1 s2.0 S2214714422007103 Main

Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Water Process Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwpe
Sustainability assessment of vermifiltration technology for treating

domestic sewage: A review
Sanket Dey Chowdhury a, Puspendu Bhunia a, *, Rao Y. Surampalli b
a
Environmental Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar 752 050, Odisha, India
b
Global Institute for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, P.O. Box 14354 Lenexa, Kansas 66285, USA
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: With population surge and vigorous industrialization, scarcity of freshwater is intensifying day-by-day. Reuti
Vermifilter lization of treated wastewater has been regarded as the most promising effort to counteract this global issue. To
LCA meet the current need of sustainable development, researchers are emphasizing on practicing the green tech
Circular bioeconomy
nologies to purify wastewater. In such regard, vermifiltration (VF), being a natural and eco-friendly technology,
Sustainable development
Green technology
can be a wise selection for treating the domestic sewage. The present review includes a brief discussion on the
performance of VF in remediating the domestic sewage. In addition, the life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle
impact assessment (LCIA) of the VF technology have been explored and the results are compared with those of
the conventional and non-conventional wastewater remediation technologies. It is found that VF is a standalone
technology delivering enormous benefits, including negotiation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, decentral
ized treatment facility, energy efficiency, value-added byproduct generation, contribution to circular bio
economy, and preservation of local aesthetics. The main objective of this review work is to bring all the aspects
related to VF of domestic sewage to the attention of the prolific researchers for establishing VF technology as a
sustainable domestic sewage treatment alternative in near future, satisfying the zero-discharge concept.
1. Introduction various towns and cities has been the biggest source of water pollution in
India [6]. Generally, 75–80 % of the freshwater supplied to the com
The unrestrained population growth, urbanization, and intense in munities becomes wastewater [7]. As per the reports of the Status of
dustrial activities have brought about the consumption of enormous Sewage Treatment Plants 2021, published by CPCB, in India, approxi
quantity of freshwater and discharge of huge amount of wastewater mately 29,129 MLD swage has been produced by all the Class I cities and
containing hazardous contaminants such as organics, nutrients, patho Class II towns together (estimated as per the population in 2001 census),
gens, etc. [1,2]. According to the UN World Water Development Report which is expected to be 33,212 MLD at present, considering 30 % growth
2020, a six-fold increase in the water utilization over the past century in urban population per decade. On the other hand, the existing
has been observed with an increasing rate of almost 1 % per year [3]. wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) facilitate the treatment capacity
The presence of the abovementioned pollutants in the aquatic environ up to 7933 MLD which is just 23.88 % of the current domestic sewage
ment exhibits the concerns like eutrophication and depletion of dis generation. Meanwhile, the actual capacity utilization factor of the
solved oxygen (DO), thereby making the environment adverse for the existing sewage treatment plants (STPs) is 0.722. Practically, only 13.5
aquatic lives to thrive. In extreme conditions, the human beings may % of the generated domestic sewage avails the centralized treatment
also get affected as we share the food chain with the fishes [2,4]. The facility and the remaining gets directly discharged into the waterbodies,
situation becomes even worse when the consumers are compelled to use deteriorating the water quality [8]. Moreover, the domestic sewage is
the contaminated water or buy freshwater at high cost. Hence, to enriched with nutrients, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Hence, in
overcome the scarcity of clean water, the treatment and reuse of order to meet the stringent surface water discharge norms, to satisfy the
wastewater have become the compulsory choice for the competent au accrescent need for the clean water, and from the perspective of nutrient
thorities [2,5]. recovery, the treatment of domestic sewage is of utmost importance
It has been reported that the domestic wastewater coming from [6,9].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Dey Chowdhury), [email protected] (P. Bhunia), [email protected] (R.Y. Surampalli).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.103266
Received 24 July 2022; Received in revised form 12 October 2022; Accepted 17 October 2022
Available online 26 October 2022
2214-7144/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Dey Chowdhury et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266
The conventional WWTPs, employed to overcome the water crisis, methane (CH4) in the WWTPs, whereas Kampschreur et al. [19] have
necessitate large material and energy input. Furthermore, the green inspected that up to 14.6 % of the total nitrogen load of the influent has
house gas (GHG) emissions from the WWTPs can potentially damage the been released as nitrous oxide (N2O) in the WWTPs. Such emissions
environment [10]. In addition, as a byproduct of wastewater treatment, become even intense when the activate sludge process (ASP) is used as
enormous quantity of sludge is produced in WWTPs, imposing addi the secondary treatment step in the WWTPs [20]. Moreover, the
tional monetary requirements, which, in turn, makes the WWTPs un centralized treatment system necessitates the transportation of the
sustainable [11]. The physical and chemical wastewater treatment wastewater and the produced sludge from the source of wastewater to
methods are found to be costly as well as incompetent in removing the the treatment site and from the wastewater treatment site to the sludge
targeted pollutants from the wastewater, cutting down their accept handling site, respectively [21]. In addition to the potential GHG
ability as the sustainable wastewater remediation methods [12,13]. As a emissions, huge monetary requirement for high energy consumption,
solution to the aforesaid problems, the biological wastewater treatment and sludge handling make the centralized wastewater treatment systems
methods have gained the major attention of the researchers because of unsustainable, especially for the small communities in rural areas.
having several advantages over the aforementioned methods [14]. The Implementation of decentralized onsite sanitation systems can be a po
anaerobic methods are energy-efficient and produce less sludge. How tential solution for the above problem [22]. In fact, it is an automatic
ever, it is a sluggish process and becomes unstable due to the slight choice, especially where the central sanitation system has not reached.
deviation in the operating conditions. In addition, the anaerobic In addition, being easy to construct and operate, the decentralized sys
methods are not suitable for the low-strength wastewater such as do tems have become more sustainable than the centralized systems and are
mestic sewage. The anaerobically treated effluent is devoid of DO, expected to serve up to 500 million population by the year 2030 [23].
restricting its disposal to the surface water. In addition, the gaseous In this regard, the vermifiltration (VF) technology, being a natural,
emissions such as methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and the environmentally benevolent, cost-effective, and decentralized system,
pungent smell produced during the anaerobic process hinder its envi has gained the attention of the researchers, especially for remediating
ronmental as well as social acceptability [1,7]. On the other hand, the the domestic sewage [1,5,11]. The vermifilters are earthworm-based
aerobic methods, being more robust than the former, can be effectively biofilters, facilitating the degradation of organics and eradication of
implemented to overcome the concerns related to the anaerobic nutrients through the combined action of the earthworms and microbes
methods. However, high energy input and huge sludge production have [5,11] (Fig. 2). Mostly, the VF technology has gained the popularity as
been the perennial constraints for the commercialization of the aerobic the primary or secondary treatment alternative for treating the domestic
wastewater treatment methods, especially in the underdeveloped and sewage (Fig. 3). If the nutrient recovery from the domestic wastewater is
developing countries where the capital investment and skilled intended, the vermifilters can also be potentially employed as the ter
manpower are not available in abundance [2,5]. tiary treatment step [3].
In the context of the developing and underdeveloped countries, the In order to evaluate the sustainability of VF technology for treating
implementation of the sustainable wastewater treatment technology is the domestic sewage, the life-cycle assessment (LCA) of VF technology
of paramount importance. According to Bradley et al. [15], in order to has been explored. From the available data on the LCA studies on the VF
achieve the sustainability, the technology has to be environmentally technology treating domestic sewage, a comprehensive review on the
benign, economically feasible, and socially acceptable (Fig. 1). Ac inflow (raw materials and energy) and outflow (treated effluent, solid
cording to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the sus residue, and GHG emissions) of various forms of materials throughout
tainable water resource systems are designed and maintained to fulfill all the stages of its lifecycle i.e., construction, operation, and disman
the objectives of the society without compromising the ecological, hy tling has been portrayed in this review work. This not only helped to
drological, and environmental integrity [15]. In short, sustainable understand the environmental sustainability of the VF technology (in
development promotes the preservation of the social, economic, and terms of GHG emissions, and sludge production), but also helped to
environmental vitalities while satisfying the current needs. understand the economic feasibility of the same (in terms of materials
The conventional WWTPs are reported to emit 3 % of the global GHG and energy consumption and value-added byproduct formation). To
emissions [16,17]. Daelman et al. [18] investigated that 1 % of the have an in-depth understanding of the actual environmental impacts
chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the influent has been converted to caused by the VF technology while treating the domestic sewage, the
concept of the life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) has also been
reconnoitered [24,25]. As already mentioned, since the VF technology
has been mostly employed as the secondary treatment step, the results
obtained from the LCA and LCIA studies on VF technology are compared
with those of the ASP, the most frequently employed conventional sec
ondary treatment step in the WWTPs, for assessing the sustainability of
the VF technology. Apart from this, the VF technology has also been
compared with the other non-conventional technologies such as con
structed wetlands (CWs), aerated lagoons (ALs), and waste stabilization
ponds (WSPs) regarding the materials and energy input and GHG
emissions across all the stages of their life-cycle to reinforce the
acceptability of the VF technology as the sustainable domestic waste
water treatment alternative.
