally.
Once a learner feels more confident, words and phrases are attempted—the early production
stage. In the third stage, speech emergence, learners respond more freely. Utterances become longer
and more complex; but as utterances begin to resemble sentences, syntax errors are more noticeable
than in the earlier stage (“Where you going?” “The boy running.”). Once in intermediate fluency,
students begin to initiate and sustain conversations and are often able to recognize and correct
their own errors.
Regardless of the way one labels the stages of second-language acquisition, it is important for
the classroom teacher to use a student’s documented level of proficiency as the basis for instruction.
10 Chapter 1 Learning about the Language Learner
Adapted Instruction
Matching Instruction to Students’ L2 Levels
Ideally, classroom activities match the students’ second-language acquisition levels.
Beginning Level (preproduction stage)
• Provide concrete activities featuring input that is augmented by pictures, real objects, carefully modified teacher
speech, and frequent repetition of new vocabulary.
Early Intermediate and Intermediate Levels (early production and speech emergence)
• Ask questions that evoke responses of single words and brief phrases.
• Provide opportunities for students to use their primary language as they acquire the second language.
Early Advanced Level
• Engage students in opportunities to speak with greater complexity, read several pages of text even though they
may have limited comprehension, and write paragraphs.
• Offer a curriculum that supports and explicitly teaches learning strategies (see Chapter 5).
Prior Academic Success. A valid predictor of school success is prior academic success. By read-
ing a student’s cumulative academic record, a teacher may get a sense of the student’s strengths
and weaknesses. This can be augmented by observations of the student during academic activities
and interviews of family members and former teachers. It is important for the current teacher to
assemble as complete a record of the student’s prior schooling as possible to best inform instruc-
tional decisions.
Likes/Dislikes. Inquiring about students’ favorite academic subjects, television shows, and extra-
curricular activities is one way of bridging adult–child, teacher–student, or intercultural gaps:
Who/what is your favorite [native-language/culture] singer? Actor? Video game? Outdoor game?
Storybook? Grocery store? Holiday? What do you like about it? Students can write about favorite
subjects, and teachers can then use these culturally familiar ideas in math story problems and other
content.
Self-Esteem. A large part of one’s feelings revolve around how one feels about oneself, one’s self-
esteem. High self-esteem may cause language success or result from language success. Self-esteem
enhancement, such as efforts to empower students with positive images of self, family, and culture,
may facilitate language learning.
Self-esteem is particularly at risk when learning a second language because so much identity
and pride are associated with language competence. Schools that honor the primary languages
and cultures of students and help students to develop additive bilingualism foster strong identities;
schools in which students face disrespect and discrimination hinder students’ social and emotional
development (Cummins, 2001).
Children who do poorly in school face daily degradation to their sense of self-esteem as they
often receive low grades and experience disapproval from their teachers and even social ostracism
from peers (McKay, 2000). A healthy sense of success is necessary not only to master academics,
but also to feel valuable to society.
Many classroom activities can be used to enhance students’ self-esteem. In the Name Game,
students introduce themselves by first name, adding a word that describes how they are feeling that
day—using a word that begins with the same letter as their first name (the teacher may provide
English learners with an alphabetized list of adjectives). Each subsequent person repeats what the
others have said in sequence. Another activity, Name Interviews, lets students work in pairs to use
a teacher-provided questionnaire. This includes questions such as, “What do you like about your
name? Who named you? Were you named for someone? Are there members of your family who
have the same name?” and more (Siccone, 1995).
Motivation. “The impulse, emotion, or desire that causes one to act in a certain way” is one way
to define motivation. Gardner and Lambert (1972) postulated two types of motivation in learning
a second language: instrumental, the need to acquire a language for a specific purpose, and
integrative, the desire to become a member of the culture of the second-language group. Most
situations involve a mixture of both types.
