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TESOL P–12 Professional Teaching Standards
Standard 1.a. Language as a System: Candidates demonstrate understanding of language as a system, Chapter 2
including phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics, and semantics, and support ELLs as they acquire English
language and literacy in order to achieve in the content areas.
Standard 1.b. Language Acquisition and Development: Candidates understand and apply theories and Chapter 3
research in language acquisition and development to support their ELLs’ English language and literacy learning
and content-area achievement.
Standard 2. Culture as It Affects Student Learning: Candidates know, understand, and use major theories Chapter 9
and research related to the nature and role of culture in their instruction. They demonstrate understanding of
how cultural groups and individual cultural identities affect language learning and school achievement.
Standard 3.a. Planning for Standards-Based ESL and Content Instruction: Candidates know, Chapter 5
understand, and apply concepts, research, and best practices to plan classroom instruction in a supportive
learning environment for ELLs. They plan for multilevel classrooms with learners from diverse backgrounds
using standards-based ESL and content curriculum.
Standard 3.b. Implementing and Managing Standards-Based ESL and Content Instruction: Chapter 5
Candidates know, manage, and implement a variety of standards-based teaching strategies and techniques for
developing and integrating English listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Candidates support ELLs’ access to
the core curriculum by teaching language through academic content.
Standard 3.c. Using Resources and Technology Effectively in ESL and Content Instruction: Chapters 4, 5
Candidates are familiar with a wide range of standards-based materials, resources, and technologies, and choose,
adapt, and use them in effective ESL and content teaching.
Standard 4.a. Issues of Assessment for English Language Learners: Candidates demonstrate Chapter 7
understanding of various assessment issues as they affect ELLs, such as accountability, bias, special education
testing, language proficiency, and accommodations in formal testing situations.
Standard 4.b. Language Proficiency Assessment: Candidates know and can use a variety of standards- Chapter 7
based language proficiency instruments to show language growth and to inform their instruction. They
demonstrate understanding of their uses for identification, placement, and reclassification of ELLs.
Standard 4.c. Classroom-Based Assessment for ESL: Candidates know and can use a variety of Chapter 7
performance-based assessment tools and techniques to inform instruction for in the classroom.
Standard 5.a. ESL Research and History: Candidates demonstrate knowledge of history, research, Chapters 6, 11
educational public policy, and current practice in the field of ESL teaching and apply this knowledge to inform
teaching and learning.
Standard 5.b. Professional Development, Partnerships, and Advocacy: Candidates take advantage Chapters 10, 11
of professional growth opportunities and demonstrate the ability to build partnerships with colleagues and
students’ families, serve as community resources, and advocate for ELLs.
TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching Standards. Reproduced with permission of TESOL International Association.
CVR_DIAZ5204_07_SE_IFC.indd 1 9/30/16 4:57 PM

S i x t h E d i t i o n
The Crosscultural,
Language, and Academic
Development Handbook
A Complete K–12 Reference Guide
Lynne T. Díaz-Rico
California State University, San Bernardino
330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013
A01_DIAZ5204_07_SE_FM.indd 1 10/1/16 8:07 AM

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permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.
Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book.
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that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change.
Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2010, 2006, 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and
permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in
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please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Diaz-Rico, Lynne T., author.
Title: The crosscultural, language, and academic : development handbook : a
complete K-12 reference guide / Lynne T. Diaz-Rico.
Description: Sixth Edition. | Pearson : Boston, [2017]
Identifiers: LCCN 2016019617| ISBN 9780134293257 (Paperback) | ISBN 0134293258
(Paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: English language—Study and teaching (Higher)—Foreign
speakers—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Multicultural education—United
States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Language and education—United
States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Education, Bilingual—United
States—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC PE1128.A2 D45 2017 | DDC 428.0071/073—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016019617
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-13-429325-8

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-429325-7
A01_DIAZ5204_07_SE_FM.indd 2 10/6/16 2:40 PM

Dedication
I dedicate this edition to my husband, Phillip Rico.

His kindness, patience, and generous support truly
define the meaning of love.
And to my colleagues in TESOL and CATESOL,

thank you for dedicating yourselves to such a
gratifying and world-changing profession.
—LTD-R

About the Author
Lynne T. Díaz-Rico is a professor of education at California State University, San Ber-

nardino (CSUSB). Dr. Díaz-Rico obtained her doctoral degree in English as a second
language at InterAmerican University in Puerto Rico and has taught students in both
public and private schools at all levels from kindergarten to high school. At CSUSB, Dr.
Díaz-Rico is coordinator of the Master’s in Education, Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages Option program. She is actively involved in teacher education and gives
presentations at numerous professional conferences on such subjects as intercultural edu-
cation, critical language analysis, and organization of schools and classrooms for educa-
tional equity. Her current research interest is the use of language in complex, particularly
crosscultural, contexts.
iv

Contents
Introduction xiv
Acknowledgments xv
PART ONE Learning 1

Learning about the Learner, Language Structure,
and Second-Language Acquisition
1 Learning about the Language Learner 2

Common Beliefs about Teaching English Learners 3
Misconception 1: Exposure and Immersion Are the Answer 3
Misconception 2: One Size Fits All 4
Misconception 3: Specially Adapted Instruction in English Is “Just Good Teaching” 4
Misconception 4: Effective Instruction Means Nonverbal Teaching 4
English Learners: Demographic Trends 4
Psychological Factors That Influence Instruction 5
The Learner’s Background 6
Psychological Factors: Social–Emotional 10
Psychological Factors: Cognitive 13
Sociocultural Factors That Influence Instruction 14
Family Acculturation and the Use of First and Second Languages 15
Family Values and School Values 16
Cultural Factors That May Present Challenges for English Learners 17
Institutional Support for Language-Minority Students 18
Sociocultural Support for L1 in the Classroom Environment 21
SUMMARY 22
LEARNING MORE 22
Further Reading 22
Web Search 23
Exploration 23
Experiment 23
2 Learning about Language Structure 24

Language Universals 25
Language Is Dynamic 25
Language Is Complex 26
All Languages Have Structure 26

vi Contents
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language 27

Phonemes 27
Pitch 28
Stress 28
The Sound System as Written Language 28
Morphology: The Words of Language 29
Morphemes 29
Word-Formation Processes 30
Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language 31
Semantics: The Meanings of Language 32
Pragmatics: The Influence of Context 33
Language Functions 34
Appropriate Language 34
Conversational Rules 35
Nonverbal Communication 35
Body Language 36
Gestures 36
Facial Expressions 36
Eye Contact 37
Communicative Distance 37
Conceptions of Time 37
SUMMARY 38
LEARNING MORE 38
Thinking It Over 38
Web Search 38
Exploration 39
Try It in the Classroom 39
3 Learning about Second-Language Acquisition 40

Historical Theories of Language Teaching and Learning 41
Grammar-Translation Methodology 41
Structural Linguistics 42
Behaviorism 42
Current Theories of Language Development and Second-Language Acquisition 43
Transformational Grammar 44
Cognitive Approaches to Language Learning 44
Krashen’s Monitor Model 44
Cummins’s Theories of Bilingualism and Cognition 45
Learning Strategies and CALLA 47
Information-Processing Theories of Learning 50
Brain-Compatible Learning 51
Neurolinguistic Research about Brain Function 52
Constructivist Learning 52
Communicative Competence 53
The Social Context for Language Learning 54
Discourse Theory 55
Semiotics 55
Translanguaging 56

Contents vii
SUMMARY 56
LEARNING MORE 57
Further Reading 57
Web Search 57
Exploration 57
Experiment 57
PART TWO Instruction 59

Oracy and Literacy for English-Language Development,
Content-Area Instruction, and Bilingual Education
4 Oracy and Literacy for English-Language Development 60

Critical Oracy and Literacy 61
English-Language Development Standards 62
State English-Language Development Standards 63
Integrating Language Skills 63
Listening 64
Listening to Repeat 65
Listening to Understand 66
Listening for Communication 67
Speaking 68
Situations for Spoken Discourse 68
Oral Language as an Integrated Skill 69
Improving Oral Proficiency 69
Vocabulary Development 71
Reading 72
Transferring Literacy from First to Second Languages 73
Students without Literacy in First or Second Languages 73
Balanced Literacy Instruction for English Learners 74
Approaches to Teaching Reading 77
Strategies for English Learners’ Literacy Instruction 79
The Three-Tier Model of Instruction 82
Writing 83
Texts and Contexts 83
The Writing Process 84
The Six Traits Approach 85
Writing in the Age of the Internet 85
Writing Poetry 86
Error Correction and Grammar in Oracy and Literacy Instruction 87
Treatment of Errors 87
Teaching Spelling 87
Treatment of Grammar 88
Oracy, Literacy, and Technology 88
Technology-Enhanced Language Learning 88
Learning Online 93
Upcoming Technologies 93

viii Contents
SUMMARY 94
LEARNING MORE 95
Further Reading 95
Web Search 95
Exploration 95
Collaboration 95
5 Content-Area Instruction 96
Principles of Support for English Learners in Academic Content Areas 97
A Model for SDAIE 98
Teacher Attitude 100
Content 100
Connections 103
Comprehensibility 104
Interaction 106
Content-Area Application 108
Social Studies 109
Literature 111
Mathematics 113
Science 116
The Visual and Performing Arts 119
Physical Education 120
Instructional Needs beyond the Classroom 121
SUMMARY 122
LEARNING MORE 122
Further Reading 122
Web Search 122
Exploration 122
Discussion 122
6 Theories and Methods of Bilingual Education 123

Foundations of Bilingual Education 124
Historical Development of Bilingual Education 126
Legal Evolution 127
Educational Issues Involving Bilingual Education 131
Organizational Models: What Works for Whom? 136
Submersion 136
The Teaching of English-Language Development (ELD) 137
Transitional or Early-Exit Bilingual Education 138
Developmental or Maintenance Bilingual Education 138
Immersion Bilingual Education 140
Newcomer Centers 142
Research Studies on Program Effectiveness 143
Instructional Strategies 144
Language Management 144
Primary-Language Use 145
Code Switching 147
Classroom Organization 147

Contents ix
SUMMARY 149
LEARNING MORE 149
Further Reading 149
Web Search 149
Exploration 150
Looking at Classrooms 150
PART THREE Assessment 151
7 Language and Content-Area Assessment 152

Educational Standards and Standardized Assessment 153
Advantages of Standards-Based Instruction for English Learners 153
Achievement Testing and No Child Left Behind 154
Disadvantages of Standards-Based Instruction for English Learners 155
Assessments under Common Core State Standards 156
Linking Assessment to Progress for English Learners 157
The English-Language Development (ELD) Framework 157
Linking Placement Tests to Language Development 157
Linking Standards-Based Classroom Instruction to Assessment 158
Purposes of Assessment 158
Formative versus Summative Assessment 159
Proficiency, Diagnostic, and Placement Tests 160
Achievement Tests 161
Competency Tests 162
Methods of Assessment 162
Linking Assessment to the Integrated Curriculum 162
Authentic Assessment 163
Performance-Based Assessment 163
Standardized Tests 165
Teacher Observation and Evaluation 166
Cautions about Testing 168
Reporting Assessment Results to Parents 168
Best Practices in Testing 169
Identification, Assessment, and Placement of English Learners
in the Schools 169
Identification Procedures for English Learners 169
Assessment for Placement 169
Redesignation/Exit Procedures 170
Limitations of Assessment 171
Problematic Test Content 171
Interpretation of Test Results 172
Technical Concepts 173
Validity 173
Reliability 173
Practicality 174
SUMMARY 174

x Contents
LEARNING MORE 174

Further Reading 174
Web Search 175
Exploration 175
Experiment 175
PART FOUR Cultural Diversity in the United States 177

Cultural Diversity in the United States, Culturally Responsive Schooling, and the Role of
the Family in Schools
8 Cultural Diversity 178

Historical Perspectives 179
Contributions 180
Exploitation 185
The Impact of a Changing Population 186
Poverty among Minority Groups 186
The Education of Minorities 187
Immigration and Migration 189
Causes of Immigration 189
Migration 192
Immigration Laws and Policies 193
SUMMARY 195
LEARNING MORE 195
Further Reading 195
Web Search 196
Exploration 196
Collaboration 196
9 Culturally Responsive Schooling 197

Understanding Culture and Cultural Diversity 198
The Nature of Culture 199
Key Concepts about Culture 201
Investigating Ourselves as Cultural Beings 203
The Personal Dimension 203
Cultural Self-Study 204
Learning about Students’ Cultures 205
Ethnographic Techniques 205
How Cultural Adaptation Affects Learning 207
Striving for Equity in Schooling 209
Detecting Unfair Privilege 209
Fighting for Fairness and Equal Opportunity 210
Combating Prejudice in Ourselves and Others 211
Reducing Interethnic Conflict 214
Promote Achievement with Culturally Responsive Schooling 216
Respecting Students’ Diversity 216
Adapting to Students’ Culturally Supported Facilitating or Limiting Attitudes and Abilities 225
Sustaining High Expectations for All Students 229
SUMMARY 231

Contents xi
LEARNING MORE 231

Further Reading 231
Web Search 231
Exploration 231
Collaboration 231
10 The Role of the Family in Schools 232

Marshaling Family and Community Support for Schooling 233
Comparing a Deficit-versus an Asset-Based Model of Home–School Connection 234
Ways That Schools and Families Can Be Mutually Supportive 235
Bilingual, Bicultural Home–School Partnerships 235
Different-Language Home–School Partnerships Requiring Intercultural Communication 237
Structuring Parent and Community Partnerships 240
Recognizing Parental Rights 240
Issues in Parental Participation 240
Programs in Action 241
School–Community Partnerships 243
SUMMARY 243
LEARNING MORE 244
Further Reading 244
Web Search 244
Exploration 244
Collaboration 244
PART FIVE Policy 245