Till date, many review works on evaluating the potential of the VF
technology as an alternative of the conventional wastewater treatment
technologies have been published by the various prolific researchers
across the globe [2,5,11,26,27]. Singh et al. [5] have focused on the
pollutant removal mechanisms, factors affecting the treatment perfor
mance, and the application of the VF technology in removing the key
pollutants i.e., organics, nutrients, and solids from the wastewaters.
Samal et al. [11] have emphasized on the potential of the macrophyte-
assisted vermifilters in remediating the domestic as well as industrial
Fig. 1. Sustainability criteria for a wastewater treatment technology. wastewaters. Singh et al. [2] have highlighted the reusability of the
2
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of a VF unit.
Fig. 3. Application of the VF technology for treating the domestic sewage. (a) primary treatment step and (b) secondary treatment step.
treated effluent from the VF of the wastewaters coming from both the published their review works on the sustainability, particularly on the
domestic and industrial premises. Samal et al. [26] have enlighten the environmental sustainability of VF technology for treating the waste
types and characteristics of the earthworms, their casting habits, and water [2,3,28,29]. Lourenco and Nunes [29] have evaluated the sus
GHG emissions during the VF process while briefing about the pollutant tainability of the VF technology in terms of material and energy input
removal mechanisms and the application of the VF technology for and GHG emissions throughout all the stages of its life-cycle while
treating various wastewaters. Singh et al. [27] have particularly treating the domestic sewage and compared the results with those of the
explored the nitrogen removal dynamics in the vermifilters while CWs, small rate infiltration (SRI), and ASP. On the other hand, Abello-
treating the domestic as well as the industrial wastewaters. Also from the Passteni [28] has focused on the LCIA of the VF technology, ALs, and
available literature, it has been observed that very few researchers have ASP while treating the raw domestic sewage from the small communities
3
in Chile. However, to the best of our knowledge, no one has ever made mechanical aeration, thereby making the process cost-effective [5].
an approach to assess the economic sustainability of the VF technology Since the wastewater flows vertically through the system, the vermibed
by performing the cost analysis and focusing on its linkage to the circular materials get effectively utilized in the VSSF-VFs [1]. Moreover, the
bioeconomy during the treatment of domestic sewage. Moreover, the intensified aeration further aggravates the activity of the earthworms
assessment of the social acceptability of the VF technology during the inside the VSSF-VFs. As a result, more casting is produced, which can be
course of treating the domestic sewage has also been overlooked by the sold as organic fertilizer, cutting down the cost of the process [31]. On
researchers. Hence, in this review work, a genuine effort has been made the other hand, the higher DO level inside the system ensures the
to investigate the sustainability of the VF technology with respect to the complete degradation of the organics present in the wastewater,
three major bottom-lines of the sustainability i.e., environmental sus releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) as the only gaseous emission, especially
tainability, economic affordability, and social acceptability during the while treating the domestic wastewater with lower organic strength,
course of treating the domestic sewage. which, in turn, promotes the environmental sustainability through
negotiating the greenhouse gas (GHG) such as methane (CH4) and
2. Types, operation, and sustainability of vermifilters nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions [2,26]. Lastly, being a complete aerobic
system, VSSF-VF does not produce any pungent smell during the treat
Predominantly, vermifilters are of three types: vertical subsurface ment of wastewater, reinforcing the social acceptability [5].
flow vermifilters (VSSF-VFs), horizontal subsurface flow vermifilters
(HSSF-VFs), and hybrid vermifilters (H-VFs). The design, operation, and 2.2. HSSF-VFs
sustainability of each of the aforementioned vermifilters are briefly
discussed below. Unlike the VSSF-VFs, the bed materials are stacked in layers in
horizontal direction and the gravel layer is provided just before the
2.1. VSSF-VFs outlet. In HSSF-VFs, the wastewater is allowed to flow through the
vermibed media horizontally and the treated effluent is collected at the
In VSSF-VF, the bed materials are stacked in layers vertically and the outlet end, placed opposite to the inlet zone (Fig. 4b). According to the
gravel is provided at the bottommost layer as a supporting media. The reports, the coexistence of the aerobic and anoxic/anaerobic conditions
wastewater is allowed to flow vertically through the bed material from has been observed inside the HSSF-VFs, which allows higher denitrifi
the top of the vermibed and treated effluent is collected at the bottom cation along with the biodegradation of the organics and nitrification
(Fig. 4a). The VSSF-VFs exhibits higher oxygenation capacity attributing [30]. Unlike the conventional nitrification and denitrification system, in
to the better distribution of wastewater [30], which promotes enhanced HSSF-VFs, the nitrification and denitrification take place simultaneously
biodegradation of the organics and nitrification process. Hence in within a single unit, lessening the footprint requirement. Moreover, no
addition to the burrowing activities of the earthworms, the configura external chemical such as methanol is required to be added as the
tion of the VSSF-VFs intensifies the natural aeration inside the system, external carbon source to trigger the growth of the denitrifiers in the
which further cuts down the external energy requirement for HSSF-VFs, reducing the cost of the process [1,32]. Similar to the VSSF-
Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of different types of vermifilter designs. (a) VSSF-VF, (b) HSSF-VF, and (c) H-VF.
4
VFs, the produced casting in the HSSF-VFs can be traded as the organic suspended pollutants, the dissolved pollutants in the influent percolate
fertilizer. Moreover, the HSSF-VFs negotiate the emission of the poten through the screening layer. Thereafter, a fraction of the dissolved
tial GHGs and the generation of the pungent odor, thereby assuring the pollutants gets absorbed by the suitable layer of the vermibed media and
environmental sustainability and social acceptability, respectively the remaining fraction gets degraded by the combined action of the
[5,26]. earthworms and microbes [5] (Fig. 5).
As already mentioned, the earthworms perform a series of beneficial
2.3. H-VFs activities such as ingestion of larger particles, grinding of ingested
particles in the gizzard, digestion of grinded particles in presence of gut
H-VF allows two-stage filtration of the wastewater. Generally, a H-VF microbes, and finally, excretion as vermicasting, enriched in microbes
consists of a VSSF-VF followed by a HSSF-VF. First, the wastewater flows and nutrients [1]. Generally, the earthworms devour the large size
vertically through the VSSF-VF and the effluent coming out from the particles into finer particles, favoring the microbial degradation of the
bottom of the VSSF-VF serves as the influent for the HSSF-VF, which pollutants [5]. Moreover, owing to the tunneling activity of the earth
flows horizontally through the HSSF-VF and finally, the effluent is worms, natural aeration gets intensified within the system, triggering
collected on the other side of the HSSF-VF (Fig. 4c). As already dis aerobic microbial degradation of the organics [40,41]. The introduction
cussed, in VSSF-VFs, the aerobic condition prevails, whereas in HSSF- of earthworms promotes the growth of diversified microbial commu
VFs, the anaerobic condition becomes predominant [30]. Since, the nities, improving organic oxidation potential of the vermifilter [42]. The
wastewater has to travel through both the reactors, it experiences all the earthworms release a slimy liquid, also known as mucus, containing
redox conditions during its passage through the H-VFs [33]. Basically, various enzymes and microbes, which, in turn, facilitates the minerali
the H-VFs impart all the advantages associated with the VSSF-VFs and zation of the contaminants [43]. Mucus is also enriched in gluco-
HSSF-VFs. Moreover, due to the improved redox conditions, the H-VFs proteins, amino acids, and glucosidic and proteic molecules, thereby
ensure better removal of the organics and nutrients from the waste upholding the optimum carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio for the microbial
water. Also, the effective length of travel of the wastewater gets degradation [44,45]. In addition, the earthworms also possess pH
increased in the H-VFs, leading to the enhanced interaction time be neutralization potential by secreting calcium from their crop, thereby
tween the wastewater, earthworms, bed materials, and microbes, which, enhancing the bioavailability of the organics and solids for further
in turn, aggravates the treatment efficacy of the VF technology through degradation [46].