Generally, in classrooms, teachers may believe that motivation is a trait or a state. As a trait,
motivation is seen as being relatively consistent and persistent and is attributed to various groups:
parents, communities, or cultures. Students are motivated to learn English by such incentives as the
desire to please—or not to shame—their families or by the drive to bring honor to their communi-
ties. As a state, motivation is viewed as a more temporary condition that can be influenced by the
teacher’s encouragement, by the use of highly interesting materials or activities, or by contingen-
cies of reward or punishment. Pittaway (2004) described ways that teachers can increase students’
motivation by investing in their success.
Adapted Instruction
Motivating Students
• Give pep talks to remind students that anything worth doing may seem difficult at first.
• Provide students with a list of encouraging phrases to repeat to themselves as self-talk.
Anxiety Level. Anxiety when learning a second language can be seen as similar to general feelings
of tension that students experience in the classroom. Almost everyone feels some anxiety when
learning a new language—that is, they have feelings of self-consciousness, a desire to be perfect
when speaking, and a fear of making mistakes. Using a foreign language can threaten a person’s
sense of self if speakers fear they cannot represent themselves fully in a new language or understand
others readily. Anxiety can be debilitating. As one student recalled,
During these several months after my arrival in the U.S.A. . . . I strained every nerve in order to under-
stand what the people were saying. . . . I sometimes have to pretend to understand by smiling, even
though I feel alienated, uneasy, and tense (Barna, 2007, p. 71).
Because anxiety can cause learners to feel defensive and can block effective learning, language
educators strive to make the classroom a place of warmth and friendliness and where peer work,
small-group work, games, and simulations are featured. Highly anxious learners must divide their
attentional resources into both learning and worrying about learning. Accepting English learners’
use of both languages during instruction may help reduce their anxiety about speaking English
(Pappamihiel, 2002).
Adapted Instruction
Ways to Deal with Excessive Student Anxiety
• Monitor activities to ensure that students are receiving no undue pressure.
• Avoid having anxious students perform in front of large groups.
• When using a novel format or starting a new type of task, provide students with examples or models of how the
task is done.
• Teach test-taking skills explicitly, and provide study guides to help students who may need extra academic
preparation.
Source: Based on Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon..
Attitudes of the Learner. Attitudes play a critical role in learning English. Attitudes toward
self, toward language (one’s own and English), toward English-speaking people (particularly
peers), and toward the teacher and the classroom environment affect students. One’s attitude
toward the self involves cognition about one’s ability in general, the ability to learn language,
and self-esteem and its related emotions. These cognitions and feelings are seldom explicit and
may be slow to change.
Attitudes toward language and those who speak it are largely a result of experience and the
influence of people in the immediate environment, such as peers and parents. Negative reactions
are often the result of negative stereotypes or the experience of discrimination or racism. If English
learners are made to feel inferior because of accent or language status, they may have a defensive
reaction against English and English speakers.
Students’ attitudes toward the primary language vary; some students may have a defensive reac-
tion or ambivalent feelings toward their own primary language as a result of internalized shame if
they have been made to feel inferior. Peers may incite attitudes against the L1 or may try to tease
or bully those who speak the same primary language with a different dialect.
Attitudes toward the teacher and the classroom environment play an important role in
school success in general and English acquisition in particular. One way to create a sense of
belonging is to assign a new student to a home group that remains unchanged for a long time.
If such groups are an ongoing aspect of classroom social organization, with rules of caring,
respect, and concern already in place, then the home group provides an ideal social group to
receive newcomers and help them develop interdependence, support, and identity (Peregoy &
Boyle, 2013).
Teachers can do much to model positive attitudes toward the students’ primary language. A
teacher–family conference may be advisable if a student continues to show poor attitudes toward
the first or second language or the school. (Chapter 10 offers a range of strategies for involving
the family in schooling.)
Cognitive Style. A cognitive style refers to “consistent and rather enduring tendencies or prefer-
ences within an individual” (Brown, 2007, p. 119). Tharp (1989b) suggested two dimensions of
cognitive styles that have relevance for classrooms: visual versus verbal, and holistic versus analytic.