Language Policy and Special Populations of English Learners
11 The Role of Educators in Language Policy 246

A Critical Approach to Language Policy 247
Tollefson: Power and Inequality in Language Education 248
Foucault: The Power of Discursive Practices 249
Fairclough: Critical Language Analysis 249
Bourdieu: Language as Social Capital 250
Cummins: Language Policies as Emancipatory 251
Language Policy: The Classroom 252
Educational Equity in Everyday Practices 252
The Policies Embodied in Teachers’ Plans 253
Policy at the School Level 253
The Cultural Climate of the School 253
Collaboration with Colleagues 254
School-Site Leadership 254
The Academic Ambiance of the School 255
Involving Parents/Families 255
Policy in Local School Districts and in the Community 256
Professional Growth and Service 256
The School Board 256
Community Support for English Learners 257
The Public Forum 257
Community Organizations 257

xii Contents
State Commissions and Professional Organizations 258

The Voice of the Expert 259
Professional Leadership Roles 259
Legislation and Public Opinion 259
Opposing Linguicism 259
Influencing Federal Policies 260
Federal Funds for Innovation 260
Federal Legislation 260
The National Spirit 261
SUMMARY 262
LEARNING MORE 262
Further Reading 262
Web Search 262
Exploration 262
Collaboration 262
12 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners and Special Education 263

Scenarios, Issues, and Principles in the Education of English Learners with Special Needs 264
Who Are CLD Learners with Special Needs? 264
Issues Underlying the Scenarios 266
Complexities and Vexities 266
The Disproportionate Representation of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children in
Special Education 267
Principles for the Education of CLD–Special Education Students 269
Identification, Referral, Early Intervention, and Assessment of Students Needing Additional
Mediation 269
The Referral Process: The Roles of the Classroom Teacher and the ELD Specialist 270
Academic and Learning Problems That CLD Learners May Experience 271
Similarities between Ethnic Language Variations and Learning Disability Symptoms 272
Early Intervention 272
Roles of Classroom Teachers and ELD Teachers during the Process of Determining
Eligibility for Additional Services 273
Testing for Special Education 273
The Descriptive Assessment Process 273
Family Support for Evaluation 274
Collaboration among ELD Resource Teachers and Special Educators 275
Definition and Principles of Collaboration 275
Collaboration among ELD Specialists, Mainstream Teachers, and Special Educators 275
Working with an Interpreter 276
Relationship of Continued ELD with Other Services 276
Teaching Strategies for the CLD Special Learner 276
Adapting Listening Tasks 277
Adapting Reading Tasks 277
Adapting Writing Tasks 278
Assistive Technology 279
Adapting Homework Tasks 279
Assessing Student Performance in the Mainstream Classroom 279
Methods of Assessing the Success of Included Students 280
Assessing Students’ Work 280
Testing Accommodations for Students with Disabilities 280
Using the Results of Assessment 281

Contents xiii
Universal Design for Special Populations of English Learners 281

Universal Instructional Design 281
English Learners with Communication Challenges 282
Teaching Visually Impaired English Learners 282
Teaching English Learners with Hearing Impairments 283
Autism Spectrum Disorders 284
SUMMARY 285
LEARNING MORE 285
Further Reading 285
Web Search 285
Exploration 286
Experiment 286
References 287
Name Index 309
Subject Index 317

Introduction
The presence of many linguistic and ethnic minority students in the United States has challenged
educators to rethink basic assumptions about schooling. In the past, school models and methods
were based on the notions that students shared the same cultural background and spoke the same
language. This assumption is no longer sufficient to meet the needs of today’s students. There is
an urgent need to provide a high-quality education for students in the United States whose native
language is not English and/or whose culture differs from that of the U.S. “mainstream.” This calls
for increased expertise on the part of classroom teachers, administrators, and community leaders.
Today’s students come from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. But the cultural pat-
terns of schools and classrooms may not ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to
succeed. Culture is a part of the educational process that has been invisible but that can no longer
remain so. By understanding the influence of culture, educators can avoid inadvertently advantag-
ing those students who share the dominant culture while neglecting those students whose cultures
differ from the mainstream. Culture includes more than the habits and beliefs of students and
teachers; the school itself is a culture in which the physical environment, daily routines, and inter-
actions advantage some and yet may alienate others. Educators now need a foundation of cultural
awareness and second-language acquisition theory to adapt schools to the needs of multicultural
and multilingual students.
New to this edition!

In this edition, classroom-ready strategies focus on the development of content-specific academic
literacy and oracy skills to prepare English learners for the demands of Common Core curricula and
assessments. This addresses the needs of millions of English learners nationwide who must develop
their English-language proficiency while they acquire the content knowledge needed to succeed in
today’s standards-based education environment.
Classroom glimpses present instructional techniques designed for English learners from pre-
school to high school. Key resources for educators seeking to promote academic success for cultur-
ally and linguistically diverse learners are the many features based on best practices that link culture
and language to school success. This edition explores ways to tie students’ cultures to teaching
techniques useful in both content areas and English-language development. A new look at bilingual
education explains the concept and instructional uses of translanguaging. Special education adap-
tations for English learners adds back-up support for teachers and administrators facing today’s
complex educational challenges.
For educators who reach out to the home and community, innovative applications of technol-
ogy such as mobile learning are featured that engage learners beyond school hours, including the
use of cell phones and hand-held devices to take learning to the “next step.” A unique approach
to community involvement highlights the role of the heritage language to motivate family support.
Instructional support for prospective and practicing teachers includes learning outcomes at the
beginning of each chapter to focus and guide the reader, as well as new Check Your Understanding
features aligned with the learning outcomes. A new Scenarios section at the end of each chapter
presents provocative discussion situations based on the concepts presented in the chapter. A Glos-
sary is available for each chapter to specifically define new concepts.
Please note that videos, Check Your Understanding activities, and other digital features are
only available with the Pearson eText, not through third-party ebooks. For more information on
purchasing or using the Pearson eText, please go to www.pearsonhighered.com.
xiv

Acknowledgments
A book like this could not have been written without the help and support of numerous individuals.
The teachers and students with whom I have worked have given me insights and examples. My col-
leagues have shared their experiences and expertise. In addition to those who gave so much support
to previous editions, I would also like to thank those who have made this sixth edition a reality.
It goes without saying that I owe homage to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
for their work in designing California’s CLAD credential and its revision, the CTEL authorization.
I want to thank the teacher education and TESOL master’s students at CSUSB as well as my
colleagues in TESOL and in the Department of Teacher Education and Foundations at CSUSB who
have enriched my understanding of the teaching–learning process as it relates to second-language
learners, and who have participated with me in research and curriculum development.
I am grateful also to those who provided helpful reviews of the manuscript for this edition:
Anaida Colon-Muniz, Chapman University; Stephanie A. Dhonau, University of Arkansas at Little
Rock; Cheryl McElvain, Santa Clara University; Nancy Vincent Montgomery, Southern Methodist
University; and Mary Amanda Stewart, Texas Women’s University.
To all those who have provided linguistic and cultural support not only to English learners but
also to those who have struggled to adapt to a new culture, I salute you. To the researchers and
authors who provided valuable insights into this process, my deepest thanks for your pioneering
efforts. Finally, I thank my editors Julie Peters and Drew Bennett, content producers Megan Moffo
and Miryam Chandler, and the rest of the Pearson editorial staff for their efforts in producing this
book.
xv

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A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM

Part One Learning
Learning about the Learner, Language Structure, and Second-
Language Acquisition
Part One represents learning the foundations of instruc- may influence groups of learners to react in similar ways to
tion: knowledge about the learner, about the structure of classroom instruction. Chapter 2 introduces language struc-
language, and about the process of acquiring a second lan- ture and functions. Chapter 3 offers insights from classic and
guage. Chapter 1 explores the learner, with a focus on the contemporary research in second-language acquisition and
psychological factors in language learning that make individual development, particularly in the context of the classroom.The
language learners unique, as well as the sociocultural factors accompanying figure highlights Part One of the theoretical
that situate the learner in the context of cultural patterns that model presented in the introduction.
Part Four:
Culture
• Cultural Diversity in the United States
• Culturally Responsive Schooling
• The Role of the Family in Schools
Part Two: Part One: Part Five:

Instruction Learning Policy
• Oracy and Literacy • Learning about • Language Policy
for English-Language the Language Learner • Special Populations
Development • Learning about of English Learners
• Content-Area Language Structure
Instruction • Learning about
• Bilingual Education Second-Language
Acquisition
Part Three:
Assessment
Theoretical Model for CLAD Learning: Learning about the Learner, Language Structure, and Second-Language Acquisition
M01A_DIAZ5204_07_SE_P01.indd 1 9/28/16 7:06 PM

1
Learning about the Language Learner
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to . . .
• Consider common misconceptions about teaching English learners.
• Survey demographic information about English learners in U.S. society as well as in public schools.
• Describe psychological factors that influence English learners as they acquire English and academic
content during schooling.
• Describe sociocultural factors that influence English learners as they acquire English and academic
content during schooling.
English learners comprise a growing proportion of school

children in the United States.
© Zurijeta/Shutterstock
M01B_DIAZ5204_07_SE_C01.indd 2 9/28/16 4:48 PM

Chapter 1 Learning about the Language Learner 3
Imagine experiencing the cultural shock of being in a new country, in a new culture, and not being able to speak the
language. That was the predicament that I found myself in when I first came to the United States from Colombia.
I was nervous and scared.When I was taking English classes at a local community college, the worst experience that
I had was when a classmate said, “You think that you’re good because everybody applauded you? You’re not! Your
English is awful.”
I could not believe what I heard. His words struck me like lightning in a thunderstorm. My reaction was plastered
on my face, and I couldn’t disguise it. Ms. Tjandra, my ESL teacher, noticed the devastated look on my face, and she
asked me,“Are you okay, Nelsy?” Tears filled my eyes. I said,“Ms.Tjandra, a classmate told me that my English was awful
and that people only applauded for me at my oral presentation because they felt pity for me.”
Ms. Tjandra, with a sweet and compassionate tone, said to me, “Nelsy, there is nothing wrong with your English.
Your English is fine. He is just jealous because you are smart and have a career. Don’t pay attention to him—he doesn’t
deserve your friendship. Keep studying English because you are going to be successful and get to places that he can
only dream of.” Her words of encouragement lifted my spirits. It was at that moment that I knew learning English was
not an option but a passport: to my freedom, to better opportunities, to a new life . . .
(Jackson, N. (2016). Personal Communication.)
With the help of her English-language development teachers, Nelsy Jackson acquired the English-
language academic preparation needed to become a certified teacher so she, in turn, can help others.
Learning a second language connects people across cultures, making it possible for immigrants to
achieve their dreams and aspirations. This crosscultural process enriches everyone.
Teachers in the United States are increasingly expected to educate students whose native
languages are not English and whose cultural backgrounds vary considerably from that of the
American mainstream culture. Although the teaching profession includes educators from minority
cultures in the United States as well as from other countries, the majority of the profession remains
the white, middle-class, usually monolingual teacher who can benefit from teacher education that
includes specialized methods and strategies for the effective education of culturally and linguisti-
cally diverse (CLD) students.
Moreover, research has documented the effectiveness of long-term primary-language educa-
tion. However, numerous classrooms contain students speaking various home languages. Thus
English-language development (ELD) classrooms that require modified instruction in English
become increasingly important. Teachers with a strong interest in language acquisition and a sense
of compassion for the difficulties faced by CLD students are often the most successful in promoting
their academic success.
Common Beliefs about Teaching English Learners

Before beginning to explore the multiple factors that create complexity in teaching English learners,
it is important to address four key misconceptions (see Harper and de Jong, 2004).
Misconception 1: Exposure and Immersion Are the Answer

Many teachers believe that the mind of a child, left to its own resources, will automatically learn
a second language given enough time. This may stem from the parallel misconception that the
first language is learned easily. However, before reaching kindergarten a five–year-old child has
had more than 25,000 hours of family life in which to learn the primary language—but attend-
ing school for 180 days amounts to about 1,000 hours of English per year. Even if a second lan-
guage were learned like the first, this would be nowhere near an equivalent exposure to language.
Krashen’s (1985) insight is that exposure must be comprehensible; school, on the other hand, often
features abstract and decontextualized language. Thus, not only exposure, but special second-
language-teaching instruction is necessary.