satisfying the criteria for the environmental and economic sustainability
[1]. 3.2. Nutrient removal mechanism
3. Pollutant removal mechanisms in VF technology The domestic wastewater mainly contains ammonium N (NH+ 4 -N)
and organic N. Apart from N, domestic sewage also embraces significant
VF technology can substantially remove the organics, solids (both amount of P. The N removal pathways in the vermifilter is very intricate,
the suspended and dissolved solids), nutrients (mainly N and P), and including ammonification or mineralization of the organic N, nitrifica
pathogens from the domestic wastewater. The governing pollutant tion, and denitrification or adsorption by the bed materials, or microbial
removal mechanisms in the vermifilter have been discussed in brief in assimilation [1] (Fig. 6). The organic N, present in the domestic
the following subsections. wastewater or released from the tissues of the dead earthworms, has
been utilized by the heterotrophs such as Bacillus, Proteus, Pseudomonas,
3.1. Organic and solid removal mechanism Streptomyces, etc. for their growth and reproduction and subsequently,
the inorganic form of N i.e., NH+ 4 -N gets released into the vermifilter
In VF, the symbiotic action of the microbes and the earthworms [37,38]. Basically, the organics present in the domestic wastewater and
captivates the purification of wastewater. The earthworms, incorporated the bed material and the nitrogenous substances excreted by the
into the vermibed, not only breakdown the pollutants present in the earthworms help in maintaining the adequate C/N ratio inside the
wastewater, but also devour the soil particles of the vermibed [1,31,34]. vermibed, facilitating the growth of heterotrophs [47]. The NH+ 4 -N,
Apart from the earthworms and microbes, a large portion of pollutants present in the domestic wastewater or produced due to the ammonifi
has been removed by the vermibed media through adsorption and cation of organic N can be removed in two ways in the vermifilter:
screening or trapping [2,35]. Generally, the vermibed consists of both nitrification by the autotrophs and adsorption by the bed materials [35].
the organic and inorganic materials. The organic materials such as In vermifilter, the burrowing activity of the earthworms intensifies the
vermicompost serve as the food to the earthworms and microbes and air circulation inside the vermibed, which, in turn, helps in nitrification
thereby helping the earthworms to grow and reproduce, which, in turn, of NH+ 4 -N. Nitrification is an aerobic process and is carried out by the
improves the performance of the vermifilter [5,11]. On the other hand, autotrophs which grow when the availability of the organic carbon is
the inorganic packing materials such as sand improve the hydraulic less inside the vermifilter [1]. Generally, the nitrification takes place
conductivity of the media, facilitating efficient wastewater treatment within the top few centimeters of the vermibed. Since NH+ 4 -N carries
through the achievement of desired hydraulic retention time (HRT) positive surface charge and the bed materials are mostly negatively
[36]. During VF, the vermibed acts as the sorption medium or support charged, NH+ 4 -N gets adsorbed by the bed materials through electro
matrix, enhancing the removal of nutrients in the vermifilter [37–39]. static interactions (Fig. 6) [48,49]. On the other hand, since both the
The earthworms through their burrowing activities, combination of NO−3 -N and bed materials are negatively charged, the removal of NO−3 -N
ingestion, grinding, digestion, and excretion, convert the larger soil through adsorption is trivial. The hydrophobic interaction between the
particles of the vermibed into finer fractions, increasing the specific vermibed media and NO−3 -N governs the little adsorption of NO−3 -N onto
surface area of the vermibed media, thereby escalating the sorption the vermibed media [49]. Meanwhile, if macrophytes are present in the
capacity of the support matrix. In addition, the earthworm’s burrowing system, the NO−3 -N will be up taken as nutrient by the macrophytes. The
action also helps in improving the porosity of the vermibed media. most important N removal pathway in the vermifilter is denitrification
Generally, the coarse pollutants such as suspended organics and sus [1]. Denitrification of the nitrified byproducts is carried out by the
pended solids, present in the influent, get trapped on the pores of the bed heterotrophs which become prevalent in the vermifilter when the
media followed by their subsequent devouring by the earthworms and organic carbon source is available in abundance inside the system [35].
eventually, get released as the vermicasting with enlarged specific sur During denitrification, the nitrified byproducts (mostly, nitrate N (NO−3 -
face area. This vermicasting gets mixed with the bed materials and im N)) get directly converted into N2 gas by the heterotrophs and subse
proves the sorption potential of the mixture [2,35]. Unlike the quently, the produced N2 gas gets released to the atmosphere. It has been
5
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the organic and solid removal mechanisms in vermifiltration (TSS: Total suspended solids; TDS: Total dissolved solids; SSA: Specific
surface area).
reported that the anoxic/anaerobic condition triggers the denitrification destroyed in the earthworm’s gut [40,41].
process [30]. Thus, the denitrification mostly occurs at the bottom layers
of the vermibed, the earthworm excluded zone, if sufficient organic 4. Application and performance of VF technology for treating
carbon source is available for the growth of the heterotrophs [5]. domestic sewage
Moreover, the mucus, released by the earthworms, embraces various gut
microbes and enzymes, facilitating nitrification and denitrification From the extensive literature, it has been observed that the VF
processes [11]. technology has become one of the major alternatives of the conventional
The removal of P in the vermifilter is governed by the adsorption wastewater treatment methods for eradicating organics, nutrients,
process [5] (Fig. 6). The enzyme-assisted microbial mechanism of the solids, and pathogens from the domestic wastewater [1,3,5,45,54]. A
vermifilter does not facilitate the removal of P. Thus, the P removal comprehensive overview on the performance of the VF technology in
potential of the vermifilters depends upon the adsorption capacity of the remediating the domestic sewage is portrayed in Table 1.
bedding material and the wastewater distribution time [50]. Apart from
adsorption, a fraction of P also gets removed through the fixation of P as 4.1. Organic removal
the phosphate (PO3− 4 ) of different metallic cations [51]. However,
attributing to the burrowing activities of the earthworms, the microbial The vermifilters are reported to exhibit higher removal of organics
and enzymatic activities inside the vermifilter get amplified, which, in than that of the geofilters [2,31]. The provision of sufficient HRT and
turn, facilitate the mineralization of the bound form of P. As a result, the optimum earthworm density further improves the performance of the
effluent total P (TP) concentration often gets escalated than its influent vermifilter [74]. The earthworm species also plays a pivotal role in the
concentration [52]. performance of the vermifilters. For instance, Kumar et al. [61] reported
that VF ensured 71.89 and 88.33 % removals of COD and biological
3.3. Pathogen removal mechanism oxygen demand (BOD5), respectively from the real domestic sewage
using riverbed material and vermicompost as the vermibed material in
Apart from the organics, nutrients, and solids, the vermifilters also presence of Eisenia fetida earthworm species, whereas the presence of
have the potential to eliminate pathogens, especially from the domestic Eudrilus eugeniae yielded only up to 54.22 and 70 % removals of COD
sewage [53]. Basically, the coelomic fluid, also known as mucus, and BOD5, respectively under the same operating conditions, indicating
secreted from the earthworm’s body, portrays antibacterial properties the superiority of Eisenia fetida over Eudrilus eugeniae. Even though, both
and slays the unfamiliar microbes present in the domestic wastewater. Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae belong to the epigeic species, the
Mucus only supports the survival of the gut microbes. It gets mixed with former earthworms have been reported to withstand the adverse oper
the bacterial cell and ceases their movement owing to its stickiness ating conditions to the maximum extent. They can even operate under
property [2] (Fig. 7). It further leads to the killing of the pathogens the water-logged condition. Compared to Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia fetida
owing to the scarcity of food in their vicinity. Nevertheless, the earth gets acclimatized very quickly to the surroundings. Moreover, these
worms also devour the pathogens and subsequently, the pathogens get earthworms are the voracious eaters of the organics and produce huge
6
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the nutrient removal mechanisms in vermifiltration.
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the pathogen removal mechanisms in vermifiltration.
7
S. Dey Chowdhury et al.
Table 1
Performance of VF technology treating domestic sewage.