Visual students learn by observing and doing rather than through verbal instructions. Holistic learn-
ers prefer to get the “big picture” first, before details are presented; in contrast, analytic learners
prefer to learn sequentially, in a step-by-step process. These dimensions combine; learners may be
verbal/analytic (a common combination because verbal language is sequential in nature) or visual/
holistic (also a common combination because “the big picture” is easier to see when one has a
preference for visual images).
Learning Styles. Many researchers have documented differences in the manner in which learners
approach the learning task. These preferences help instructors anticipate the different needs and
perspectives of students. Once learning styles have been identified, instructors can use the informa-
tion to plan and modify certain aspects of courses and assignments. Diversifying assignments and
accommodating individual differences in testing are a few of the ways that educators have taken
students’ diverse learning styles into consideration using differentiated instruction.
Adapted Instruction
Teaching to Diverse Learning Styles
Although in the typical classroom it is not possible to tailor instruction precisely to meet individuals’ needs, some
modifications can be made that take learning styles into account.
• Students who are dependent may benefit from encouragement to become more independent learners; the
teacher may offer a choice between two learning activities, for example, or reduce the number of times a student
may ask the teacher for help.
• Students who are highly competitive may be provided activities and assignments that encourage collaboration and
interdependent learning.
• Students who show little tolerance for frustration can be given a range of tasks on the same skill or concept that
slowly increases in complexity, with the student gradually gaining skill and confidence.
Hruska-Riechmann and Grasha (1982) offer six learning styles: competitive versus cooperative,
dependent versus independent, and participant versus avoidant. For Sonbuchner (1991), learning
styles refer to information-processing styles and work environment preferences. Table 1.1 lists
learning style variables that have been divided into four categories—cognitive, affective, incentive,
and physiological—according to Keefe (1987).
• Field independent/field dependent • Need for • Locus of control (internal: see- • Gender-related differences
• Scanning (broad attention) v. focusing structure ing oneself as responsible for own (typically, males are more
(narrow) • Curiosity behavior; or external: attributing visual–spatial and aggressive,
circumstances to luck, chance, or females more verbal and
• Conceptual/analytical v. perceptual/ • Persistence
other people) tuned to fine-motor control)
concrete • Level of anxiety
• Risk taking v. caution • Personal nutrition (healthy v.
• Task constricted (easily distracted) • Frustration
• Competition v. cooperation poor eating habits)
v. task flexible (capable of controlled tolerance
concentration) • Level of achievement motivation • Health
• Reflective v. impulsive (high or low) • Time-of-day preferences
• Reaction to external reinforcement (morning, afternoon, evening,
• Leveling (tendency to lump new experi-
(does or does not need rewards and night)
ences with previous ones) v. sharpening
(ability to distinguish small differences) punishment) • Sleeping and waking habits
• High cognitive complexity • Social motivation arising from family, • Need for mobility
(multidimensional discrimination, school, and ethnic background (high • Need for and response to
accepting of diversity and conflict) v. or low) varying levels of light, sound,
low cognitive complexity (tendency • Personal interests (hobbies, aca- and temperature
to reduce conflicting information to a demic preferences)
minimum)
Source: Based on Keefe, M. W. (1987). Learning style theory and practice. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Entering “Learning styles inventory” in a web browser provides several learning style websites
that feature learning style information, diagnostic checklists, and ideas for adapted instruction. The
teacher who builds variety into instruction and helps learners to understand their own styles can
enhance students’ achievement.
Video 1.2 In this video, Ms. Walters, a ninth-grade reading teacher, gives each student a
learning styles inventory at the beginning of the school year, based on three learning styles:
auditory visual, and kinesthetic. As you watch the video, can you match each of the presenta-
tion choices that she offers the students to one or more of these learning styles?
Adapted Instruction
Accommodating Students’ Psychological Factors
• To adjust for individual psychological factors, teachers can provide verbal reassurances to timid students,
alternative learning activities to address multiple intelligences, explicit opportunities to help students express their
strong abilities, and additional mediation for students who show a possible weak ability in a specific area.
Check Your Understanding 1.3 Click here to check your understanding of this
section’s content.