4 Chapter 1 Learning about the Language Learner
Misconception 2: One Size Fits All

Learners do not all progress at the same rate in acquiring English. Differing levels of literacy in the
first language as well as differing success in prior education, learning-style diversity, and differing
social skills are just a few of the ways in which learners vary.
Misconception 3: Specially Adapted Instruction in English Is

“Just Good Teaching”
Teachers may resist acquiring pedagogy designed to incorporate second-language-acquisition tech-
niques because they think they can simply use techniques that are tried-and-true for native speak-
ers of English—or they use remediation techniques designed for low-achieving students. In fact,
neither approach is justified. For example, English learners may need modified instruction just to
gain the confidence necessary for a minimal level of oral participation; silence does not indicate a
lack of understanding. Teaching English learners requires a specific set of skills that are addressed
in this book.
Misconception 4: Effective Instruction Means Nonverbal Teaching

Making instruction comprehensible by providing pictures and teaching using gestures are tech-
niques designed to enhance understanding when language must be augmented—but this does not
replace the need to teach language directly. Conceptual understanding and language are inter-
twined—one supports the other. The expert teacher takes responsibility for both.
Teaching in a second-language-acquisition context does not become simpler by reducing its
complexity, but rather by acquiring the teaching skills required to operate effectively. Misconcep-
tions undermine the motivation to learn how to succeed in a difficult teaching domain.
Schools, as institutions within a society, perform an important role in socializing students and
helping them gain the knowledge, skills, roles, and identities they need for success. Students who
enter school must develop a high level of English proficiency, and teachers are challenged to develop
students’ English skills during the K–12 period of schooling. The first part of this chapter presents
current demographic trends. The chapter then introduces factors that affect English learners and
offers ways for teachers to inform themselves about these learners’ needs.
Despite these misconceptions about English learners, a central fact stands out: English learners
face challenges in U.S. schools. Sustaining high achievement in a school system that represents a
new culture and a new language is not easy.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.1 Click here to check your understanding of this
section’s content.
English Learners: Demographic Trends

The profession of teaching has changed dramatically in the early twenty-first century; many more
classrooms contain English learners, students whose home language is not English and who are not
classified as fluent English proficient based on test scores and other criteria. By 2025, one in every
four students will initially be classified as an English learner. A quick overview of the demographics
of English learners in the United States can help teachers to visualize the numbers of these learners
and their distribution in the schools.
In the school year 2012–2013, 9.2 percent (an estimated 4.4 million) of the school-age pop-
ulation over 5 years of age was limited-English proficient (LEP; National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2015a). This amounts to about 8.5 percent of all elementary and secondary students
in the United States (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). The District of Columbia and six
states (Alaska, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas) had 10 percent or more
English learners in their public schools. Leading the states, California has 22.3 percent, a total
of 1.392 million students (83.7 percent of whom were Spanish speaking); Texas was second,
with 773,732 students. Other states—Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, and W ashington—
also had more than 100,000 English learners. The majority of English learners in the U.S.
were Spanish speaking (71 percent). Chinese (4 percent) and Vietnamese (3 percent) constitute
the second- and third-largest demographic groups of English learners (Ruiz Soto, Hooker, &
Batalova, 2015).
Taking a closer look at the largest source of English learners, according to U.S. Census (2015b)
data, there are 55.5 million Hispanics in the U.S., comprising 17.4 percent of the total population.
Adding the 3.5 million residents of Puerto Rico, the total number of Latinos surpasses 59 million.
In the United States, 62 million residents—about one-fifth of the population—speak a language
other than English while at home (Boyle, 2014); of these, 62 percent (38.4 million) are Spanish-
speaking (in all, the U.S. Census Bureau reports the presence of 382 languages in the U.S.). Between
2000 and 2010, the Latino population increased by 43 percent (15.2 million), accounting for more
than half of the 27.3 million increase in the total population of the United States. In the coming
decades, Latinos will account for more than 60 percent of the national’s population growth between
2005 and 2050.
In today’s American public school system, Latinos are by far the largest minority group, num-
bering more than 12.4 million in the country’s elementary, middle, and high schools. In 2012,
nearly 24 percent, or slightly less than one in four, of all preK-12 students enrolled in U.S. public
schools were Latino; this is expected to rise to 29 percent in 2024 (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2015b). There are 17.1 million Latinos ages 17 and younger in the U.S.; therefore as
they mature, their children will comprise a large group of students in the schools for many years
to come.
These population demographics indicate that all states need to provide services for English
learners, with the need greatest in California, New Mexico, New York, Florida, Illinois, and
Texas, serving Hispanics or Asian/Pacific Islanders. The linguistic and cultural variety of English
learners suggests that more and more teachers serve as intercultural and interlinguistic educators—
those who can reach out to learners from a variety of backgrounds and offer effective learning
experiences.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.2 Click here to check your understanding of this
Psychological Factors That Influence Instruction

Learners do not learn language in a vacuum. They learn it by interacting with others. Psychological
and sociocultural factors play important roles in a learner’s acquiring and using a second language.
Teachers who are aware of these individual (psychological) and group (sociocultural) factors are
able to adapt instruction to meet the individual needs of the learners so that each student can
achieve academic success. Figure 1.1 offers an outline that can help teachers organize the factors
they know about a given learner.
Psychological factors are traits specific to individuals that enable them to acquire a second
language (L2). Learners use the assets of their personalities to absorb the ambiance of the culture,
to process the language they hear, and to create meaningful responses. Psychological factors can
Figure 1.1 English-Learner Profile
Psychological Factors
The Learner’s Background
Learner’s name ________________________________________________________________________ Age ______________ Gender (M / F)
Grade ____________ L1 proficiency ___________________________________________________________________________________
Type of bilingualism _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Previous L2 experience _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessed L2 level: Reading _________________ Writing _________________ Listening _________________ Speaking _________________
Prior academic success _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Likes/dislikes ________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Social–Emotional Factors
Self-esteem ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Motivation ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Anxiety level __________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitudes toward L1/L2 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitudes toward the teacher and the class __________________________________________________________________________________
Cognitive Factors
Stage of L2 acquisition ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cognitive style/Learning style ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Learning strategies _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sociocultural Factors
Family acculturation and use of L1 and L2 _______________________________________________________________________________________
Family values ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Institutional support for language-minority students ____________________________________________________________________________
Sociocultural support for L1 in the classroom environment ________________________________________________________________________
be divided into three categories: background factors, social–emotional factors, and cognitive fac-
tors. Teachers can help students be aware of those psychological factors that further their language
learning and can work with students to ensure that these factors promote rather than impede their
learning.
The Learner’s Background

Naming Practices and Forms of Address. A learner’s name represents the learner’s individual-
ity as well as a family connection. People feel validated if their names are treated with respect.
Teachers who make the effort to pronounce students’ names accurately communicate a sense of
caring. Students may be asked to speak their names into a tape recorder so the teacher can practice
privately. Expecting students to say their names again and again so the teacher can rehearse may
be embarrassing for both parties.
Naming practices differ across cultures. The custom in the United States is to have a first (or
given), middle, and last (or family) name. On lists, the first and last names are often reversed in
order to alphabetize the last names. In other parts of the world, naming practices differ. In Vietnam,
for example, names also consist of three parts, in the following order: family name, middle name,

and given name. The names are always given in this order and cannot be reversed because doing so
would denote a different person—Nguyên Van Hai is different from Hai Van Nguyên. In Taiwan
the family name also goes first, followed by given names. Puerto Ricans, as well as other Hispanics,
generally use three names: a given name, followed by the father’s surname and then the mother’s
surname. If one last name must be used, it is generally the father’s surname. Thus, Esther Reyes
Mimosa can be listed as Esther Reyes. If the first name is composed of two given names (Hector
Luis), both are used. This person may have a brother who is Hector José; for either to be called
simply Hector would represent a loss of identity.
In many cultures, adults are referred to by their function rather than their name. In Hmong,
xib fwb means “teacher,” and Hmong children often use the English term teacher in the classroom
rather than a title plus surname, as in “Mrs. Jasko.” Middle-class European-American teachers
may consider this to be rude rather than realizing this is a cultural difference.
Osgood (2002) suggested ways to enlist native-English-speaking students to make friends with
newcomers: Challenge them to teach a new student their names and to learn the new student’s first
and last names, using recess, lunchtime, or free time to accomplish this task.
Adapted Instruction
Students’ Names
• Understand the use and order of names, and pronounce them correctly.
• Don’t change a student’s name, apply a nickname, or use an “English” version of a student’s name (even at the
student’s request) without first checking with a member of the student’s family.
Age. Second-language acquisition (SLA) is a complex process that occurs over a long period of
time. Although many people believe that children acquire a second language more rapidly than
adults, recent research counters this notion. Although it is true that the kind of instruction varies
greatly according to the age of the learner, there is little evidence to indicate that biology closes
the door to learning a second language at certain ages (see Singleton & Ryan [2004] and Han
[2004] for further discussion of age-related issues in SLA, as well as the Point/Counterpoint box
on page 8).
First-Language Proficiency. Research has shown that proficiency in the first language (L1) helps
students to achieve in school. To learn a student’s strengths in the first language, a teacher, primary-
language-speaking aide, or parent who is fluent in the language of the student may observe a student
working or playing in the primary language and take notes on the child’s language behavior, or
schools may rely on formal testing.
Acceptance of the first language and use of the first language to support instruction pro-
motes a low-anxiety environment for students. A lower anxiety level in turn promotes increased
learning.
Adapted Instruction
First-Language Proficiency
• Monitor students’ fluency in their primary languages and share concerns with parents if students appear to be
dysfluent in their home languages.
• In cooperative groups, allow use of the first language so that students can discuss concepts.

Types of Bilingualism. Cummins (1979) analyzed the language characteristics of the children he
studied and suggested that the level of bilingualism attained is an important factor in educational
development. Limited bilingualism, or subtractive bilingualism, can occur when children’s first
language is gradually replaced by a more dominant and prestigious language. In this case, children
may develop relatively low levels of academic proficiency in both languages. The most positive
cognitive effects are experienced in proficient bilingualism, when students attain high levels of
proficiency in both languages. This is also called additive bilingualism.
Point Counterpoint
What Is the Best Age for Second-Language Acquisition?

For adults, learning a second language can be a frustrating and children has consistently demonstrated that adolescents and
difficult experience. In contrast, it seems so easy for children. adults outperform children in controlled language-learning
Is there a best age for learning a second language? studies (e.g., Snow & Hoefnagel-Hoehle, 1978). Adults have
access to more memory strategies; are, as a rule, more socially
POINT: Children Learn Second Languages Easily Those comfortable; and have greater experience with language in
who argue that a child can learn a second language more rap- general. The self-discipline, strategy use, prior knowledge,
idly than an adult generally ascribe this ability to the critical and metalinguistic ability of the older learner create a dis-
period hypothesis—that the brain has a language-acquisition tinct advantage for the adult over the child in second-language
processor that functions best before puberty (Lenneberg, acquisition.
1967)—despite the fact that the critical period hypothesis has Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000) analyzed
not been proved. misconceptions about age and second-language learning and
Evidence from child second-language studies indicates that reached the following conclusions: “[O]lder learners have the
the language children speak is relatively simple compared to potential to learn second languages to a very high level and
that of adults; it has shorter constructions with fewer vocabu- introducing foreign languages to very young learners cannot be
lary words and thus appears more fluent. Moreover, adults are justified on grounds of biological readiness to learn languages”
often unaware that a child’s silence indicates lack of under- (p. 10). “Age does influence language learning, but primarily
standing or shyness, and they underestimate the limitations of because it is associated with social, psychological, educational,
a child’s second-language acquisition skills. One area that seems and other factors that can affect L2 proficiency, not because of
to be a clear advantage for children is phonology: The earlier a any critical period that limits the possibility of language learning
person begins to learn a second language, the closer the accent by adults” (p. 28).
will become to that of a native speaker (Oyama, 1976); age
of L2 learning appears to be the most important predictor of Implications for Teaching
degree of foreign accent (Piske, Mackay, & Fiege, 2001). Teachers need to be aware that learning a second language
is difficult for children as well as for adults. Helping children
COUNTERPOINT: Adults Learn Languages More to feel socially comfortable reduces their anxiety and assists
Skillfully Than Children Research comparing adults to acquisition.
Adapted Instruction
Promoting Additive Bilingualism
• Send home newsletters that feature articles by students in English as well as in English learners’ first languages.
• Make sure classroom or community libraries feature books in the home language and encourage students to
check out books in both languages.
• Welcome classroom visitors and volunteers who speak the home language, and ask them to speak to the class
about the importance of proficiency in two languages.

Previous L2 Experience. English learners in the same grade may have had vastly different prior
exposure to English, ranging from previous all-primary-language instruction to submersion in
English—including students with no prior schooling at all. Moreover, no two students have been
exposed to exactly the same input of English outside of class. Therefore, students’ prior exposure
to English and attainment of proficiency are often highly varied.
Although students at the beginner and early-intermediate levels seem to acquire English
rapidly, research has shown that progress between the intermediate and advanced levels is slower
(Goldenberg & Coleman, 2010). This may account for the difficulties experienced by the “long-
term” English learner (Olsen, 2010).
Students who have been overcorrected when first learning English may have “shut down” and
be unwilling to speak. It may take time for a more positive approach to L2 instruction to produce
results, combined with a positive attitude toward L1 maintenance.
Assessed L2 Level. An important part of the knowledge about the learner that a teacher amasses
as a foundation for instruction is the student’s assessed level of proficiency in listening, speak-
ing, reading, and writing in English. This can be obtained during the process of assessment
for placement. In California, the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) is
the designated placement instrument; other states have other ways to assess proficiency. The
student’s L2 level is the beginning point of instruction in English.
Adapted Instruction
Assessing L2 Proficiency Levels
• Be aware that a student’s listening/speaking proficiency may surpass that of reading and writing, or vice versa.
• Assess each language skill independently.
• Use a measure such as the Student Oral Language Observation Matrix (SOLOM) to assess students’ oral
proficiency.
• Use The English–Español Reading Inventory for the Classroom (Flynt & Cooter, 1999) to provide a quick assessment
of reading levels in two languages, or the Flynt/Cooter Comprehensive Reading Inventory-2 (Cooter, Flynt, Cooter,
2014) for English proficiency.
Second-language learners are individuals who vary greatly in their acquisition of a second lan-
guage. However, there appear to be some generally accepted stages of development through which
learners progress. These stages include preproduction, early production, speech emergence, and
intermediate fluency. In preproduction—also called the silent period—the learner is absorbing
the sounds and rhythms of the new language, becoming attuned to the flow of the speech stream,
and beginning to isolate specific words. In this stage, the learner relies on contextual clues for
understanding key words and generally communicates nonverbally.
Once a learner feels more confident, words and phrases are attempted—the early production
stage. In the third stage, speech emergence, learners respond more freely. Utterances become longer
and more complex; but as utterances begin to resemble sentences, syntax errors are more noticeable
than in the earlier stage (“Where you going?” “The boy running.”). Once in intermediate fluency,
students begin to initiate and sustain conversations and are often able to recognize and correct
their own errors.
Regardless of the way one labels the stages of second-language acquisition, it is important for
the classroom teacher to use a student’s documented level of proficiency as the basis for instruction.
Adapted Instruction
Matching Instruction to Students’ L2 Levels
Ideally, classroom activities match the students’ second-language acquisition levels.
Beginning Level (preproduction stage)
• Provide concrete activities featuring input that is augmented by pictures, real objects, carefully modified teacher
speech, and frequent repetition of new vocabulary.
Early Intermediate and Intermediate Levels (early production and speech emergence)
• Ask questions that evoke responses of single words and brief phrases.
• Provide opportunities for students to use their primary language as they acquire the second language.
Early Advanced Level
• Engage students in opportunities to speak with greater complexity, read several pages of text even though they
may have limited comprehension, and write paragraphs.
• Offer a curriculum that supports and explicitly teaches learning strategies (see Chapter 5).
Prior Academic Success. A valid predictor of school success is prior academic success. By read-
ing a student’s cumulative academic record, a teacher may get a sense of the student’s strengths
and weaknesses. This can be augmented by observations of the student during academic activities
and interviews of family members and former teachers. It is important for the current teacher to
assemble as complete a record of the student’s prior schooling as possible to best inform instruc-
tional decisions.
Likes/Dislikes. Inquiring about students’ favorite academic subjects, television shows, and extra-
curricular activities is one way of bridging adult–child, teacher–student, or intercultural gaps:
Who/what is your favorite [native-language/culture] singer? Actor? Video game? Outdoor game?
Storybook? Grocery store? Holiday? What do you like about it? Students can write about favorite
subjects, and teachers can then use these culturally familiar ideas in math story problems and other
content.
Psychological Factors: Social–Emotional