Type of Earthworm Location of Pretreatment Active bed Depth of active HLR (m3/ HRT (h) Performance (%) Reference
wastewater species wastewater facility material vermibed (cm) m2.d)
Organic Nutrient Solid removal Pathogen removal
source
removal removal (Log R)
Concentrated Eudrilus – Homogenization Sawdust 40 0.016 – BOD5: 97.6, NH+ 4 -N: 75, TSS: 99.4 – Adugna et al.
greywater eugeniae (200 COD: 82.6 NO−3 -N: [55]
worms) 62.2, PO3−4 -
P: 31.3
Cow dung 20 BOD5: 97.2, NH+ 4 -N: 75, TSS: 98.9
COD: 82.4 NO−3 -N:
45.9, PO3−4 -
P: 21.9
Synthetic Eisenia fetida Environmental – Mature 20 1 7–8 BOD5 > 95, – – TC: 3.15, FC: 2.88, Arora et al.
domestic (10,000 Engineering vermigratings COD: 74 TF: 3.46, E. coli: [42]
wastewater worms/m3 laboratory, IIT 2.03, Salmonella:
active Roorkee, India 3.90, FS: 3.74,
vermibed) Actinomycetes:
1.09
Domestic Eisenia fetida Kitchen waste Kitchen waste: – BOD5 > 85.5, NH+
4 -N: 90 TSS: 82.2 TC: 3.91, FC: 3.82, Arora et al.
sewage (10,000 underlain by 20, COD: 77.8 E. coli: 2.51, [53]
worms/m3 vermigratings vermigratings: Salmonella: 2.20,
active 15 TF: 0.80,
vermibed) Actinomycetes:
1.91
b
Institutional Eisenia fetida Dr. B. Lal Thorough Mixture of 20 4–6 BOD5 > 98, NO−3 -N and – TC: 0.20, bFC: Arora et al.
wastewater (10,000 Institute of mixing vermigratings COD: 92 PO3−4 -P 0.30, bFS: 0.23 [54]
worms/m3 Biotechnology, and cow dung increased in
8
active Jaipur, India effluent

vermibed)
Greywater Indian blue – – Mixture of 20 0.28 – BOD5: – TSS: – Bhise and
worms (262 garden soil and 85.22–89.64, 86.47–90.28, Anaokar
g/m3 active sawdust (3:1 COD: TDS: [56]
vermibed) volumetric ratio) 59.24–63.30 84.74–88.88
a
Domestic Eisenia fetida School of Septic tank Mixture of sand 20 each 3–7 5.49–12.82 COD: 67–77 NH+4 -N: – Dey
sewage (10,000 Infrastructure, and 74.4–98.2, Chowdhury
worms/m3 IIT vermicompost TN: 73–87 and Bhunia
active Bhubaneswar, (VC) (3:2 [1]
vermibed) India volumetric ratio)
(2-stage
vermifilter; VSSF

vermifilter
followed by
HSSF
vermifilter)
Domestic Eisenia fetida Tehran, Iran Mixture of fine 20 2–4 m3/d – COD: 64–83 NO−3 -N: Turbidity: Ghasemi
sewage (5000–6000 grained coarse 48–60 83–92 et al. [57]
worms/m3 (40 %), windmill
sewage) sandstone (20
%), and
vermicompost
(40 %)
Domestic Eisenia fetida China Secondary Ceramic pallets 50 4 BOD5: 48.41, – TSS: 36.26, Li et al. [58]
sewage (32 g/L) sedimentation (6–9 mm dia) COD: 38.39 VSS: 40.94
sludge tank Ceramic pallets Ceramic pallets BOD5: 61.06, TSS: 49.88,
(10–13 mm dia) (10–13 mm COD: 53.01 VSS: 56.26
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued )
source
underlain by dia): 100,

Ceramic pallets Ceramic pallets
(6–9 mm dia) (6–9 mm dia):
100 (total 200)
Greywater Eudrilus Uma apartment – Mixture of black 12 – 2–3 BOD5: 85–93, TSS: 70–80 Kharwade
eugeniae and Sahajanand cotton soil and COD: 74–80 and
apartment, cow dung (1:3 Khedikar
Nagpur, India volumetric ratio) [59]
b
Synthetic Eisenia fetida Solid waste VC underlain by VC: 5, riverbed 2.5 – BOD5: 96, NH+4 -N: TSS: 90, TDS: Kumar et al.
b
domestic (10,000 laboratory, IIT riverbed materials: 20 COD: 87.89, 86.5, NO−3 - 82 [60]
sewage worms/m3 Roorkee, India materials TOC: 85 N and TP
active increased in
vermibed) effluent
b
Synthetic Eisenia fetida VC underlain by VC: 10, other 1.5 BOD5: 81.2, NH+ 4 -N: TSS: 75, TDS: TC: 2.6, bFC: Kumar et al.
domestic (10,000 riverbed material: 5 for COD: 72.3 75.7 53 2.22, bFS: 1.26, [52]
sewage worms/m3 materials each b
E. coli: 1.81
b b
active VC underlain by BOD5: 74.5, NH+
4 -N: TSS: 64, TDS: TC: 2.4, bFC:
vermibed) wood coal COD: 64.6 74.4 51 2.02, bFS: 1.06,
b
E. coli: 1.36
b
VC underlain by BOD5: 72.7, NH+4 -N: TSS: 59, TDS: TC: 2.2, bFC:
glass balls COD: 61.5 58.4 49.9 1.82, bFS: 0.87,
b
E. coli: 1.16
b
VC underlain by BOD5: 70.9, NH+4 -N: TSS: 55, TDS: TC: 2.3, bFC:
mud balls COD: 59.8 53.6 48.6 1.92, bFS: 0.96,
9
b
E. coli: 1.26
b b b
Domestic Eisenia fetida VC underlain by VC: 5, riverbed 2.5 BOD5: 88.33, NH+4 -N: TSS: 78, TDS: TC: 6.22, bFC: Kumar et al.
sewage (10,000 riverbed material: 20 COD: 71.89, 85.57, 75 4.83 [61]
worms/m3 materials TOC: 80.71 NO−3 -N and
active TP
vermibed) increased in
effluent
b b b
Eudrilus BOD5: 70, NH+4 -N: TSS: 67, TDS: TC: 4.11, bFC:
eugeniae COD: 54.22, 73.77, 66 4.78
(10,000 TOC: 57.76 NO−3 -N and
worms/m3 TP
active increased in
vermibed) effluent

Urban Eisenia fetida – VC obtained 14 0.89 6 BOD5: NH+ 4 -N: TSS: – Lourenco
wastewater (20 g/L) from municipal 97.5–98.5, 88.1–99.1 96.6–98.2 and Nunes
solid waste COD: 74.3 [62]
Rural Eisenia fetida Quyang WWTP Ceramsite 35 4 – BOD5: 83.7, NH+
4 -N: 76 TSS: 94.81 Liu et al.
domestic (25,000 in Shanghai, COD: 58.2 [63]
sewage worms/m3 China
active
vermibed)
Rural Eisenia fetida Suburb village, Screening 25 4.2 BOD5: 67.6, NH+4 -N: TSS: 89.8 Liu et al.
domestic (8 g/L) Shanghai, China followed by COD: 78 92.1 [64]
sewage regulation tank
Urban Eudrilus Poor urban – Sawdust 30 0.0955 BOD5: 93–98, – TSS: 88–96 E. coli: 1.4–3 Ndiaye et al.
greywater eugeniae (200 household in COD: 68–93 [65]
worms) Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
Garden soil 10 – 1–2 –
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued )
source
Untreated Mixture of Oxley WWTP in BOD5: TSS: 90–95, Sinha et al.

municipal Eisenia fetida, South Brisbane, 98.1–99.4, TDS: 90–92, [31]
sewage Eudrilus Australia COD: 45–55 turbidity: 98
eugeniae, and
Perionyx
excavatus
(20,000
worms/m3
active
vermibed)
Domestic Eisenia fetida Shanghai, China Ceramsite Ceramsite: 20, 2.4–6.7 – BOD5: 55–66, NH+ 4 -N: TSS: 57–77 Xing et al.
sewage (21,000 underlain by quartz sand: 10 COD: 48–65 35–68, TN: [66]
worms/m2) quartz sand 7.5–14
Two layers of Total 30 (20 BOD5: 52–60, NH+ 4 -N: TSS: 60–78
quartz sand underlain by 10) COD: 47–56 20–62, TN:
10–15
Rural Eisenia fetida Changzhou Soil (3-stage 30 each 1 COD >81.3 NH+ 4 -N: 98, – Wang et al.
domestic (12.5 g/L village, Jiangsu tower TN: 0–96.4, [45]
sewage vermibed) province, China vermifilter) TP: 98.4
Synthetic Eisenia fetida – Mixture of 35 0.2 COD: NH+ 4 -N: Wag et al.
domestic (4.5–16.5 g/L padding soil and 67.8–76.6 71.5–77.9, [67]
sewage vermibed) rice straw (4:4 TN:
volumetric ratio) 62.7–65.9,
TP:
10
80.3–82.3
b b
Synthetic Eisenia fetida National Manual Mixture of soil 40, 60, 80 0.2 COD: NH+4 -N: Wang et al.
domestic (70 worms) Institute of agitation and sawdust (4:4 86.2–91.3 65.3–71.3, [68]
sewage Environmental volumetric ratio) TN:
Sciences, 39.8–62.9,
Ministry of TP:
Environmental 89.7–91.6
Protection,
Nanjing, China
Domestic Eisenia fetida Quyang WWTP – Granular 160 2–3 6–9 BOD5: 91–98, – TSS: 97–98 Xing et al.
sewage (8000 worms/ in Shanghai, materials COD: 81–86 [69]
m2) 30China
Municipal Eisenia fetida Municipal Aerated grit Ceramsite 30 2 – BOD5: 81.3, NH+4 -N: TSS: 93.7 Wang et al.