If, as many believe, prolonged exposure to English is sufficient for mastery, then why do so
many students fail to achieve the proficiency in English necessary for academic success? Some
clues to this perplexity can be found beyond the language itself, in the sociocultural context.
Do the students feel that their language and culture are accepted and validated by the school?
A well-meaning teacher, with the most up-to-date pedagogy, may still fail to foster achieve-
ment if students are socially and culturally uncomfortable with, resistant to, or alienated from
schooling.
As students learn a second language, their success is dependent on sociocultural factors. These
factors are explored here with a view toward helping teachers facilitate student learning by bridg-
ing the culture and language gaps.
Adapted Instruction
Learning about the Family
• If possible, visit the student’s home to observe the family’s degree of acculturation.
• Note the family’s media consumption:
What television shows does the family watch, in which language?
Do family members read books, magazines, or newspapers, and in which languages?
A family’s use of L1 and L2 is also influenced by the relative status of the primary language in
the eyes of the dominant culture. In modern U.S. culture, the social value and prestige of speaking
a second language varies with socioeconomic position; it also varies as to the second language that
is spoken.
Many middle-class parents believe that learning a second language benefits their children
personally and socially and will later benefit them professionally. In fact, it is characteristic
of the elite group in the United States who are involved in scholarly work, diplomacy, foreign
trade, or travel to desire to be fully competent in two languages. However, the languages that
parents wish their children to study are often not those spoken by recently arrived immigrants
(Dicker, 1992). This suggests that a certain bias exists in being bilingual—that being competent
Adapted Instruction
Recognizing Biases toward Non-Standard English
• Recognize areas in which there may be differences in language use and in which those differences might create
friction because the minority group’s use may be deemed “inferior” by the majority.
• Be honest about your own biases, recognizing that you communicate these biases whether or not you are aware of them.
• Model correct usage without overt correction, and the student in time will self-correct—if the student chooses
Standard English as the appropriate sociolinguistic choice for that context.
In the above example, the teacher epitomizes a mainstream U.S. value: speed and efficiency
in learning. Teachers may describe students of other cultures as being lackadaisical and uncaring
about learning, when in fact they may be operating within a different time frame and value system.
Other values held by teachers and embodied in classroom procedures have to do with task ori-
entation. The typical U.S. classroom is a place of work in which students are expected to conform
to a schedule, keep busy, maintain order, avoid wasting time, conform to authority, and achieve
academically to attain personal worth. Working alone is also valued in school, and children may
spend a great deal of time in activities that do not allow them to interact verbally with other people
or to move physically around the room.
Children need to find within the structure and content of their schooling those behaviors and
perspectives that permit them to switch between home and school cultural behaviors and values
without inner conflict or crises of identity (Pérez & Torres-Guzmán, 2002). Teachers need to
feel comfortable with the values and behaviors of their students’ cultures in order to develop a
flexible cultural repertoire within the context of teaching. The implementation of a rich and flex-
ible cultural repertoire is the strategy that can allow cultures to mix constructively and promote
achievement.
The danger of excluding the students’ culture(s) from the classroom is that cultural identity,
if not included, may become oppositional. Ogbu and Matute-Bianchi (1986) described how
oppositional identity in a distinctly Mexican-American frame of reference influenced the per-
formance of Mexican-American children. They attributed achievement difficulties on the part of
some Mexican-American children to a distrust of academic effort. When schools were segregated
and offered inferior education to this community, a general mistrust of schools caused a difficulty
in accepting, internalizing, and following school rules of behavior for achievement. This element
of resistance or opposition is not always overt but often takes the form of mental withdrawal, high
absenteeism, or reluctance to do classwork.
Adapted Instruction
Accommodating Students’ Cultures
Dalle and Young (2003) suggest that teachers check with families to see if family cultures have any “taboos” that
would make students uncomfortable performing certain activities; discuss with family members the support
available for homework, and arrange for after-class supervision if needed; and explain key concepts using ideas that
are familiar from the students’ perspective.
Video 1.3 In this video, Dr. Irma Olmedo describes linguistic and cultural challenges that
English learners often face. After viewing the video, list the linguistic and cultural knowledge
that students need when asking questions, including both verbal and nonverbal elements.