The affective domain, the emotional side of human behavior, is the means through which individu-
als become aware of their environment, respond to it with feeling, and act as though their feelings
make a difference. This emotional dimension helps determine how language acquisition and com-
munication take place. The affective factors discussed here are self-esteem, motivation, anxiety,
and learner attitudes.
Self-Esteem. A large part of one’s feelings revolve around how one feels about oneself, one’s self-
esteem. High self-esteem may cause language success or result from language success. Self-esteem
enhancement, such as efforts to empower students with positive images of self, family, and culture,
may facilitate language learning.
Self-esteem is particularly at risk when learning a second language because so much identity
and pride are associated with language competence. Schools that honor the primary languages
and cultures of students and help students to develop additive bilingualism foster strong identities;
schools in which students face disrespect and discrimination hinder students’ social and emotional
development (Cummins, 2001).
Children who do poorly in school face daily degradation to their sense of self-esteem as they
often receive low grades and experience disapproval from their teachers and even social ostracism
from peers (McKay, 2000). A healthy sense of success is necessary not only to master academics,
but also to feel valuable to society.

Classroom Connection Building Self-Esteem

Anita Alvarez was a Spanish-speaking first-grade student at that Mary, another student in the class, had a lot of difficulty
the beginning stages of English-language acquisition. She was in constructing objects, she teamed Anita with Mary, and
shy and retiring, and Mrs. Figueroa noticed that she seldom with Anita’s help, Mary completed her project successfully.
took advantage of opportunities to chat with her peers. Noting this success, Mrs. Figueroa publicly praised her to
Anita seemed to have good sensorimotor abilities and to the class and referred students to her for help. Mrs. Figueroa
be particularly adept at building three-dimensional models was pleased to see that, subsequently, Anita talked more with
following printed diagrams. When Mrs. Figueroa observed other students and seemed to acquire English at a faster rate.
Many classroom activities can be used to enhance students’ self-esteem. In the Name Game,
students introduce themselves by first name, adding a word that describes how they are feeling that
day—using a word that begins with the same letter as their first name (the teacher may provide
English learners with an alphabetized list of adjectives). Each subsequent person repeats what the
others have said in sequence. Another activity, Name Interviews, lets students work in pairs to use
a teacher-provided questionnaire. This includes questions such as, “What do you like about your
name? Who named you? Were you named for someone? Are there members of your family who
have the same name?” and more (Siccone, 1995).
Motivation. “The impulse, emotion, or desire that causes one to act in a certain way” is one way
to define motivation. Gardner and Lambert (1972) postulated two types of motivation in learning
a second language: instrumental, the need to acquire a language for a specific purpose, and
integrative, the desire to become a member of the culture of the second-language group. Most
situations involve a mixture of both types.
Generally, in classrooms, teachers may believe that motivation is a trait or a state. As a trait,
motivation is seen as being relatively consistent and persistent and is attributed to various groups:
parents, communities, or cultures. Students are motivated to learn English by such incentives as the
desire to please—or not to shame—their families or by the drive to bring honor to their communi-
ties. As a state, motivation is viewed as a more temporary condition that can be influenced by the
teacher’s encouragement, by the use of highly interesting materials or activities, or by contingen-
cies of reward or punishment. Pittaway (2004) described ways that teachers can increase students’
motivation by investing in their success.
Classroom Connection Motivation for Acquiring a Second Language

I began learning Spanish in middle school, just because it was so I decided to study abroad in Chile, to learn more about the
part of the curriculum. But when I entered college, I began to Chilean culture and be able to understand it first-hand. I was
develop a real interest in Spanish and learning more about Chile, motivated also because I believed that learning Spanish would
about my mom’s culture. I knew that I needed some sort of help me advance in my career of international education.
challenge in order for me to become more proficient in Spanish,
Source: Darlene Peceimer (2013), Personal Communication.
Adapted Instruction
Motivating Students
• Give pep talks to remind students that anything worth doing may seem difficult at first.
• Provide students with a list of encouraging phrases to repeat to themselves as self-talk.

Anxiety Level. Anxiety when learning a second language can be seen as similar to general feelings
of tension that students experience in the classroom. Almost everyone feels some anxiety when
learning a new language—that is, they have feelings of self-consciousness, a desire to be perfect
when speaking, and a fear of making mistakes. Using a foreign language can threaten a person’s
sense of self if speakers fear they cannot represent themselves fully in a new language or understand
others readily. Anxiety can be debilitating. As one student recalled,
During these several months after my arrival in the U.S.A. . . . I strained every nerve in order to under-
stand what the people were saying. . . . I sometimes have to pretend to understand by smiling, even
though I feel alienated, uneasy, and tense (Barna, 2007, p. 71).
Because anxiety can cause learners to feel defensive and can block effective learning, language
educators strive to make the classroom a place of warmth and friendliness and where peer work,
small-group work, games, and simulations are featured. Highly anxious learners must divide their
attentional resources into both learning and worrying about learning. Accepting English learners’
use of both languages during instruction may help reduce their anxiety about speaking English
(Pappamihiel, 2002).
Adapted Instruction
Ways to Deal with Excessive Student Anxiety
• Monitor activities to ensure that students are receiving no undue pressure.
• Avoid having anxious students perform in front of large groups.
• When using a novel format or starting a new type of task, provide students with examples or models of how the
task is done.
• Teach test-taking skills explicitly, and provide study guides to help students who may need extra academic
preparation.
Source: Based on Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon..
Attitudes of the Learner. Attitudes play a critical role in learning English. Attitudes toward
self, toward language (one’s own and English), toward English-speaking people (particularly
peers), and toward the teacher and the classroom environment affect students. One’s attitude
toward the self involves cognition about one’s ability in general, the ability to learn language,
and self-esteem and its related emotions. These cognitions and feelings are seldom explicit and
may be slow to change.
Attitudes toward language and those who speak it are largely a result of experience and the
influence of people in the immediate environment, such as peers and parents. Negative reactions
are often the result of negative stereotypes or the experience of discrimination or racism. If English
learners are made to feel inferior because of accent or language status, they may have a defensive
reaction against English and English speakers.
Students’ attitudes toward the primary language vary; some students may have a defensive reac-
tion or ambivalent feelings toward their own primary language as a result of internalized shame if
they have been made to feel inferior. Peers may incite attitudes against the L1 or may try to tease
or bully those who speak the same primary language with a different dialect.
Attitudes toward the teacher and the classroom environment play an important role in
school success in general and English acquisition in particular. One way to create a sense of
belonging is to assign a new student to a home group that remains unchanged for a long time.
If such groups are an ongoing aspect of classroom social organization, with rules of caring,
respect, and concern already in place, then the home group provides an ideal social group to

receive newcomers and help them develop interdependence, support, and identity (Peregoy &
Boyle, 2013).
Teachers can do much to model positive attitudes toward the students’ primary language. A
teacher–family conference may be advisable if a student continues to show poor attitudes toward
the first or second language or the school. (Chapter 10 offers a range of strategies for involving
the family in schooling.)
Psychological Factors: Cognitive

The cognitive perspective helps educators understand language learners as people who are active
processors of information. Language is used in school in expanded ways: to create meaning
from print, to encode ideas into print, to analyze and compare information, and to respond to
classroom discussion. All these activities involve cognitive factors. Students learn in many differ-
ent ways using a variety of strategies and styles. This section addresses students’ cognitive and
learning styles.
Cognitive Style. A cognitive style refers to “consistent and rather enduring tendencies or prefer-
ences within an individual” (Brown, 2007, p. 119). Tharp (1989b) suggested two dimensions of
cognitive styles that have relevance for classrooms: visual versus verbal, and holistic versus analytic.
Visual students learn by observing and doing rather than through verbal instructions. Holistic learn-
ers prefer to get the “big picture” first, before details are presented; in contrast, analytic learners
prefer to learn sequentially, in a step-by-step process. These dimensions combine; learners may be
verbal/analytic (a common combination because verbal language is sequential in nature) or visual/
holistic (also a common combination because “the big picture” is easier to see when one has a
preference for visual images).
Learning Styles. Many researchers have documented differences in the manner in which learners
approach the learning task. These preferences help instructors anticipate the different needs and
perspectives of students. Once learning styles have been identified, instructors can use the informa-
tion to plan and modify certain aspects of courses and assignments. Diversifying assignments and
accommodating individual differences in testing are a few of the ways that educators have taken
students’ diverse learning styles into consideration using differentiated instruction.
Adapted Instruction
Teaching to Diverse Learning Styles
Although in the typical classroom it is not possible to tailor instruction precisely to meet individuals’ needs, some
modifications can be made that take learning styles into account.
• Students who are dependent may benefit from encouragement to become more independent learners; the
teacher may offer a choice between two learning activities, for example, or reduce the number of times a student
may ask the teacher for help.
• Students who are highly competitive may be provided activities and assignments that encourage collaboration and
interdependent learning.
• Students who show little tolerance for frustration can be given a range of tasks on the same skill or concept that
slowly increases in complexity, with the student gradually gaining skill and confidence.
Hruska-Riechmann and Grasha (1982) offer six learning styles: competitive versus cooperative,
dependent versus independent, and participant versus avoidant. For Sonbuchner (1991), learning
styles refer to information-processing styles and work environment preferences. Table 1.1 lists
learning style variables that have been divided into four categories—cognitive, affective, incentive,
and physiological—according to Keefe (1987).

Table 1.1 Variables That Constitute Learning Style Differences
Cognitive Affective Incentive Physiological
• Field independent/field dependent • Need for • Locus of control (internal: see- • Gender-related differences
• Scanning (broad attention) v. focusing structure ing oneself as responsible for own (typically, males are more
(narrow) • Curiosity behavior; or external: attributing visual–spatial and aggressive,
circumstances to luck, chance, or females more verbal and
• Conceptual/analytical v. perceptual/ • Persistence
other people) tuned to fine-motor control)
concrete • Level of anxiety
• Risk taking v. caution • Personal nutrition (healthy v.
• Task constricted (easily distracted) • Frustration
• Competition v. cooperation poor eating habits)
v. task flexible (capable of controlled tolerance
concentration) • Level of achievement motivation • Health
• Reflective v. impulsive (high or low) • Time-of-day preferences
• Reaction to external reinforcement (morning, afternoon, evening,
• Leveling (tendency to lump new experi-
(does or does not need rewards and night)
ences with previous ones) v. sharpening
(ability to distinguish small differences) punishment) • Sleeping and waking habits
• High cognitive complexity • Social motivation arising from family, • Need for mobility
(multidimensional discrimination, school, and ethnic background (high • Need for and response to
accepting of diversity and conflict) v. or low) varying levels of light, sound,
low cognitive complexity (tendency • Personal interests (hobbies, aca- and temperature
to reduce conflicting information to a demic preferences)
minimum)
Source: Based on Keefe, M. W. (1987). Learning style theory and practice. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Entering “Learning styles inventory” in a web browser provides several learning style websites
that feature learning style information, diagnostic checklists, and ideas for adapted instruction. The
teacher who builds variety into instruction and helps learners to understand their own styles can
enhance students’ achievement.
Video 1.2 In this video, Ms. Walters, a ninth-grade reading teacher, gives each student a
learning styles inventory at the beginning of the school year, based on three learning styles:
auditory visual, and kinesthetic. As you watch the video, can you match each of the presenta-
tion choices that she offers the students to one or more of these learning styles?
Adapted Instruction
Accommodating Students’ Psychological Factors
• To adjust for individual psychological factors, teachers can provide verbal reassurances to timid students,
alternative learning activities to address multiple intelligences, explicit opportunities to help students express their
strong abilities, and additional mediation for students who show a possible weak ability in a specific area.
Check Your Understanding 1.3 Click here to check your understanding of this
Sociocultural Factors That Influence Instruction

Language learning occurs within social and cultural contexts. A part of the sense of mastery and
enjoyment in a language is acting appropriately and understanding cultural norms. Learners adapt
patterns of behavior in a new language and culture based on experiences from their own culture.
Thus, sociocultural factors—how people interact with one another and how they carry out their
daily business—play a large role in second-language acquisition.