wastewater (32 g/L) WWTP, chamber COD: 83.5 55.6, TN: [70]
Shanghai, China 32.4, TP:
38.6
Domestic Eisenia fetida Domestic Aeration tank Ceramsite 100 4 COD: 67.6–78 NH+4 -N: – Li et al. [71]
sewage (40 g/L) WWTP, Quyang, pallets 92.1
sludge Shanghai, China
Human feces Eisenia fetida Series of bucket – Mixture of coir, 10 0.012–0.03 COD: 88–90 – Thermotolerant Furlong et al.
(2 kg/m2) toilets at Centre wood chips, and coliform: 3 [72]
b
Human feces Eisenia fetida for Alternative Homogenization VC (1:1:1 0.012 COD: Thermotolerant Furlong et al.
(4 kg/m2) Technology, volumetric ratio) 74.9–88.8 coliform: [73]
Powys, Wales, 2.61–2.74
b
United Kingdom Mixture of coir 10 COD: Thermotolerant
and wood chips 74.9–89.7 coliform:
(1:1 volumetric 2.61–3.16
ratio)
quantity of vermicasting, which, in turn, enhances the organic removal
4 -N: Ammonium nitrogen; NO3 -N:

4 -P: Phosphate phosphorus; TP: Total phosphorus; TSS: Total suspended solids; TDS: Total dissolved solids; TC: Total coliform; FC: Fecal coliform; TF: Total fungi; FS: Fecal
efficiency of the VF process [5,26]. On the other hand, under the same
−
operating conditions, Kumar et al. [60] obtained the COD and BOD5
removals up to 87.89 and 96 %, respectively during the treatment of
synthetic domestic sewage, employing Eisenia fetida earthworm species
(Table 1). The difference in the organic removal, in presence of the same
earthworm species and similar conditions, could be due to the higher
complexity of the real domestic sewage as compared to the synthetic
domestic sewage [11]. As discussed before, the synergistic action be
tween the earthworms and microbes governs the higher removal of or
ganics in the vermifilter. The earthworms devour the coarse organics
Note: HLR: Hydraulic loading rate; HRT: Hydraulic retention time; Log R: Log removal; BOD: Biological oxygen demand; COD: Chemical oxygen demand; TOC: Total organic carbon; NH+
into finer particles, thereby enhancing their bioavailability for the mi
crobial degradation [5]. The burrowing activity of earthworms helps in
keeping the system aerobic, triggering the growth of favorable microbes
[75]. The mucus also accommodates digestive enzymes, captivating the
degradation of the organics [76].
Xing et al. [69] observed that the vermifilters treating the real do
mestic sewage, in presence of Eisenia fetida, resulted in 81–86 %
abatement of COD, whereas the removal of BOD5 was up to 91–98 %. It
signifies the higher inclination of the earthworms towards the biode
gradable organics compared to the nonbiodegradable organics [53].
Similar observations were also postulated by Arora et al. [53] and Sinha
et al. [31]. The VF technology has also been employed to remediate the
human feces (Table 1). Furlong et al. [72] reported that the application
The real domestic sewage was subjected to two-stage macrophyte-assisted vermifiltration, employing Canna indica macrophyte species.
of the VF technology to remediate human feces ensured substantial COD

removal up to 88–90 %, indicating high concentration of the biode
gradable organic matters in human feces.
It can also be observed from Table 1 that almost all the studies have
been conducted employing Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae earth
worms. Both of them are epigeic earthworms. Generally, for VF process,
the epigeic earthworms are employed by the researchers because of their
ability of rapid acclimatization with the surroundings, higher repro
ducibility, early attainment of the matured phase, withstanding the
fluctuations in the operating condition to a great extent, and displaying
endurance and resistance to handling. Moreover, due to the decom
pacting nature of the epigeic earthworms, the bioavailability of the
Calculated by the authors from the reported influent and effluent concentration of the pollutants.
nutrients in the produced vermicasting gets increased for plant uptake

[26]. The other two types of earthworms i.e., endogenic and anecic are
not as advantageous as epigeic earthworms. Thus, the epigeic earth
worms are mostly preferred by the researchers. Among all the epigeic
earthworms, Eisenia fetida can operate under the water-logged condition
and can handle the fluctuations to the highest extent. That is why,
Eisenia fetida earthworms become popular among the researchers.
However, in one study, by Sinha et al. [31], Perionyx excavatus earth
worms were used while treating raw municipal sewage (Table 1), which
also come under epigeic earthworms.
4.2. Nutrient removal
Nitrogen (N) is the most common nutrient present in the domestic

wastewater. Predominantly, N is available in the form of ammonium N
(NH+ 4 -N) and organic N in domestic sewage [1,2]. In vermifilters, the
removal of N from the domestic wastewater is attributed to a series of
mechanisms such as mineralization or ammonification of organic N,
Nitrate nitrogen; TN: Total nitrogen; PO3−
nitrification, and denitrification, or adsorption by the bed materials, or

microbial assimilation [1,2,5,35]. Nitrification, carried out by the au
totrophs, is a very slow process because the autotrophs are slow growers
[1,5]. The nitrification of NH+ 4 -N is an aerobic process. Thus, the bur
rowing activity of the earthworms has a positive impact on the nitrifi
cation potential of the vermifilter (Fig. 6). To ensure substantial
nitrification inside the vermifilter, requisite HRT and DO have to be
maintained inside the vermibed. This indicates that the nitrification
mostly takes place within the top few centimeters of the vermibed [11].
streptococci.
At greater bed depth, with the reduction in DO availability, anoxic

condition prevails, promoting higher denitrification, if sufficient organic
carbon source is available [45,77]. In addition, the mucus secreted by
b
a
11
the earthworms contains various enzymes and microbes, assisting the removal up to 94.81 % during VF of rural domestic sewage using
mineralization of the organic N, which, in turn, enhances its bioavail ceramsite as bed material (Table 1).
ability [44]. Furthermore, the vermicasting, rich in microbes, also fa The type of vermibed media employed also affects the solid removal
cilitates the nitrification of NH+ 4 -N when the domestic sewage comes in performance of the vermifilters. For instance, Kumar et al. [52] have
contact with the vermicasting [53]. Apart from the microbes and compared the potential of four different vermibed materials with respect
earthworms, the bed materials, by acting as an adsorption media, also to the solid removal from the synthetic domestic wastewater (Table 1).
helps in removing the nutrients from the domestic wastewater. Gener They found that the application of the riverbed materials as vermibed
ally, the vermibed materials having negative surface charge exhibit the ensured the maximum removal of solids (both TSSs (75 %) and TDSs (53
better adsorption potential for the positive-charged NH+ 4 -N as compared %)). This could be due to the better adsorptive properties and higher
to the negatively charged NO−3 -N [78]. specific surface area of the riverbed materials as well as the better ac
Dey Chowdhury and Bhunia [1] have investigated the potential of a tivity of the earthworms inside the riverbed materials as compared to the
macrophyte-assisted vermifilter (MAVF) to eradicate N from real do wood coal, glass balls, and mud balls.
mestic sewage employing Canna indica macrophytes. They reported that HLR is found to have negative impact on the solid removal perfor
the HLR had a negative impact on the nitrification of NH+ 4 -N with 74.4 mance of the vermifilters. For instance, Xing et al. [66] have varied the
3 2
and 98.2 % conversion of NH+ 4 -N at HLRs 7 and 3 m /m .d, respectively. HLR from 2.4 to 6.7 m3/m2.d to evaluate the impact of HLR on the TSS
It signifies that at low HLR, the domestic sewage got sufficient interac removal performance of the vermifilter during the treatment of real
tion time with the microbes, bed materials, and earthworms, triggering domestic sewage (Table 1). It has been observed that the removal of TSS
the nitrification of NH+ 4 -N. They also found that the removal of the total was the least (57 %) when the HLR was 6.7 m3/m2.d, whereas the TSS
N (TN) was the maximum (87 %) when sufficient organic carbon was removal was the highest (77 %) when the HLR was maintained at 2.4
available, justifying denitrification as the principal N removal pathway m3/m2.d. This could be attributed to the fact that high HLR created
in the vermifilter. Similar trend of the N transformation dynamics in the turbulence inside the vermibed, causing washing of solids, which ulti
vermifilters was also reported by Xing et al. [66]. In addition, Liu et al. mately cut down the solid removal efficiency of the vermifilters [81].