What does she mean when she says that these elements are learned, for the most part,
implicitly?
Incidents like the one in Mrs. Lark’s classroom are generally unintentional on the teacher’s
part. A beginning step in helping all students feel fully integrated into the class and the learning
environment is for teachers to become sensitive to their own cultural and linguistic predispositions.
Showing visible and ongoing support for students’ languages and cultures—through school signage
in students’ primary languages, bilingual office workers, displays of art and cultural artifacts, and
bilingual school activities—goes a long way toward encouraging students to feel that they are valu-
able members of the school community.
Nieto and Bode (2008) identified numerous structures within schools that affect English
learners: tracking, testing, the curriculum, pedagogy, the school’s physical structure and disciplin-
ary policies, the limited roles of both students and teachers, and limited parent and community
involvement.
Tracking. The practice of placing students in groups of matched abilities, despite its superficial
advantages, in reality often labels English learners as low achievers. Tracking often traps students
for years in lower-track, nonprecollege classes, allowing little or no opportunity to change to higher-
track precollege work. English learners may experience frustration or internalize a stigmatized
identity if their courses do not prepare them for a four-year college after graduation. In contrast,
a supportive school environment offers equal education opportunity to all students, regardless of
their language background.
Testing. Students who respond poorly on standardized tests are often given “basic skills” in a
remedial curriculum that is generally not even as motivating the one in which they were not expe-
riencing success. A supportive school is one that offers testing adaptations for English learners as
permitted by law; for example, academic testing in the primary language, extended time for test
taking, and fully trained testing administrators.
Curriculum Design. Only a small fraction of knowledge is codified into textbooks and teachers’
guides, and this is rarely the knowledge that English learners bring from their communities (see
Loewen, 1995). In addition, the curriculum may be systematically watered down for the “benefit”
of children in language-minority communities through the mistaken idea that such students cannot
absorb the core curriculum. A supportive environment is one that maintains high standards while
offering a curriculum that is challenging and meaningful.
Pedagogy. The way students are taught is often tedious and uninteresting, particularly for students
who have been given a basic skills curriculum in a lower-track classroom. The pressure to “cover”
a curriculum may exclude learning in depth and frustrate teachers and students alike. Pedagogy
that is supportive fully involves students—teachers make every effort to present understandable
instruction that engages students at high levels of cognitive stimulation.
The Physical Structure of the School. Architecture also affects the educational environment.
Many inner-city schools are built like fortresses to forestall vandalism and theft. Rich suburban
school districts, by contrast, may provide more space, more supplies, and campus-like schools for
their educationally advantaged students. Supportive schooling is observable—facilities are humane,
well cared for, and materially advantaged.
Disciplinary Policies. Certain students may be punished more often than others, particularly those
who wear high-profile clothing, have high physical activity levels, or tend to hold an attitude of resis-
tance toward schooling. Rather than defining students’ predilections as deviant or disruptive, teach-
ers can channel these interactions into cooperative group activities that allow children to express
themselves and learn at the same time, thus supporting rich cultural and linguistic expression.
The School Culture. The most powerful regularities about school are not found in the formali-
ties such as course offerings and schedules. They are found in the school culture—such unspoken
elements as the respect shown by students for academic endeavor, the openness that the teachers
show when the principal drops in to observe instruction, and the welcome parents feel when they
take an active role in the school. In its 1996 report What Matters Most: Teaching and America’s
Future, the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future argued that without a formal
overhaul of school culture in America, students cannot learn well. This is a warning that applies
especially to the aspects of school culture that promote success for English learners.
The Limited Role of Students. Students may be excluded from taking an active part in their own
schooling, and alienation and passive frustration may result. However, in addition to language
barriers, cultural differences may preclude some students from participating in ways that the main-
stream culture rewards. The accompanying Classroom Connection illustrates the ways in which
the limited role of students is disempowering.
The Limited Role of Teachers. Teachers of CLD students may be excluded from decision mak-
ing just as students are disenfranchised. This may lead teachers to have negative feelings toward
their students. A supportive environment for CLD students is supportive of their teachers as well.