If, as many believe, prolonged exposure to English is sufficient for mastery, then why do so
many students fail to achieve the proficiency in English necessary for academic success? Some
clues to this perplexity can be found beyond the language itself, in the sociocultural context.
Do the students feel that their language and culture are accepted and validated by the school?
A well-meaning teacher, with the most up-to-date pedagogy, may still fail to foster achieve-
ment if students are socially and culturally uncomfortable with, resistant to, or alienated from
schooling.
As students learn a second language, their success is dependent on sociocultural factors. These
factors are explored here with a view toward helping teachers facilitate student learning by bridg-
ing the culture and language gaps.
Family Acculturation and the Use of First and Second Languages

Acculturation is the process of adapting to a new culture. English learners in the United States, by
the mere fact of living in this country and participating in schools, learn a second culture as well
as a second language. How the acculturation proceeds depends on factors beyond language itself
and beyond the individual learner’s motivation, capabilities, and style—it usually is a family-wide
phenomenon.
In studying students’ differential school performance, Ogbu (1978) drew a distinction between
various types of immigrant groups. Castelike minorities are those minority groups that were
originally incorporated into society against their will and have been systematically exploited and
depreciated over generations through slavery or colonization. Castelike minorities traditionally
work at the lowest-paying and most undesirable jobs, and they suffer from a job ceiling they
cannot rise above regardless of talent, motivation, or achievement. Thus, academic success is not
always seen as helpful or even desirable for members of these groups; young people may therefore
be resistant to schooling.
On the other hand, immigrant minorities who are relatively free of a history of depreciation,
such as immigrants to the United States from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, believe that
the United States is a land of opportunity. These immigrants do not view education as irrelevant
or exploitative but rather as an important investment. Therefore, the internalized attitudes about
the value of school success for family members may influence the individual student.
Adapted Instruction
Learning about the Family
• If possible, visit the student’s home to observe the family’s degree of acculturation.
• Note the family’s media consumption:
What television shows does the family watch, in which language?
Do family members read books, magazines, or newspapers, and in which languages?
A family’s use of L1 and L2 is also influenced by the relative status of the primary language in
the eyes of the dominant culture. In modern U.S. culture, the social value and prestige of speaking
a second language varies with socioeconomic position; it also varies as to the second language that
is spoken.
Many middle-class parents believe that learning a second language benefits their children
personally and socially and will later benefit them professionally. In fact, it is characteristic
of the elite group in the United States who are involved in scholarly work, diplomacy, foreign
trade, or travel to desire to be fully competent in two languages. However, the languages that
parents wish their children to study are often not those spoken by recently arrived immigrants
(Dicker, 1992). This suggests that a certain bias exists in being bilingual—that being competent

in a “foreign language” is valuable, whereas knowing an immigrant language is a hurdle to be

overcome.
There are many ways in which a second-class status is communicated to speakers of other
languages, and because language attitudes usually operate at an inconspicuous level, school
personnel and teachers are not always aware of the attitudes they hold. For example, the
interlanguage of English learners—the language they use as they learn English—may be consid-
ered a dialect of English. Students learning English express themselves in many different dialects,
depending on the language they hear in their homes and communities. These forms of English vary
in the pronunciation of words, the selection of vocabulary that is used, and the way that words
are arranged in sentences.
Some teachers only accept Standard English, the English found in textbooks. They may view
nonstandard forms as less logical, less precise, or less elegant; sometimes they may even stigmatize
these forms as corrupt or debased. Worse, they may view those who speak nonstandard English
as less intelligent or less gifted linguistically. Research has shown that incorporating nonstandard
language use in the classroom is often a helpful bridge to the learning of Standard English. When
students feel that they are accepted and are confident of their language skills, they are more likely
to want to acquire a second language (Siegel, 1999).
If teachers devalue the accent, syntax, or other speech characteristics of students as they
learn English, English learners receive the message that their dialect is not accepted. If teachers
use dialect to evaluate students’ potential or use proficiency in Standard English to predict school
achievement, it is possible that the teacher’s own attitude toward the students’ dialects—either
positive or negative—has more to do with students’ cognitive and academic achievement than
does the dialect.
Adapted Instruction
Recognizing Biases toward Non-Standard English
• Recognize areas in which there may be differences in language use and in which those differences might create
friction because the minority group’s use may be deemed “inferior” by the majority.
• Be honest about your own biases, recognizing that you communicate these biases whether or not you are aware of them.
• Model correct usage without overt correction, and the student in time will self-correct—if the student chooses
Standard English as the appropriate sociolinguistic choice for that context.
Family Values and School Values

As student populations in U.S. schools become increasingly diversified both linguistically and cul-
turally, teachers and students have come to recognize the important role that attitudes and values
play in school success. Not only the individual’s attitudes as described above, but also the family’s
values and attitudes toward schooling, influence a child’s school success.
Classroom Connection Family Values

Amol is a third-grade student whose parents were born in teacher’s main frustration with Amol is that he cannot quickly
India. As the only son in a male-dominant culture, he has complete his work. However, when talking with Amol’s
internalized a strong sense of commitment to becoming a family, the teacher notes that his parents seem pleased with
heart surgeon. His approach to classwork is painstaking. his perfectionism and not at all concerned with his speed at
Often he is the last to finish an assignment during class. The tasks. In this respect, home and school values differ.

In the above example, the teacher epitomizes a mainstream U.S. value: speed and efficiency
in learning. Teachers may describe students of other cultures as being lackadaisical and uncaring
about learning, when in fact they may be operating within a different time frame and value system.
Other values held by teachers and embodied in classroom procedures have to do with task ori-
entation. The typical U.S. classroom is a place of work in which students are expected to conform
to a schedule, keep busy, maintain order, avoid wasting time, conform to authority, and achieve
academically to attain personal worth. Working alone is also valued in school, and children may
spend a great deal of time in activities that do not allow them to interact verbally with other people
or to move physically around the room.
Children need to find within the structure and content of their schooling those behaviors and
perspectives that permit them to switch between home and school cultural behaviors and values
without inner conflict or crises of identity (Pérez & Torres-Guzmán, 2002). Teachers need to
feel comfortable with the values and behaviors of their students’ cultures in order to develop a
flexible cultural repertoire within the context of teaching. The implementation of a rich and flex-
ible cultural repertoire is the strategy that can allow cultures to mix constructively and promote
achievement.
The danger of excluding the students’ culture(s) from the classroom is that cultural identity,
if not included, may become oppositional. Ogbu and Matute-Bianchi (1986) described how
oppositional identity in a distinctly Mexican-American frame of reference influenced the per-
formance of Mexican-American children. They attributed achievement difficulties on the part of
some Mexican-American children to a distrust of academic effort. When schools were segregated
and offered inferior education to this community, a general mistrust of schools caused a difficulty
in accepting, internalizing, and following school rules of behavior for achievement. This element
of resistance or opposition is not always overt but often takes the form of mental withdrawal, high
absenteeism, or reluctance to do classwork.
Adapted Instruction
Accommodating Students’ Cultures
Dalle and Young (2003) suggest that teachers check with families to see if family cultures have any “taboos” that
would make students uncomfortable performing certain activities; discuss with family members the support
available for homework, and arrange for after-class supervision if needed; and explain key concepts using ideas that
are familiar from the students’ perspective.
Cultural Factors That May Present Challenges for English Learners

Although Chapters 8–10 of this book feature extensive analyses of cultural factors that impact
instruction, it is important at this point to note that cultural awareness and acculturation to the
norms of schooling play a large part in school success. Culture influences everything from verbal
and nonverbal participation in class to the ability to make friends and thus adjust socially to a
school’s social climate.
Video 1.3 In this video, Dr. Irma Olmedo describes linguistic and cultural challenges that
English learners often face. After viewing the video, list the linguistic and cultural knowledge
that students need when asking questions, including both verbal and nonverbal elements.
What does she mean when she says that these elements are learned, for the most part,
implicitly?

Institutional Support for Language-Minority Students

Educators may view a student’s ability to speak a home language other than English as an advan-
tage or as a liability toward school success. Those who blame bilingual students for failing in
school often operate from the mistaken beliefs that students and/or their parents are uninterested
in education; that students who are raised as native speakers of another language are handicapped
in learning because they have not acquired sufficient English; or that cultural differences between
the ways children learn at home or among their peers and the ways they are expected to learn at
school interfere with school learning.
In fact, schools often operate in ways that advantage certain children and disadvantage others,
causing distinct outcomes that align with social and political forces in the larger cultural context.
Institutional support for the primary language and students who speak it is a prime factor in school
success for these students.
Some social theorists see the culture of the school as maintaining the poor in a permanent
underclass and as legitimizing inequality (Giroux, 1983). In other words, schooling is used to reaf-
firm class boundaries. This creates an educational class system in which minority students—or any
students who are not successful in the classroom—emerge from their schooling to occupy the same
social status as their parents.
The Way Schools Use Language to Perpetuate Social

Classroom Connection Class Inequality
Consider this account from Erickson of a fourth-grade class representative must be “a good outspoken citizen.” Pedro
that was electing student council representatives. turned red and stared at the floor. Mrs. Lark embar-
Mrs. Lark called for nominations. Mary, a monolingual rassed Rogelio into withdrawing the nomination. No other
English-speaking European American student, nominated Mexican American child was nominated, and Mary won the
herself. Mrs. Lark accepted Mary’s self-nomination and election. Pedro and Rogelio were unusually quiet for the
wrote her name on the board. Rogelio, a Spanish-speaking rest of the school day.
Mexican American child with limited English proficiency,
nominated Pedro. Mrs. Lark reminded the class that the Source: Adapted from Erickson, F. (1977). Some approaches to
representative must be “outspoken.” Rogelio again said inquiry in school-community ethnography. Anthropology and Education
“Pedro.” Mrs. Lark announced to the class again that the Quarterly, 8(2), 58–69.
Incidents like the one in Mrs. Lark’s classroom are generally unintentional on the teacher’s
part. A beginning step in helping all students feel fully integrated into the class and the learning
environment is for teachers to become sensitive to their own cultural and linguistic predispositions.
Showing visible and ongoing support for students’ languages and cultures—through school signage
in students’ primary languages, bilingual office workers, displays of art and cultural artifacts, and
bilingual school activities—goes a long way toward encouraging students to feel that they are valu-
able members of the school community.
Nieto and Bode (2008) identified numerous structures within schools that affect English
learners: tracking, testing, the curriculum, pedagogy, the school’s physical structure and disciplin-
ary policies, the limited roles of both students and teachers, and limited parent and community
involvement.
Tracking. The practice of placing students in groups of matched abilities, despite its superficial
advantages, in reality often labels English learners as low achievers. Tracking often traps students
for years in lower-track, nonprecollege classes, allowing little or no opportunity to change to higher-
track precollege work. English learners may experience frustration or internalize a stigmatized
identity if their courses do not prepare them for a four-year college after graduation. In contrast,
a supportive school environment offers equal education opportunity to all students, regardless of
their language background.

Testing. Students who respond poorly on standardized tests are often given “basic skills” in a
remedial curriculum that is generally not even as motivating the one in which they were not expe-
riencing success. A supportive school is one that offers testing adaptations for English learners as
permitted by law; for example, academic testing in the primary language, extended time for test
taking, and fully trained testing administrators.
Curriculum Design. Only a small fraction of knowledge is codified into textbooks and teachers’
guides, and this is rarely the knowledge that English learners bring from their communities (see
Loewen, 1995). In addition, the curriculum may be systematically watered down for the “benefit”
of children in language-minority communities through the mistaken idea that such students cannot
absorb the core curriculum. A supportive environment is one that maintains high standards while
offering a curriculum that is challenging and meaningful.
Pedagogy. The way students are taught is often tedious and uninteresting, particularly for students
who have been given a basic skills curriculum in a lower-track classroom. The pressure to “cover”
a curriculum may exclude learning in depth and frustrate teachers and students alike. Pedagogy
that is supportive fully involves students—teachers make every effort to present understandable
instruction that engages students at high levels of cognitive stimulation.
The Physical Structure of the School. Architecture also affects the educational environment.
Many inner-city schools are built like fortresses to forestall vandalism and theft. Rich suburban
school districts, by contrast, may provide more space, more supplies, and campus-like schools for
their educationally advantaged students. Supportive schooling is observable—facilities are humane,
well cared for, and materially advantaged.
A School Culture That Disconnects, Bores,

Classroom Connection and Controls—for Teachers and Students Alike
Order predominated at the traditional high school that Wells was asked of students. Pope (2002) came to a similar conclu-
(1996) studied. Control trumped creativity. Teachers were sion. Students, for the most part, experienced little genuine
not encouraged to voice their educational philosophies or engagement. They did schoolwork because they had to—
innovate. Instruction was driven by textbooks, with few there was little evidence of curiosity or interest. If this is the
opportunities for students to write. Reading became an case for the average middle-class high school, conditions can
exercise in searching for answers to chapter questions or only be worse in inner-city schools, where the majority of
worksheet blanks. Little inquiry, exploration, or reflection immigrant students are educated.
Disciplinary Policies. Certain students may be punished more often than others, particularly those
who wear high-profile clothing, have high physical activity levels, or tend to hold an attitude of resis-
tance toward schooling. Rather than defining students’ predilections as deviant or disruptive, teach-
ers can channel these interactions into cooperative group activities that allow children to express
themselves and learn at the same time, thus supporting rich cultural and linguistic expression.
The School Culture. The most powerful regularities about school are not found in the formali-
ties such as course offerings and schedules. They are found in the school culture—such unspoken
elements as the respect shown by students for academic endeavor, the openness that the teachers
show when the principal drops in to observe instruction, and the welcome parents feel when they
take an active role in the school. In its 1996 report What Matters Most: Teaching and America’s
Future, the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future argued that without a formal
overhaul of school culture in America, students cannot learn well. This is a warning that applies
especially to the aspects of school culture that promote success for English learners.