[64] and Li et al. [71] have also reported high nitrification potential of
the VF technology (Table 1). 4.4. Pathogen removal
It is clearly evident from the data amalgamated in Table 1 that many
researchers have obtained higher effluent NO−3 -N concentration than its In order to meet the stringent disposal norms and reusability criteria,
influent concentration during the course of VF of domestic sewage the destruction of the water-borne pathogens from the domestic
[60,61]. As mentioned before, the nitrification of NH+ 4 -N requires high wastewater has become a prime concern [2]. As portrayed in Fig. 7, the
HRT. Thus, after nitrification, the wastewater might not get the suffi removal of pathogens takes places in various ways during VF. The
cient time for denitrification. As a consequence, the NO−3 -N concentra mucus, released by the earthworms, possesses antibacterial and sticky
tion was increased in the effluent [1,35]. The mucus, secreted by the properties. Owing to the antibacterial properties, the foreign microbes
earthworms, is also rich in organic nitrogenous compounds, enhancing (non-indigenous microbes), present in the domestic wastewater, get
the concentration of the organic N in the domestic sewage, which destroyed [82]. Again, the stickiness of the mucus restricts the move
initially got nitrified followed by the denitrification of the nitrified ment of the non-indigenous pathogens, thereby captivating the killing of
compounds [5,35]. Thus, during VF of domestic sewage, due to the the pathogens due to unavailability of substrate in their vicinity [83].
insufficiency of interaction time, the produced NO−3 -N might not get Some pathogens are also removed by the adhesive properties of the bed
denitrified, thereby accumulating in the effluent. materials during filtration of domestic sewage [60] (Fig. 7). For
Apart from N, phosphorus (P) is another nutrient causing concerns instance, Kumar et al. [52] investigated the potential of four different
for the competent authority. Generally, the removal of total P (TP) is bed materials in removing the pathogens from synthetic domestic
mainly governed by adsorption, a physical process [51]. P predomi sewage (Table 1). They found that the vermifilter with vermicompost
nantly gets adsorbed by the bed materials. Wang et al. [67] have re and riverbed materials as the vermibed media ensured the maximum
ported up to 80.3–82.3 % removal of TP using the mixture of padding removal of total coliform (TC) (Log R: 2.6), fecal coliform (FC) (Log R:
soil and rice straw (volumetric ratio: 4:4) as vermibed material 2.22), fecal streptococci (FS) (Log R: 1.26), and E. coli (Log R: 1.81)
(Table 1). (Table 1). This difference could be attributed to the difference in
Few researchers have found that the effluent TP concentration was earthworm activities inside the bed materials and also the difference in
higher than its influent concentration [60,61]. The activities of the the adhesive properties and size of the pore-openings of different bed
earthworms have been found to liberate P from its bound form, pilling materials. Similarly, Arora et al. [53] also ensured substantial removal
up the TP concentration in the effluent [79]. of TC (Log R: 3.91), FC (Log R: 3.82), and E. coli (2.51) during the VF of
domestic sewage. Furlong et al. [72] have employed VF technology for
4.3. Solid removal treating human feces and achieved the Log R of the thermotolerant co
liforms as 3.
The solids present in the domestic wastewater can be predominantly In light of the above discussion, it can be stated that the VF has
classified into two types: total suspended solids (TSSs) and total dis become a promising alternative of the conventional treatment methods
solved solids (TDSs) [7]. As depicted in Fig. 5, the large TSSs, present in when it comes to the remediation of the wastewater generated from the
the domestic sewage, get trapped onto the pores of the bed media and domestic premises.
devoured by the earthworms into finer particles with enhanced specific
surface area, which, in turn, facilitates the adsorption of solids onto the 5. Sustainability of VF technology
bed materials [80]. On the other hand, the TDSs get bypassed through
the screening layer and subsequently absorbed by the suitable layer of As mentioned earlier, a particular technology can be labelled as a
the bed materials [2]. In addition, the biodegradable fraction of both the sustainable technology if it satisfies the following three broader aspects
TSSs, adsorbed onto the pores of the bed materials, and TDSs get pu i.e., the technology has to be environmentally sustainable, economically
trefied by the combined action of the earthworms and microbes viable, and socially acceptable [84]. Various other factors coming under
[2,5,11]. For instance, Adugna et al. [55] investigated the potential of the aforementioned broader aspects are portrayed in Fig. 8.
the vermifilters in removing TSSs while treating the concentrated From Fig. 8, it is clearly evident that the carrying capacity of the
greywater. They achieved a hopping TSS removal up to 99.4 %, using receiving ecosystem of a technology also has a monumental impact on
sawdust as the bed material. Similarly, Liu et al. [63] obtained the TSS its sustainability. Meanwhile, the surrounding components involve
12
Fig. 8. Different criteria for the sustainability of a wastewater treatment method.
water, soil, and air quality, preservation of aquatic and land-based economic value of the byproducts must be taken into account for eval
ecosystems, conservation of the non-renewable resources, and nutrient uating the economic sustainability of the wastewater treatment tech
recovery [85] (Fig. 8). The factors like initial investment, operational nology under consideration [15,84].
and maintenance cost, management of the solid residues, and the
Fig. 9. System boundary for the LCA of VF technology treating domestic sewage (GHG: Greenhouse gas).
13
5.1. Environmental sustainability of VF technology inspected that the energy consumption for treating 1 MLD municipal
wastewater was 65.7 MJ/year for ASP. Such a high energy consumption
The environmental sustainability of the VF technology during the during the operational phase of the ASP was mostly attributed to the
remediation of domestic sewage has been evaluated in reference with electricity consumed by the mechanical aerators for external aeration.
the factors depicted in Fig. 8. Especially, the LCA as well as the LCIA of They also found that the energy consumption for treating 1 MLD
the VF technology, reported in the literature, has been explored and municipal wastewater for the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor
compared with those of the ASP, CWs, ALs, and WSPs to strengthen the (UASBR) was 43.8 MJ/year. This could be due to the maintenance of the
environmental feasibility of the VF technology. wastewater flow in upward direction at a particular velocity [7].
Meanwhile, the requisite energy has been supplied by burning the fossil
5.1.1. Overview of the LCA studies on VF technology fuels, reflecting the depletion of the fossil fuels.
In order to carry out the LCA studies on the VF technology, the re In light of the above discussion, it can be stated that the VF tech
searchers have adopted gate-to-gate approach to establish the system nology negotiates the consumption of fossil fuels, a non-renewable
boundary [29]. Generally, the gate-to-gate approach is popular for unit source of energy, thereby promoting the conservation of natural non-
processes. Here, the life-cycle inventory (LCI) includes the details of all renewable resources.
the inputs and outputs throughout all the stages of its life-cycle,
including the assessment of raw materials, influent domestic sewage, 5.1.1.2. GHG emissions. Emission of GHGs is another factor governing
energy consumption, treated effluent, solid residues, and gaseous the environmental sustainability of the VF technology treating the do
emissions across the construction, operation, and dismantling phases of mestic sewage. Mainly, the emissions during the operational phase have
the VF technology (Fig. 9). According to the literature, two standardized been taken into consideration. Mostly, the vermifilters have not been
functional units, namely one population equivalent (PE− 1) [86] and one reported to release GHGs while remediating the domestic sewage. This
cubic meter of influent wastewater [87] are available for performing the could be because the gaseous emission (only CO2 due to complete aer
LCA of the various processes. A system boundary, considering the gate- obic degradation of the organics) during the VF of domestic sewage was
to-gate approach, for carrying out the LCA of the VF technology has been so nominal that it could be neglected [5,11]. As mentioned earlier, the
represented in Fig. 9. Mainly, the environmental sustainability of the VF burrowing activity of the earthworms results in the abundance of DO
technology treating the domestic sewage has been evaluated with inside the vermibed [1]. Being a low-strength wastewater, complete
reference to the criteria portrayed in Fig. 8 through the exploration of aerobic degradation of the organics present in the domestic sewage takes
the LCA and LCIA studies on the VF technology, available in the place with the help of natural aeration, reducing the production of
literature. methane (CH4). In fact, Luth et al. [76] have stated that the vermifilters
act as the sink for CH4. Aditionally, owing to the low-strength of the
5.1.1.1. Conservation of the fossil fuels. Abello-Passteni [28] has made domestic sewage, the generation of the CO2 is also less. At the same time,
an approach to investigate the consumption of natural non-renewable attributing to the natural aeration, the engagement of external aerators
resources, especially the fossil fuels, including coal and diesel during has also been eliminated, cutting down the need for burning the fossil
the treatment of domestic wastewater employing ASP, VF, and ALs in fuels for keeping the aerators running. It further eliminates the emission
Chile. He has considered 1 kg of BOD5 removed as the functional unit. It of the GHGs, which, in turn, lessens the environmental cost of the VF
has been observed that the consumption of fossil fuels varied between process [89]. In addition, owing to the abundance of DO, complete
0.0001 and 0.03 kg/kg of BOD5 removed for ALs and the same for the nitrification of NH+4 -N to NO3 -N takes place, which subsequently gets
−
ASP was 0.0001–0.04 kg/kg of BOD5 removed, whereas the VF tech denitrified to nitrogen gas (N2), eliminating the emission of nitrous
nology did not consume any fossil fuel across all the stages of its life- oxide (N2O), another potential GHG. Generally, from the VF of the low-
cycle. As already discussed, in VF technology, unlike ASP and ALs, the strength wastewater such as domestic wastewater, CO2 is released as the
burrowing activity of the earthworms keeps the system naturally aero major atmospheric emission. According to IPCC [90], the global
bic, eliminating the requirement of external energy for mechanical warming potential (GWP) of CO2, CH4, and N2O are 1, 25, and 298,
aeration. If pumping of wastewater is not required, i.e., the gravitational respectively. However, the GWP of CO2 is not considered as it is
flow of wastewater is allowed through the vermifilter, no external en considered to be biogenic in origin [91]. CH4, and N2O are considered to
ergy is required during the VF process, cutting down the requirement of be the major threats to the air quality.