Limited Family and Community Involvement. Inner-city schools with large populations of Eng-
lish learners may exclude families from participation. Parents may find it difficult to attend meet-
ings, may be only symbolically involved in the governance of the school, or may feel a sense of
mismatch with the culture of the school just as their children do. In circumstances like these, school
personnel, in consultation with community and parent representatives, can begin to ameliorate such
perceptions by talking with one another and developing means of communication and interaction
appropriate for both parent and school communities (see Chapter 10).
Academic Risk Factors. Stressful events and conditions during school years create risk factors for
academic success. Major obstacles that students face include attending a poorly funded inner-city
school or coming from a low-income home in which English is not the primary language. Many
students report having their academic capabilities questioned by school personnel: teachers who
have low expectations or guidance counselors who advise against attending college or scheduling
Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Even when students are placed in AP or honors courses, they
are often made to feel as outsiders (Pérez, 2012).
Resilience in the Face of Risk Factors. Personal characteristics can provide protective factors
that mitigate risk. Being socially competent plays an important role, as do problem-solving skills,
a sense of personal autonomy, and a vision of purpose and positive future (Bernard, 1995). Good
communication skills, a sense of responsibility, positive self-concept, optimism, achievement ori-
entation, and a belief in self-help are factors that can be resources in times of stress. Resilient
children have more internal and external resources to draw on when times get tough (Luthar &
Zelazo, 2003). These resources are strengthened by still other academically useful traits: forging
an academic identity, being competitive, showing tenacity and determination, feeling an obligation
to be a role model, and feeling obligated toward one’s family (Pérez, 2012). Coupled with parental
support, these internal factors help children to overcome an environment that puts them at risk
for school failure.
Academic Engagement. Several distinct school contextual factors encourage students to succeed
academically. Being identified early in school as gifted is a huge “plus” toward a student’s suc-
cess, because this designation opens doors to academic enrichment and acceleration opportunities.
Academic awards such as prizes for spelling bee competitions, “student of the month” certificates,
character awards, achievement awards, and perfect attendance certificates serve as concrete evi-
dence of recognition—especially in elementary and middle schools when students are solidifying
their academic identities. Later, in high school, scholarships, sports recognitions, and leadership
awards recognized merit and helped students to sustain high academic goals (Pérez, 2012).
Long-Term English Learners. Large numbers of English learners in California (and in other
states) are close to the age at which they should be able to graduate from high school but still
have not been redesignated. They are not yet considered English proficient—they are the so-called
long-term English learners, those who have been in United States schools for more than six years
without reaching sufficient English proficiency to be reclassified (Olsen, 2010). They are in the
majority (59 percent) of secondary school English learners.
Olsen (2010) describes their history as characterized by their
receiving no language development program at all; being given elementary school curricula and materi-
als that weren’t designed to meet English learner needs; enrollment in weak language development pro-
gram models and poorly implemented English Learner programs; histories of inconsistent programs;
provision of narrowed curricula and only partial access to the full curriculum; social segregation and
linguistic isolation; and, cycles of transnational moves. (p. 2)
Often these “long-term” learners have high-functioning social language yet show grave weak-
nesses in academic language, reading, and writing skills. Worse, many have developed “habits of
non-engagement, learned passivity and invisibility in school” (Olsen, 2010, p. 3). Because of their
lack of progress, they may be placed into mainstream classes for which they are underprepared,
be placed with beginning English learners, be taught by largely unprepared teachers, be precluded
from participation in electives, be overreferred and inadequately served in intervention and support
classes, and suffer limited access to core or college preparatory curricula.
Recommendations for modifying instruction to address these concerns include providing a spe-
cialized ELD program that is combined with explicit language and literacy development across the
curriculum and taught by teachers skilled in adapting instruction to sustain high-support instruc-
tional techniques; placing these students in heterogeneous and rigorous grade-level content classes
(including honors, A–G) mixed with English-proficient students; providing heritage language classes
(in an articulated sequence through Advanced Placement levels); using a master schedule designed
for flexibility and movement as students progress; using systems for monitoring progress and trig-
gering support; and instituting a school-wide focus on study skills, among other components.