The Limited Role of Students. Students may be excluded from taking an active part in their own
schooling, and alienation and passive frustration may result. However, in addition to language
barriers, cultural differences may preclude some students from participating in ways that the main-
stream culture rewards. The accompanying Classroom Connection illustrates the ways in which
the limited role of students is disempowering.
Classroom Connection The Limited Role of Students

In a research project called Participatory Research Advocating and opportunities, and who allowed students to share their
for Excellence in Schools (PRAXIS), Louie F. Rodriguez and a voices and opinions. One comment: “Mr. S is a good-quality
team of university undergraduate and graduate researchers teacher because we have a voice, he lets us think of new
interviewed 76 high school students from nearby Martínez ideas . . . We talk a lot. Most classes are ‘just do your work.’
High School (a pseudonym), an institution in which only But [in his class], there is more voice and expressions of
40 percent of freshman graduate 4 years later. The project opinions”.
was driven by a central concern for student (dis)engagement,
(re)engagement, and dropout prevention. Source: Rodriguez, L. F. (2016). “Listen to us”: Using participatory
Overall, results centered on expanding the limited action research to engage Latina/o high school intellectuals in trans-
role of students in determining learning activities, with help forming race and school inequality. In G. Q. Conchas & B. M. Hinga
from “caring” teachers, who came up with creative ways to (Eds.), Cracks in the schoolyard: Confronting Latino educational inequality
engage students, who provided access to learning resources (pp. 79–95). New York: Teachers College Press.
The Limited Role of Teachers. Teachers of CLD students may be excluded from decision mak-
ing just as students are disenfranchised. This may lead teachers to have negative feelings toward
their students. A supportive environment for CLD students is supportive of their teachers as well.
Limited Family and Community Involvement. Inner-city schools with large populations of Eng-
lish learners may exclude families from participation. Parents may find it difficult to attend meet-
ings, may be only symbolically involved in the governance of the school, or may feel a sense of
mismatch with the culture of the school just as their children do. In circumstances like these, school
personnel, in consultation with community and parent representatives, can begin to ameliorate such
perceptions by talking with one another and developing means of communication and interaction
appropriate for both parent and school communities (see Chapter 10).
Academic Risk Factors. Stressful events and conditions during school years create risk factors for
academic success. Major obstacles that students face include attending a poorly funded inner-city
school or coming from a low-income home in which English is not the primary language. Many
students report having their academic capabilities questioned by school personnel: teachers who
have low expectations or guidance counselors who advise against attending college or scheduling
Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Even when students are placed in AP or honors courses, they
are often made to feel as outsiders (Pérez, 2012).
Resilience in the Face of Risk Factors. Personal characteristics can provide protective factors
that mitigate risk. Being socially competent plays an important role, as do problem-solving skills,
a sense of personal autonomy, and a vision of purpose and positive future (Bernard, 1995). Good
communication skills, a sense of responsibility, positive self-concept, optimism, achievement ori-
entation, and a belief in self-help are factors that can be resources in times of stress. Resilient
children have more internal and external resources to draw on when times get tough (Luthar &
Zelazo, 2003). These resources are strengthened by still other academically useful traits: forging
an academic identity, being competitive, showing tenacity and determination, feeling an obligation
to be a role model, and feeling obligated toward one’s family (Pérez, 2012). Coupled with parental
support, these internal factors help children to overcome an environment that puts them at risk
for school failure.

Academic Engagement. Several distinct school contextual factors encourage students to succeed
academically. Being identified early in school as gifted is a huge “plus” toward a student’s suc-
cess, because this designation opens doors to academic enrichment and acceleration opportunities.
Academic awards such as prizes for spelling bee competitions, “student of the month” certificates,
character awards, achievement awards, and perfect attendance certificates serve as concrete evi-
dence of recognition—especially in elementary and middle schools when students are solidifying
their academic identities. Later, in high school, scholarships, sports recognitions, and leadership
awards recognized merit and helped students to sustain high academic goals (Pérez, 2012).
Long-Term English Learners. Large numbers of English learners in California (and in other
states) are close to the age at which they should be able to graduate from high school but still
have not been redesignated. They are not yet considered English proficient—they are the so-called
long-term English learners, those who have been in United States schools for more than six years
without reaching sufficient English proficiency to be reclassified (Olsen, 2010). They are in the
majority (59 percent) of secondary school English learners.
Olsen (2010) describes their history as characterized by their
receiving no language development program at all; being given elementary school curricula and materi-
als that weren’t designed to meet English learner needs; enrollment in weak language development pro-
gram models and poorly implemented English Learner programs; histories of inconsistent programs;
provision of narrowed curricula and only partial access to the full curriculum; social segregation and
linguistic isolation; and, cycles of transnational moves. (p. 2)
Often these “long-term” learners have high-functioning social language yet show grave weak-
nesses in academic language, reading, and writing skills. Worse, many have developed “habits of
non-engagement, learned passivity and invisibility in school” (Olsen, 2010, p. 3). Because of their
lack of progress, they may be placed into mainstream classes for which they are underprepared,
be placed with beginning English learners, be taught by largely unprepared teachers, be precluded
from participation in electives, be overreferred and inadequately served in intervention and support
classes, and suffer limited access to core or college preparatory curricula.
Recommendations for modifying instruction to address these concerns include providing a spe-
cialized ELD program that is combined with explicit language and literacy development across the
curriculum and taught by teachers skilled in adapting instruction to sustain high-support instruc-
tional techniques; placing these students in heterogeneous and rigorous grade-level content classes
(including honors, A–G) mixed with English-proficient students; providing heritage language classes
(in an articulated sequence through Advanced Placement levels); using a master schedule designed
for flexibility and movement as students progress; using systems for monitoring progress and trig-
gering support; and instituting a school-wide focus on study skills, among other components.
A supportive classroom environment for CLD students is less effective if the environment and
practices of the school are discriminatory. Chapter 11 offers ways in which teachers can exercise
influence within the school and society at large to support the right of CLD students to receive an
effective education.
Sociocultural Support for L1 in the Classroom Environment

Various sociocultural factors influence the support that is offered for the primary language and its
speakers in the classroom. Teaching and learning in mainstream classrooms are often organized
with social structures that deny the ways in which students are most likely to learn. Many students
may benefit from the opportunity to interact with peers as they learn, speaking their primary lan-
guage if necessary to exchange information.
Cooperative learning has positive results in the education of CLD students. Positive race rela-
tions among students and socialization toward pro-social values and behaviors are potential out-
comes of a cooperative-learning environment. Students may gain psychological support from one
another as they acquire English, and this support can help the students work as a group with the
teacher to achieve a workable sociocultural compromise between the use of L1 and L2 in the
classroom.

Adapted Instruction
Supporting the Primary Language
• Feature the primary language(s) of students on bulletin boards throughout the school and within the classroom.
• Showcase primary-language skills in written and oral reports.
• Involve primary-language speakers as guests, volunteers, and instructional assistants.
Although successful teachers learn to analyze students’ needs and address the myriad factors
that play a role in each child’s school success, teachers also acknowledge that no factor stands in
isolation. The child as a whole comes to school, and the child as a whole is educated with more or
less success in the multicultural classroom. Teachers who embrace the complexity of each student
look beyond the labels often used to categorize abilities, strengths, and shortcomings, to forge a
powerful cognitive and emotional connection with each child.
Video 1.4 In this video, Dr. Jim Cummins emphasizes that teachers must teach “the whole
child.” After viewing the video, reflect on the kinds of knowledge about students that teachers
need to know. Can you describe ways that teachers might gain this knowledge?
Check Your Understanding 1.4 Click here to check your understanding of this
Summary
This chapter has introduced the English learner and highlighted a variety of factors that a teacher must
consider to design and deliver effective instruction. Some of these factors lie within the student, and
others are factors in society at large that affect the individual, the family, and the school. The teacher as
an intercultural, interlinguistic educator learns everything possible about the background of the students
and marshals every available kind of support to advance the education of English learners.
Chapter Scenarios 1 Click here to gauge your understanding of the concepts in

this chapter.
Learning More
Further Reading
Carolyn Nelson (2004), in the article “Reclaiming Teacher Preparation for Success in High-Needs
Schools,” describes her first year of teaching in an inner-city school in Rochester, New York. This article
offers a memorable glimpse at her daily challenges in a school comprised largely of Puerto Rican and
African-American students. She details the strengths of the elementary teacher education curriculum at
San José State in the context of preparing teachers as problem-solving intellectuals, a point of view that
imparts a balance to the “prescriptive, curriculum-in-a-box” approaches to teaching.

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"Mikä?" kysyi Sam hämmästyneenä.
"Sanantapa", vastasi mies ja vilkasi tovereihinsa.
"En oikein ymmärrä teitä", sanoi kokki. "Miten joku paikka voi olla
sanantapa?"
"Asia johtuu kokonaan eräästä velikullasta, jonka nimi oli kapteeni

Piggot", selitti kalastaja. "Hän oli kovin hauska veitikka ja erään
kerran oli päänsä tavallista täysinäisempänä. Silloin hän löysi
Etelä-Amerikan! Eikös se niin ollut Dan?"
"Niin kai se oli", vastasi vanha mies. "Hän luuli löytäneensä uuden
maanosan", jatkoi kalastaja "ja laski laivansa erääseen lahteen, veti
Suurbritannian lipun tangon nenään ja kutsui lahden nimensä
mukaan Piggotin lahdeksi. Tämä pääsi ulos miehistöltä kotia
saavuttua. Ja nyt jos joku täällä käyttäytyy hullumaisesti sanotaan
hänen ajavan takaa Piggotin lahtea. Siinä koko juttu."
Hän alkoi uudestaan nauraa, ja Sam, joka surukseen huomasi

miehen suureksi ja vahvarakenteiseksi, kääntyi ympäri ja seurasi jo
mäkeä ylöspäin harppaavaa kokkia. Saavuttuaan kukkulalle
katsoivat miehet taakseen; Stonepen Quay nauroi vielä.
Turvatakseen "koskemattomuuttaan" tekivät miehet ison

kierroksen maallepäin. "Ennen pari penikulmaa toiselle suunnalle
ennenkuin kohdata Dickiä", oli kokin tunnuslause. Puhe ei ottanut
sujuakseen, ja kuivin suin ja särkevin säärin asteltiin alakuloisina
tomuista tietä.
"Merilokkiin" saavuttua kello 7 pyydettiin laivalla yksinään oleva

Henry keittämään teetä.
"Missä Dick on?" kysyi Sam ikäänkuin sattumalta.
"En ole nähnyt sitten päivällisen", vastasi poika. "Luulin hänen

olleen teidän seurassanne."
Sam pudisti päätään, hörppäsi teensä ja heittäytyi purjepakalle

kokin viereen. Väsyneinä kävelystä ei kumpikaan liikahtanut
paikaltaan ennenkuin yhdeksältä, jolloin noustiin ylös. Odottavan
näköisinä vilkaistiin suunnalle, mistä Dickiä varrottiin, mutta kun ei
mitään näkynyt, kiivettiin kojuihin.
Lamppu sai palaa romaania lukevan Henryn suureksi mielihyväksi.

Kello löi kaupungilla kymmenen — miehet vaihtoivat levottomia
katseita. Kun molemmat nyt makasivat lämpimissä vuoteissaan,
muistui väkistenkin mieleen Dick; oltiin ehkä oltu liian
ajattelemattomia. Puoli tuntia myöhemmin katsoi Henry yht'äkkiä
ylös; jotakin pehmeää kuului pudonneen kannelle ja lähestyvän
tassutellen hyttiä. Seuraavassa silmänräpäyksessä huudahti poika
pyhällä hartaudella.
"Dick! Dick?!”
"Tuki suusi!" ärisi Dick vaipuen merimies-arkulleen. "Oi, Herra

Jumala!
Jos joku ihminen tietäisi mitä minä olen kärsinyt!"
"Ihmettelen teitä", sanoi Henry ja heitti peitteen alastoman

merimiehen hartioille. "Mihin häveliäisyytenne on joutunut Dick?"
"Jos vielä sanallakin pilkkaat, väännän niskasi nurin, kirottu

irvinaama", sanoi Dick suuttuneena. "Ellei minulla häveliäisyyttä olisi,
niin päivällä jo olisin laivaan saapunut. Ei yksikään syntinen ihminen
voi tietää, mitä minä olen kärsinyt."
"Missä teidän vaatteenne ovat?" kysyi Henry. "Mistä helkatista

minä sen tiedän", tiuskasi toinen. "Jätin ne rannalle, kun menin
uimaan, ja palatessani olivat ne poissa. Olen istunut noilla kirotun
kylmillä kivillä aina kello kolmesta iltapäivällä, eikä ristin sielua
kulkenut ohitseni. Se oli ensi kerta, kun etsin kapteeni Gethingiä,
mutta viimeinen se myöskin oli."
"Vai sellaisissa asioissa olette liikkunutkin", sanoi Henry.