fossil fuels [31]. Since in this study, the major part of the total energy On the other hand, Singh et al. [88] have investigated the emission of
consumed by different technologies, including ALs and ASP was sup GHGs from various municipal WWTPs across India. They observed that
plied utilizing the non-conventional and renewable sources like hydro the WWTPs employing anaerobic deep lagoons, WSPs, UASBR, and ASP
electricity, solar energy, and wind energy, the requirement of the fossil with the capacities 321, 279, 2326, and 979 MLD, respectively have
fuels was comparatively less in both the aforementioned processes. recorded the GHG emissions up to 118,700, 31,858, 1,317,375, and
However, in one of the WWTPs where ASP has been employed as the 71,696 t CO2-eq/year, respectively, highlighting the poor environmental
secondary treatment step, up to 57.6 % of the total energy was supplied sustainability of the WWTPs. These emissions included the emission
using diesel as fuel. during the treatment of municipal wastewater as well as the emission
Another group of researches, Lourenco and Nunes [29], have also due to the burning of fossil fuels for generating electricity. Daelman
performed the LCA of two commonly used decentralized wastewater et al. [18] found that out of the total CH4 production in the WWTPs, 80
treatment alternatives such as CWs and VF while treating the domestic % CH4 has been produced during ASP. Similarly, Campos et al. [20]
sewage in Southern Europe and compared the results with those of the have reported that up to 90 % of the total N2O emissions from the
ASP. They have considered one PE as the functional unit. It has been WWTPs has been released during ASP. On the other hand, Johansson
found that the total fossil fuel consumption during the construction et al. [92] and Mander et al. [93] investigated the GHG emission po
phase was 0.638 kg/PE for ASP, whereas zero consumption of fossil fuel tential of the CWs and reported that the emission of CH4 was up to 1.8
was reported in construction phase when ASP was replaced with VF mg/m2.h for free water surface CWs (FWS-CWs) and 6.4 mg/m2.h for
technology. The electricity consumption during the operational phase horizontal subsurface flow CWs (HSSF-CWs), whereas the N2O emission
was up to 1.16 × 106 MJ/PE for ASP, whereas when ASP was replaced was ranging between 0.031 mg/m2.h for FWS-CWs and 0.42 mg/m2.h
with VF technology, it was reduced to 4520 MJ/PE. The same for the for HSSF-CWs. Another group of researchers, Hernandez-Paniagua et al.
CWs was 3940 MJ/PE. Here, the electricity during the operational phase [94], have made an effort to quantify the amount of GHGs emitted from
was generated from the fossil fuels, especially diesel. Singh et al. [88] the WSPs. They mentioned that the WSPs have resulted in the
14
production of CH4 up to 25 mg/m2.h. treating the domestic wastewater [28,29]. In order to carry out the LCIA
Unlike domestic sewage, if the vermifilters are fed to the high- of VF technology, the following impact categories have been decided by
strength wastewaters such as industrial wastewaters, substantial Lourenco and Nunes [29] in accordance with Corominas et al. [101] and
amount of GHGs can also be released from the VF process. For instance, Jeppsson and Hellstrom [102]: abiotic depletion (AD) (kg Sb eq.),
Luth et al. [76] have stated that the emission of CO2, CH4, and N2O was acidification (AC) (kg SO2 eq.), eutrophication (EUT) (kg PO3− 4 eq.),
up to 4.4 mg/d, 2.8–20.3 g/d, and 2–438 mg/d, respectively during the global warming potential (GWP) (kg CO2 eq.), freshwater ecotoxicity
VF of pig slurry. (FWT) (kg 1, 4-DB eq.), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAET) (kg 1, 4-DB
From the above discussion, it is clearly evident that the VF tech eq.), human toxicity (HT) (g 1, 4-DB eq.), ozone layer depletion (OLD)
nology promotes the environmental sustainability by protecting the air (kg CFC-11 eq.), terrestrial ecotoxicity (TE) (kg 1, 4-DB eq.), and
quality, especially while treating the domestic sewage. More detailed photochemical oxidation (PO) (kg C2H4 eq.). On the other hand, Abello-
understanding on the environmental sustainability of the VF technology Passteni [28] has considered climate change (CC) or GWP (kg CO2 eq./
can be achieved during the LCIA of the VF technology. kg BOD5 removed), EUT (kg P eq./kg BOD5 removed), FWT (kg 1, 4-DB
eq./kg BOD5 removed), and HT (kg 1, 4-DB eq./kg BOD5 removed) as
5.1.1.3. Generation of organic fertilizer. As already mentioned, during the environmental impact categories for determining the ecoefficiency
VF of wastewater, the earthworms consume all the produced sludge and of VF, ALs, and ASP while treating domestic wastewater in Chile. Among
excrete in the form of vermicasting [5,11]. Hence, as the solid residue, all the impact categories, the ecoefficiency indicators have been evalu
the vermicastings are produced during the course of VF of domestic ated for CC or GWP and EUT for being frequently used in ecoefficiency
sewage (Fig. 9). Liu et al. [64] have carried out the VF of the rural do works [28]. Basically, the ecoefficiency indicators can be calculated
mestic sewage in China for a duration of 17 months. They have found a using the following relationship (Eq. 1), given in ISO 14045 [103].
minimal sludge production of 0.08 kg SS/ kg of COD removed. The Value function
produced sludge was mostly vermicastings. Such negligible sludge Ecoefficiency indicator = … (1)
Environmental impact
production could be attributed to the activities of the earthworms inside
the vermifilter [64]. In fact, Singh et al. [5] have mentioned that there The higher the value of the ecoefficiency indicators, the better will be
was no sludge production during the VF of domestic wastewater except the sustainability of the corresponding technology. Abello-Passteni [28]
the vermicastings. Hence, the VF technology can also be termed as the has taken the treated volume of wastewater (m3) by each technology as
zero-waste technology or green technology [32,89]. The produced ver the value function. Even though, he has specified four different impact
micasting is highly nutritive in nature, containing 1.16 % N, 1.22 % P, categories, the ecoefficiency of the aforementioned technologies has
and 1.34 % potassium (K) [69]. The microbes and enzymes present in been evaluated with respect to CC and EUT. He reported that the VF
the mucus enhance the bioavailability of the nutrients present in the technology was the most eco-efficient technology in terms of both CC
vermicasting, thereby making them liable for the plant uptake [31]. and EUT, portraying the highest indicator values. The CC indicator value
On the other hand, the production of sewage sludge was found to be for the VF technology was found to be 6.7 m3/(kg CO2 eq./kg BOD5
proportional to the volume of wastewater treated by ASP. Generally, removed), whereas the same for ASP and ALs were 3.8 and 3.4 m3/(kg
70–100 g sewage sludge is generated while treating 1 m3 domestic CO2 eq./kg BOD5 removed), respectively, indicating the ALs to be the
sewage using ASP [95]. The conventional STPs are reported to produce least eco-efficient technology. Similarly, the EUT indicator value for the
the excess sludge up to (0.32 ± 0.08) kg TSS/kg COD removed [96]. In VF technology was 10,984.1 m3/(kg P eq./kg BOD5 removed) followed
other way, it was (0.25 ± 0.06) kg VSS/kg COD removed. Even though, by ASP (10,518.5 m3/(kg P eq./kg BOD5 removed)) and ALs (5876m3/
the sewage sludge produced from the WWTPs is rich in nutrients (45–49 (kg P eq./kg BOD5 removed)). Thus, it can be stated that the ALs and VF
g N/kg municipal sewage sludge, 22–30 g P/kg municipal sewage had the maximum and the minimum environmental impact, respec
sludge, and 1.2–1.6 g K/kg municipal sewage sludge), the presence of tively. The order of FWT (kg 1, 4-DB eq./kg BOD5 removed) and HT (kg
pathogens and heavy metals prohibits its land application as fertilizer 1, 4-DB eq./kg BOD5 removed) caused by the aforementioned technol
[32,97,98]. A prior treatment to the raw sewage sludge should be given ogies were VF < ASP < ALs and VF < ASP < ALs, respectively, signifying
before applying it as fertilizer or for the safe disposal of the sewage the VF and ALs as the best and the worst technologies, respectively with
sludge in the midst of the environment. respect to the environmental sustainability.