A supportive classroom environment for CLD students is less effective if the environment and
practices of the school are discriminatory. Chapter 11 offers ways in which teachers can exercise
influence within the school and society at large to support the right of CLD students to receive an
effective education.
Adapted Instruction
Supporting the Primary Language
• Feature the primary language(s) of students on bulletin boards throughout the school and within the classroom.
• Showcase primary-language skills in written and oral reports.
• Involve primary-language speakers as guests, volunteers, and instructional assistants.
Although successful teachers learn to analyze students’ needs and address the myriad factors
that play a role in each child’s school success, teachers also acknowledge that no factor stands in
isolation. The child as a whole comes to school, and the child as a whole is educated with more or
less success in the multicultural classroom. Teachers who embrace the complexity of each student
look beyond the labels often used to categorize abilities, strengths, and shortcomings, to forge a
powerful cognitive and emotional connection with each child.
Video 1.4 In this video, Dr. Jim Cummins emphasizes that teachers must teach “the whole
child.” After viewing the video, reflect on the kinds of knowledge about students that teachers
need to know. Can you describe ways that teachers might gain this knowledge?
Check Your Understanding 1.4 Click here to check your understanding of this
section’s content.
Summary
This chapter has introduced the English learner and highlighted a variety of factors that a teacher must
consider to design and deliver effective instruction. Some of these factors lie within the student, and
others are factors in society at large that affect the individual, the family, and the school. The teacher as
an intercultural, interlinguistic educator learns everything possible about the background of the students
and marshals every available kind of support to advance the education of English learners.
Learning More
Further Reading
Carolyn Nelson (2004), in the article “Reclaiming Teacher Preparation for Success in High-Needs
Schools,” describes her first year of teaching in an inner-city school in Rochester, New York. This article
offers a memorable glimpse at her daily challenges in a school comprised largely of Puerto Rican and
African-American students. She details the strengths of the elementary teacher education curriculum at
San José State in the context of preparing teachers as problem-solving intellectuals, a point of view that
imparts a balance to the “prescriptive, curriculum-in-a-box” approaches to teaching.
"En oikein ymmärrä teitä", sanoi kokki. "Miten joku paikka voi olla
sanantapa?"
"Niin kai se oli", vastasi vanha mies. "Hän luuli löytäneensä uuden
maanosan", jatkoi kalastaja "ja laski laivansa erääseen lahteen, veti
Suurbritannian lipun tangon nenään ja kutsui lahden nimensä
mukaan Piggotin lahdeksi. Tämä pääsi ulos miehistöltä kotia
saavuttua. Ja nyt jos joku täällä käyttäytyy hullumaisesti sanotaan
hänen ajavan takaa Piggotin lahtea. Siinä koko juttu."
"Dick! Dick?!”
"Miksikä ei?"
"Lähdemme heti teen jälestä, jos sinä viitsit katsoa lipun meille,
Dick", sanoi Sam.
"No! — Kyllä."
"En aio vielä mennä kotiin", sanoi hän. "Täytyy vähäsen kävellä
raittiissa ilmassa."
"Mitä luulitte?"
"Koska?"
"Sen ne kylläkin ovat tehneet", sanoi hän. "Eräs pieni toitottaja sai
seistä tunnin nurkassa oppiakseen pitämään suunsa kiinni."
"Minä en voi sitä auttaa", sanoi Wilson. "Saatte panna vaikka koko
koulun nurkkaan ettekä sittenkään saa minua estetyksi rakastamasta
teitä."
"Sinä olet ainoa poika, minkä koskaan olen täällä nähnyt", sanoi
hän iloisesti. "Kyllä sinä saat, sinä, kunhan miss Dimchurch tulee."
"En nyt niin varmaan muista — kuusi tai seitsemän kertaa", sanoi
Henry
Hatkins. "Luulen niitä sentään olleen vaan kuusi."