"Sanoinhan teille niistä seuraavan vaan ikävyyksiä."
"Olet aivan liian viisas ikäiseksesi", murisi Dick. "Samille ja kokille

et puhu tästä mitään. Ymmärrätkö?"
"Miksikä ei?"
"Sentähden, että minä en tahdo sitä", sanoi Dick ärtyisesti. "Se on

syy."
"Luultavasti he sen jo tietävätkin", sanoi Henry kiusottelevasti.

"Luulen Samin kuuntelevan unissaan."
Dick nousi ylös ja tarkasti varovasti molempia nukkuvia. Toistaen

varoituksensa ja uhaten kauheimmilla rangaistuksilla
tottelemattomuudesta meni hän omaan kojuunsa ja unohti
kärsimyksensä unen helmaan.
Dick säilytti salaisuutensa koko seuraavan päivän, mutta kun hän

tiistai-aamuna kannelle tultuaan huomasi vaatteensa ankkurin
vieressä likaiseen sanomalehtipaperiin käärittynä, paljastui
salaisuuskin. Sekä Samille että kokille kertoi hän kaikki, ja kun
miehet eivät nauraneet, kuten hän kovasti oli pelännyt, nousi heidän
arvonsa hänen silmissään suuresti. Kumpikaan ei edes suutaan
hymyyn vetänyt, kuuntelivat vaan tahdottomina, ja heti kun Dick oli
lopettanut kertomuksensa nukahtivat siihen paikkaan. Sen he
muuten tekivät aina kun vaan saivat siihen tilaisuutta.
VIII LUKU.
"Merilokki" seisoi Cocklemouthissa vielä kolme päivää, jona aikana

Dick, käveltyään kaksitoista penikulmaa sai Piggotin lahdesta
tietoonsa kaikki, mitä tiedettiin. Tämä toinen loukkaus oli saattaa
hänet vuoteen omaksi, mutta silloin juuri pälkähti hänen päähänsä
muuan mainio ajatus.
"Olen tullut ajatelleeksi, Sam", sanoi hän seuraavana aamuna,

"että olen ollut hyvin itsekäs. Tarkoitan tuota osakeyhtiötä. Minun
olisi pitänyt yhtyä siihen."
"Voithan sen vielä tehdä", sanoi Sam.
"Niin, ajattelin näin: parempi myöhään kun ei koskaan", sanoi Dick

ja kääntyi kokkiin. "Toimitan teidät kapteeni Gethingin jälille."
Kokki näytti hämmästyvän.
"Tiedän varmasti hänen asuvan eräässä paikassa, jota kutsutaan

Piggotin lahdeksi", jatkoi Dick. "Jos teitä haluttaa kävellä sinne
jonakuna iltapuhteena ja ottaa selvä kapteenista, saatte kaksi
kultaista' mieheen. Minä puolestani tyydyn yhteen."
"Oo…", sanoi Sam ja seisoi kuin kivettyneenä moisesta
julkeudesta.
"Ei! — Sehän olisi vahinko sinulle, Dick", sanoi kokki. "Emmekä

me voi nauttia etuja sinun kustannuksellasi. — Ei. — Viisi puntaa
ovat sinun."
"Minä en niistä huoli", sanoi Dick totisena. "Ahneuteni saakoon

rangaistuksensa. Jos te kaksi menette ja otatte selvän hänestä,
pidän sitä oikein rehellisenä ystävyyden merkkinä."
"No! Voimmehan siellä käydä", sanoi kokki teeskennellyllä

ihastuksella.
"Dickillä on sydän oikealla paikallaan", sanoi Sam kokille. "Parasta

kun menemme heti juomaan teemme."
"Anna kun puristan kättäsi, Dick", sanoi kokki kiitollisena.
"Sen tahdon minäkin tehdä", sanoi Sam ja tarttui vuorostaan

Dickin kouraan. "Sinä olet oiva mies, Dick, siitä ei voi olla eri
mielipidettä."
"Oikein kunnon mies", säesti kokki.
"Lähdemme heti teen jälestä, jos sinä viitsit katsoa lipun meille,
Dick", sanoi Sam.
"Lipun?" toisti Dick. "Lipun?"
"Niin, tietystikin! Suurbritannian lipun", sanoi Sam ja katseli miestä

viattomalla kummastuksella. "Eihän Piggotin lahteen voi
Suurbritannian liputta mennä. Etkös sitä tiedä? Kävithän siellä eilen
illalla."
Sam seisoi rauhallisena ja odotti vastausta, katsellen ihmetyksellä

oikein ammattipetturia — ja Dick ryntäsi hyttiin suuttuneena kuin
kimalainen. Ollen luulevinaan Dickin lähteneen etsimään puheessa
ollutta lippua, pisti Sam varovasti päänsä hytin ovesta ja sanoi parin
uimahousujakin kelpaavan, paremman puutteessa — pilapuhe,
minkä hän halusta olisi ottanut takaisin, ennenkuin tapasi Dickin
päivällisellä.
Northfleet'iin uudestaan saavuttua oli koko etsimishalu

näennäisesti kadonnut jokaiselta. Ensiksikään ei ketään haluttanut
antautua alttiiksi Henryn pilapuheille ja toiseksi, kun asiaa punnittiin
järjen kannalta, tuntuivat edellytyksetkin hyvin mitättömiltä.
Kajuutassakin vallitsi alakuloinen mieliala; ainoastaan perämies
hoiteli puhetorvea.
"Sehän on suoraan vastoin parempaa ymmärrystä", sanoi hän

erään kerran, kun asiasta oli sukeutunut pitempi keskustelu. "Te ette
edes voi odottaa löytävänne häntä. Seuratkaa neuvoani: jatketaan
vanhoja vuoroja Brittlesean välillä; tyytykää siihen."
"En, siihen en tyydy", sanoi laivuri itsepintaisesti.
"On aivan synti heidän kanssaan — tarkoitan ukkoja, joilla on

vähänkin ikää ja harmaa parta —, että heitä ajetaan takaa kuin
mitäkin metsän otuksia. Ja sitäpaitsi joutuu miehistökin ennen pitkää
selkkauksiin, siitä olen varma."
"Puhukaa niin paljon kuin teitä haluttaa, se ei minua liikuta", sanoi

laivuri ja hieroi saippuaa kasvoihinsa kovassa puhdistushommassa.
"Vai niin! Koetatte taas kaunistaa itseänne", sanoi perämies. "Ja
kenen tähden? Toisen miehen kihlatun morsiamen. Niin se kuitenkin
on, vaikka asiaa mihin päin vääntelisitte."
"Kun tarvitsen teidän neuvojanne, niin pyydän niitä", sanoi laivuri

suuttuneena.
Hiljaisuuden vallitessa lopetti hän vaatetuksensa, meni maalle,

käveli ja katseli puotien ikkunoita, lopulta kuitenkin kääntyen
Gravesendiin päin. Ainoat valonsäteet hänen nykyisessä
elämässään olivat säännölliset kouluvuorot, ja jatkaessaan
matkaansa siunasi hän opettajain tarkkaa velvollisuuden tunnetta —
joka ainakin kello neljältä ilmeni.
Mutta tänään riemuitsi hän liian aikaiseen, sillä vaikka lapset jo

aikoja sitten olivat päässeet koulusta, ei vaan näkynyt varjoakaan
Annis Gething'istä. Laivuri asteli edestakaisin katua ja ihmetteli.
Puoli viisi. Hän odotti kello kuuteen ja aikoi juuri lähteä matkaansa,
kun Annis neljännestä yli kuusi ilmestyi koulun rappusille.
"Kas! Tekin olette taas täällä", sanoi hän ja tervehti laivuria.
"Saavuimme juuri äsken."
"Ei mitään tietoja isästäni, otaksun?" kysyi Annis.
"Ei, ikävä kylläkin", vastasi laivuri! "Olitte myöhään koululla tänään.

Eikö totta?"
"No! — Kyllä."
"Näytätte väsyneeltä", sanoi laivuri auliisti.

"Mutta sitä en ole", vastasi Annis. "Olin miss Grattan luona
juomassa kupin teetä. Äiti lupasi mennä ulos enkä minäkään
sentähden pitänyt mitään kiirettä."
"Onko hän ulkona vieläkin?" kysyi laivuri.
Miss Gething nyökkäsi ja pysähtyi seuraavassa kadun kulmassa.
"En aio vielä mennä kotiin", sanoi hän. "Täytyy vähäsen kävellä
raittiissa ilmassa."
Wilson oli kahdella päällä tarjoutuako seuraan vai ei.
"Hyvästi", sanoi hän lopulta ja ojensi kätensä.
"Hyvästi", vastasi Annis. "Jos haluatte pistäytyä meille ja odottaa,

niin äiti varmaan kotiin saavuttuaan on hyvin iloinen."
"Onko siellä ketään, jotta pääsen sisään", kysyi laivuri.
"Herra Glover, luullakseni", vastasi Annis ja katsoi pitkin katua.
"Sitten — sitten tulen toisella kerralla", änkytti Wilson

hätääntyneenä. "Luulin muuten…"
"Mitä luulitte?"
"En mitään", vastasi laivuri. "Minä… Menettekö pitkällekin?"
"No, enpä juuri. Miksi sitä kysytte?"
"Ajattelin vaan, että kernaammin kai kävelette yksinänne?"

"Samantekevää", sanoi Annis. "Voittehan tekin tulla mukaan jos
haluatte."
He astuivat äänettöminä katua alas.
"Mitä te äsken aioitte sanoa?" kysyi Annis vihdoin, kun vaitiolo

näytti vaivaavan kumpaakin.
"Koska?"
"Kun sanoin herra Gloverin olevan meillä, niin sanoitte te

luulevanne…?" Tätä sanoessaan katsoi Annis laivuriin silmäyksellä,
jota tämän oli mahdoton käsittää.
"Niin, minä luulin", sanoi laivuri epätoivoisen rohkeudella, "teidän

kernaimmin haluavan kotiin."
"En ymmärrä teitä", sanoi Annis kylmästi. "Olette äärettömän

nenäviisas."
"Pyydän anteeksi", sanoi Wilson nöyrästi. "Olen hyvin — hyvin

pahoillani."
Seurasi uusi hiljaisuus.
"Antaisin vaikka mitä, jos löytäisin teidän isänne", sanoi Wilson

totisena.
"Niin! Toivoisin teidän onnistuvan — toivoisin teidän onnistuvan",

sanoi Annis katsoen olkapäänsä ylitse laivuria.
"Otaksumpa herra Gloverinkin tekevän parhaansa", sanoi Wilson.

"Minun täytyy saada isäni takaisin", huudahti yht'äkkiä Annis.
"Minun täytyy saada hänet, mutta halusta soisin jonkun toisen, kuin
hra Gloverin, löytävän hänet."
"Tehän juuri menette naimisiin, jos isänne löytyy", sanoi laivuri

ihmeissään.
"Niin, jos herra Glover hänet löytää", sanoi Annis matalalla

äänellä.
"Tarkoitatteko…?" sanoi laivuri ja tarttui tytön käsivarteen.

"Tarkoitatteko ettette mene naimisiin herra Gloverin kanssa, ellei hän
löydä isäänne?"
"Niin", sanoi Annis. "Siten se on päätetty. Äiti haluaa sitä niin — ja

minulle on asia yhdentekevää kun vaan löydän isäni. Siihen olen
antanut lupaukseni."
"Mutta jos joku toinen hänet löytää?" änkytti Wilson.
"Siinä tapauksessa", sanoi Annis ja katsoi veitikkamaisesti

Wilsonia, "en mene naimisiin. Niinkö tarkoitatte?"
"En… En minä juuri sitä tarkoittanut", sanoi laivuri. "Aijoin

sanoa…"
"Katsokaa", sanoi Annis ja pysähtyi samassa, "mikä ihana näköala

tästä on joelle.
"Hurmaava", sanoi laivuri.
"Tämä onkin lempikävelypaikkani", jatkoi Annis.
Wilson painoi sen mieleensä.

"Erittäinkin silloin kun herra Glover sattuu olemaan kotonanne",
sanoi hän enempää ajattelematta.
"Herra Glover on ollut hyvin kiltti", sanoi Annis totisena. "Hän on

ollut hyvin kiltti äidille ja nähnyt paljon vaivaa isäni etsimisestä."
"Toivon kumminkin, ettei hän onnistu löytämään häntä", virkkoi

Wilson.
Annis kääntyi ja tarkasti laivuria.
"Onko tuo ystävällistä?" sanoi hän kiivaasti.
"Tahdon itse hänet löytää", sanoi laivuri. "Te tiedätte

minkätähden."
"Nyt täytyy minun kiirehtää kotiin", sanoi Annis vastaamatta

laivurin arveluihin.
Wilson tunsi rohkeutensa loppuvan ja yritti kaikin mokomin saada

sanottavansa lausutuksi.
"Toivoisin teidän kohtelevan minua samalla tavalla kuin herra

Gloveriakin."
"Sen teen halusta", vastasi Annis kiireesti. Hän ei voinut estää

huuliensa värisemistä, ja hänen katseensa kääntyi toisaalle.
"Olen rakastanut teitä ensi näkemästä", sanoi laivuri yht'äkkiä

laukaisten.
Aivan valmistumattomana näin pikaiseen hyökkäykseen ei miss

Gething tiennyt mitä vastata. Osat olivat vaihtuneet, ja punastuneena
kääntyi hän toisaalle.
"Olen viettänyt päiviä käyden edestakaisin koulunne edessä, edes
vilahdukseltakin nähdäkseni teidät", jatkoi Wilson. "Toisinaan olen
ihmetellyt, etteivät lapset ole jo mitään huomanneet."
Miss Gethingin karmiinin punainen poski kääntyi häneen.
"Sen ne kylläkin ovat tehneet", sanoi hän. "Eräs pieni toitottaja sai
seistä tunnin nurkassa oppiakseen pitämään suunsa kiinni."
"Minä en voi sitä auttaa", sanoi Wilson. "Saatte panna vaikka koko
koulun nurkkaan ettekä sittenkään saa minua estetyksi rakastamasta
teitä."
"Ehkä nyt käännymme ympäri", sanoi Annis kylmästi. Molemmat

astuivat ajatuksissaan eikä kumpikaan puhunut sanaakaan. Vähää
ennen kaupunkiin saapumista Wilson pysähtyi ja katsoi pelotta ja
vakavasti tyttöä silmiin. Hän oli päättänyt ajaa asiansa loppuun,
maksoi mitä maksoi. Miss Gething peräytyi ja katsoi maahan.
"Lupaatteko kohdella meitä molempia yhtäläisesti?" kysyi Wilson

matalalla äänellä.
"En", vastasi Annis ja katsoi pelokkaasti hymyillen laivuria.

Ikäänkuin huumaantuneena tarttui tämä tytön käteen ja yritti vetää
hänet luoksensa.
"Ei", sanoi Annis ja vetäytyi kiireesti syrjään. "Ei, se ei sovi."
Wilson pelästyi, huomaten menneensä liian pitkälle, ja pelko sai

hänessä uudestaan vallan.
"Miksikä se ei sovi?" kysyi hän koettaen näyttää viattomalta.

Lyhyt, mutta onnettomuutta uhkaava kipinä välähti miss Gethingin
silmissä.
"Pyydän anteeksi", sanoi laivuri nöyrästi.
"Mitä?" kysyi miss Gething, ja nyt oli hänen vuoronsa näyttää

viattomalta.
Väsyneinä kiertoteihin, joissa hän aina joutui tappiolle, päätti

Wilson taas käydä suoraan asiaan.
"Kun koetin suudella teitä ja sitten olin olevinani ymmärtämätön",

sanoi hän avomielisesti.
"Kapteeni Wilson… minä… minä en käsitä mitä te tarkoitatte."
"Kyllä te käsitätte", sanoi Wilson levollisena.
Kipinä välähti taas miss Gethingin silmissä, hän puri huultaan ja

kääntyi poispäin, huomattuaan mahdottomaksi rangaista tätä
syntistä olentoa.
"Varmaankin sanotte ensi kerran tällaisia asioita jollekin tytölle",

sanoi hän lopulta. "Niin", sanoi Wilson vakuuttavasti.
"Tahdotte harjotella", sanoi miss Gething halveksivasti.
"Niin, sitä juuri haluan", sanoi Wilson innokkaasti.
Hän teki taas liikkeen lähestyäkseen tyttöä, mutta tämän katse

pidätti hänet.
"Ei kuitenkaan tytön kanssa, joka jo on puoliksi kihloissa", sanoi

Annis ja katsoi laivuria lempeän moittivasti. "Se ei ole oikein."
"Tietääkö hän asian oikean laidan?" kysyi Wilson, tietystikin
tarkoittaen herra Gloveria. Miss Gething nyökkäsi.
"Silloin katson asian olevan aivan oikein ja paikallaan", sanoi

Wilson.
"Mutta sitä en tee minä", sanoi Annis ja ojensi kätensä. "Hyvästi

nyt!" sanoi hän varmalla äänellä. "En halua tavata teitä ennen isäni
löytymistä. Ja, jos herra Glover hänet löytää, en halua tavata teitä
koskaan. Voikaa hyvin."
Laivuri tarttui ojennettuun käteen ja ihmetellen rohkeuttaan, veti

hän vastusta tekevän tytön luoksensa. Sitten taivutti hän päänsä ja
miss Gethingin suosiollisella avulla suuteli hänen hattunsa
koristuksia. Tyttö riuhtasi itsensä irti, juoksi aina kadun toiseen
päähän ja katosi nurkan taakse. Laivuri vilkasi vihaisesti aidan
takana katselevaa hevosta, tapauksen ainoaa elollista näkijää, ja
lähti kiireesti kohti Northfleetia, kehottaakseen rohkeutensa
menettänyttä miehistöään uusiin ponnistuksiin.
IX LUKU.
Laivurin ihmeeksi ja harmiksi piti Annis sanansa. Hän tiesi hyvin,

ettei voinut estää laivuria kohtaamasta itseään kadulla, ja sentähden
otti hän mukaansa pari koulutyttöä. Kun ei tämäkään näyttänyt
auttavan, lisättiin lukua, ja sen päivän perästä, jolloin Anniksen
mukana kulki viisi nauravaa pienokaista, ei laivuria enää näkynyt.
Etsimistä jatkettiin koko kesä, ja "Merilokin" miehistö sai osakseen

monet naurut ja ihmettelyt nuuskivasta esiintymisestään.
Syyskuun alkupäivinä oltiin Iranbridgessä, pienessä kaupungissa,

Lebbe-joen rannalla. Kuten tavallista, eivät laivurin tiedustelut
johtaneet mihinkään tuloksiin. Iranbridge oli siksi vähäinen
paikkakunta, ettei kukaan siellä voinut piilottautua. Kuitenkin sai
Henry eräänä kauniina päivänä, kun huomattiin hänen
vastenmielisyytensä lastin purkaukseen, luvan mennä maalle
ostamaan tupakkaa kokille ja samalla katselemaan vähän
ympärilleen.
Henry astuskeli hiljalleen ja heitti tuontuostakin katseen taaksensa

tomupilveen, mikä ympäröi "Merilokkia." Paikkakunta oli uusi ja
tuntematon ja hänen mielensä hehkui seikkailuihin.
Kaupungissa ei löytynyt montakaan näkemisen arvoista paikkaa.
Ennen rautateitä oli se kylläkin ollut vilkas satamakaupunki; nyt olivat
sen kadut tyhjät ja ranta melkein autio. Paitsi "Merilokkia", löytyi
vaan pari jahtia, joiden lastia miehet koreilla kantoivat maalle.
Hiljaisuus vaikutti painostavasti Henryyn; juotuaan kohtuullisen

puolikkaan olutta sytytti hän piippunsa ja asteli Isoakatua kädet
housuntaskuissa.
"Ei! Kyllä Lontoo on sentään toista", sanoi hän ja pysähtyi korkean

tiilimuurin viereen katselemaan hedelmäpuita sen takana. "Täällähän
on kaikki ihan kuollutta."
Hän kiipesi muurin harjalle, istui sinne hajareisin ja vihelteli.

Kasvava oluthalunsa oli muuttunut vanhaan rakkauteen omeniin.
Puut peittivät takana olevan rakennuksen, tilaisuus oli mainio, ja
meikein pakosta hyppäsi hän muurin toiselle puolelle, ja alkoi
kiireimmän kautta sulloa omenia taskuihinsa.
Kaikki oli äärettömän hiljaista. Poika matki romaanissa lukemiansa

"punanahkain" hiipiviä liikkeitä tällaisissa tapauksissa, niin hyvin kuin
kaksi tai kolme omenakiloa taskuissa sallivat, lähestyi sitten tutkien
isoa huvihuonetta, ja kurkisti ovesta sisään. Se oli tyhjä, paitsi
pöytää ja paria puupenkkiä. Henry istuutui ja maistoi omenaa.
Mutta samassa huomasi hän tilansa vaarallisuuden. Kuului

lähestyviä askeleita, joiden päämääränä epäilemättä oli huvihuone.
Äänettömästi ja kiireesti kuin vanha tottunutkin murtovaras ryömi
Henry pöydän alle.
"Pysy tuolla, hävytön penikka", kuului samassa naisääni. "Ja

ennen et pääse ulos, kun osaat joet aivan kuin vettä."
Joku työnnettiin huvihuoneeseen, ovi suljettiin ja väännettiin
lukkoon. Askeleet poistuivat ja hämmästynyt ryöväri käsitti nyt tilansa
koko vaarallisuuden: elämänsä riippui pienestä tytöstä.
"Minä en välitä teidän saarnoistanne", kuului vastustava ääni.

"Minä en välitä — en! Syljen teidän jokiinne — syljen teidän jokiinne
— syljen teidän jokiinne."
Äänen omistajatar istuutui pöydälle. Hädissään koetti Henry

parantaa asentoaan, vaan löi vahingossa päänsä kovasti pöytään.
"Ooooh!…" huusi pieni tyttö kauhistuneena. "Älkää peljätkö", sanoi

Henry nöyrästi ja katsoi tyttöön. "En minä tee teille pahaa."
"Hyi! — Hyi", sanoi tyttö. "Poika…!"
Henry ryömi esille ja istuutui arvokkaasti, vaan yskäsi samassa

nolona huomatessaan tytön katseen kiintyvän hänen taskuihinsa.
"Mitä sinulla on taskuissasi?" kysyi tyttö. "Omenia", vastasi Henry

houkuttelevasti. "Ostin niitä kaupungista."
Tyttö otti pari kappaletta ja tarkasti niitä tyystin. "Olet paha ja

kelvoton poika", sanoi hän ja purasi toista omenaa. "Mutta kyllä tulet
saamaankin, sinä, kunhan miss Dimchurch tulee."
"Kuka miss Dimchurch on?" kysyi Henry, anteeksiannettavalla

uteliaisuudella. "Opettajatar."
"Onko tämä koulu?"
Pieni tyttö nyökkäsi suu omenaa täynnä. "Onko täällä miehiäkin

opettamassa?" kysyi Henry, teeskennellyllä välinpitämättömyydellä.
Tyttö pudisti päätään.
"Sinä olet ainoa poika, minkä koskaan olen täällä nähnyt", sanoi
hän iloisesti. "Kyllä sinä saat, sinä, kunhan miss Dimchurch tulee."
Joku painostava levottomuus putosi Henryn sydämeltä ja hän

hymyili tyytyväisenä.
"Vanhoja mamselleja minä en pelkää", sanoi hän rauhallisesti, veti

piipun taskustaan ja täytti sen.
Pienen tytön silmät loistivat ihastuksesta.
"Oi! Jos minäkin olisin poika", sanoi hän kaiholla. "Silloin en

välittäisi mitään miss Dimchurchista. Oletko sinä merimiespoika?"
"Merimies", oikaisi Henry. "Kyllä."
"Minä pidän merimiehistä", sanoi pieni tyttö ystävällisesti. "Saat

kappaleen omenastani, jos haluat."
"En, kiitoksia", sanoi Henry kiireesti. "Minulla on vielä

alkamattomia."
Pikku tyttö nousi pystyyn ja katsoi ylpeästi poikaan, mutta

huomattuaan, ettei tämä vilkaissutkaan häneen, puri hän uudestaan
omenaansa. "Mikä sinun nimesi on?" kysyi tyttö. "Henry Hatkins",
vastasi poika. "Entäs sinun?"
"Gertrude Ursula Florence Harcourt", sanoi tyttö suoristaen

selkäänsä.
"Minä en pidä Hatkins nimestä."
"Etkö?" sanoi Henry ja koetti peittää loukkaantumistaan. "Minä en
taas pidä Gertrudesta taikka Ursulasta taikka Florencesta, ja
Harcourt minusta on kaikkein hullumpi."
Miss Harcourt siirtyi pari kolme tuumaa etemmäksi ja naputti

hermostuneesti sormenpäillään pöytää.
"Minä en välitä mistä sinä pidät", sanoi hän ylpeästi.
"Minä pidän Gertystä", sanoi Henry tuntijan äänellä ja katsoi pieniä

rusottavia kasvoja. "Gerty on hyvin kaunis, siitä minä pidän."
"Siten minua tavallisesti kutsutaankin", sanoi miss Harcourt

huolimattomasti. "Purjehtiiko sinun laivasi suurilla merilläkin?"
"Kyllä", vastasi poika.
"Ja kuinka monta kertaa", sanoi Gertrude Ursula Florence

Harcourt, "olet taistellut merirosvojen kanssa?"
"En nyt niin varmaan muista — kuusi tai seitsemän kertaa", sanoi
Henry
Hatkins. "Luulen niitä sentään olleen vaan kuusi."
"Kerro minulle niistä kaikista", sanoi miss Harcourt, joka vaivoin

pysyi alallaan.
Henry puri kappaleen omenastaan ja alkoi, romaanejaan

muistellen, juttunsa. Hän valloitti laivoja tavalla, jota eivät edes
amiraalit olisi voineet uneksiakaan, vielä vähemmän merirosvot,
jotka aina tulivat lyödyiksi. Miss Harcourt pidätteli henkeään, ja
hänen pienet (eivät suinkaan liian puhtaat) sormensa puristivat pojan
käsivartta kovemmin ja heikommin, aina kertomuksen kulun mukaan.

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330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 10: 0-13-429325-8

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I dedicate this edition to my husband, Phillip Rico.

And to my colleagues in TESOL and CATESOL,

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Lynne T. Díaz-Rico is a professor of education at California State University, San Ber-

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PART ONE Learning 1

1 Learning about the Language Learner 2

2 Learning about Language Structure 24

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Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language 27

3 Learning about Second-Language Acquisition 40

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PART TWO Instruction 59

4 Oracy and Literacy for English-Language Development 60

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6 Theories and Methods of Bilingual Education 123

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PART THREE Assessment 151

7 Language and Content-Area Assessment 152

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LEARNING MORE 174

PART FOUR Cultural Diversity in the United States 177

8 Cultural Diversity 178

9 Culturally Responsive Schooling 197

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LEARNING MORE 231

10 The Role of the Family in Schools 232

PART FIVE Policy 245

11 The Role of Educators in Language Policy 246

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State Commissions and Professional Organizations 258

12 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners and Special Education 263

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Universal Design for Special Populations of English Learners 281

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New to this edition!

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Part Two: Part One: Part Five:

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