Landfilling of sewage sludge is reported to liberate the highest Another group of researchers, Lourenco and Nunes [29], have tried
quantity of GHGs (296.9 kg CO2 eq./t sludge), followed by mono to determine the environmental sustainability of VF, small rate infil
incineration (232 kg CO2 eq./t sludge) and carbonization (141 kg CO2 tration (SRI), CWs, and ASP by exploring their LCIA throughout the
eq./t sludge). Even, the composting of sewage sludge obtained from the construction, operation, and dismantling phase while treating the do
conventional WWTPs has been reported to make substantial release of mestic sewage coming from the small communities in Southern Europe.
the GHGs [99,100]. In contrary, Since, VF ensures high pathogen They found that the GWPs of CWs and ASP were 1930 and 264 kg CO2
removal from the domestic sewage, once the VF process is over, the eq., respectively, whereas the GWPs were reduced to 135 and 183 kg
vermicasting layer can be scrapped from the top of the vermibed and CO2 eq. when the above technologies were replaced with VF technology,
directly applied to the agricultural field as fertilizer without any further respectively. The implementation of VF technology also lessened the AC
treatment [52,53]. The nutrients present in the vermicasting are readily and EUT impacts as compared to SRI, CWs, and ASP. The application of
available to the crops and plants, triggering the nutrient recycling po ASP has shown the AC impact value up to 6.36 kg SO2 eq., whereas it
tential of the VF process from the domestic sewage. Hence, it can be was substantially reduced to 1.07 kg SO2 eq. when ASP was replaced
concluded that unlike the conventional wastewater treatment methods, with the VF technology. Similarly, the implication of SRI, CWs, and ASP
the VF technology helps to maintain the nutrient cycle in the environ has yielded the EUT impact values up to 13.1, 26.1, and 20.7 kg PO3− 4
ment without imposing any threat to the environment, especially while eq., respectively. These values were significantly reduced to 8.96, 8.97,
treating the domestic sewage. and 7.51 when all the above-mentioned technologies were substituted
by VF technology, respectively. This could be due to the lower emission
5.1.2. Overview of the LCIA studies on VF technology of the nutrients due to the implementation of the VF technology. In
In order to gather more detailed knowledge regarding the environ addition, the vermifilters were also observed to significantly negotiate
mental sustainability of a particular technology, the researchers have to the FWT, HT, OLD, and PO as compared to the CWs, SRI, and ASP [29].
rely on the LCIA of that technology rather than its LCA [29]. However, In light of the above discussion, it can be justified that the VF tech
very few studies are available on the LCIA of the VF technology while nology is the most environmentally benevolent alternative for treating
the domestic sewage.
15
5.1.3. Preservation of water quality and aquatic ecosystem it is clearly evident that the VF technology can potentially cut down the
As we already know, if the domestic sewage is directly discharged to risk of GHG emissions and thereby minimizing the GWP to a great extent
the water bodies without any treatment, it will deteriorate the water [28,29]. As a concluding remark, it can be stated that unlike the con
quality. Apart from the conventional water quality parameters e.g., ventional (such as ASP) and other non-conventional wastewater treat
COD, BOD, NH+ 4 -N, TN, etc., the domestic wastewater also embraces ment methods (such as CWs, ALs, and WSPs), the VF technology
pathogens, heavy metals, and emerging contaminants (ECs) such as possesses zero to trivial deterioration of air quality during the course of
pharmaceuticals, personal care products, surfactants, etc. in significant remediating the domestic sewage, thereby promoting the preservation
concentration [4,5]. The presence of such pollutants in the water bodies of air quality.
will not only degrade the water quality, but also result in the outbreak of
various water-borne diseases and destroy the aquatic ecosystem 5.1.6. Reusability of treated effluent
[2,3,31]. As already discussed, VF has the ability to remove pathogens The reusability of any treated effluent depends on its contamination
from the domestic wastewater [42,52]. Not only this, the earthworms level. The concentration levels of DO, organics (BOD and COD), path
also have the ability to uptake the heavy metals [31] and ECs [4,104] ogens, NH+ 4 -N, and NO3 -N in the effluent have been considered as the
−
from the wastewater. Being an aerobic process, the vermifiltered major indicators, governing the reusability potential of the treated
effluent contains significant DO [5]. Over the last few years, the VF effluent [2]. The effluent obtained from the VF of domestic sewage is
technology has become a promising alternative for remediating the almost crystal clear, odor-free, detoxified, rich in DO, and has neutral pH
domestic sewage, especially with respect to organic and nutrient [5]. Thus, the effluent can be beneficially used for various non-potable
removal [1,4,5,11]. According to Arora et al. [53] and Singh et al. [2], purposes such as floor washing, toilet flushing, making cooling towers
the domestic wastewater, after being subjected to VF, meets the strin in the industries, etc. [31]. In addition, the effluent is also rich in nu
gent discharge limits to the surface water. In addition, Arora et al. [53] trients, making it suitable to be used for the irrigation purposes
and Kumar et al. [52] concluded that the effluent coming from the VF [89,106]. Kumar et al. [60] have reported that the vermifiltered effluent
unit has met the WHO guidelines regarding the pathogen counts. As a can be potentially used for the irrigation and agricultural practices.
consequence of the abovementioned reasons, the disposal of the treated Similar conclusion has also been made by Manyuchi et al. [74]. Table 2
effluent from the VF of domestic sewage does not captivate any diffi represents the surface water discharge standards of various pollutants
culties in the survival of the aquatic lives. Hence, it can be concluded for the municipal WWTPs, the standards for the irrigation water quality,
that the VF technology helps preserving the water quality and main and the reusability potential of the vermifiltered effluent.
taining the balance of the aquatic ecosystem. The data obtained from the various literature, compiled in Table 2,
suggests that the domestic sewage, after being subjected to VF, satisfies
5.1.4. Preservation of soil quality and land-based ecosystem the surface water discharge criteria and standards for its application as
Since the domestic wastewater contains heavy metals and ECs, the irrigation water. Liu et al. [63] have employed ceramsite-vermifilter for
sewage sludge produced as a byproduct of treating the domestic sewage treating domestic wastewater. They found that the treated effluent
in the WWTPs also contains a fraction of the aforementioned pollutants portrayed the COD (51 mg/L), BOD (10.6 mg/L), and TSS (4.1 mg/L)
[4]. Thus, even though, the sewage sludge produced from the ASP is concentration well below the permissible values, furnished in Table 2.
enriched in nutrients, its direct application for the land improvement The effluent had neutral pH and was devoid of pathogens, strengthening
may result in the death of the soil-borne microbes, thereby hampering its acceptability as irrigation water. Similarly, Kumar et al. [60] also
the land-based ecosystems [97,98]. Hence, the raw sewage sludge observed the effluent COD and NO−3 -N concentrations were 24–30 and
should be stabilized or treated before its application to the soil. How <45 mg/L, respectively, favoring its agricultural application. Again,
ever, the sludge treatment imposes negative impact to the environment Kumar et al. [52] and Arora et al. [53] concluded that the pathogen
due to the emission of the GHGs [99,100]. For instance, Daelman et al. concentration (480 and 457 MPN/100 mL, respectively) in the vermi
[18] have found that up to 72 % of the total CH4 production in the filtered effluent was below the permissible range, mentioned by WHO
WWTPs came from the sludge treatment unit, whereas up to 10 % of the (Table 2). From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the ver
total N2O production in the WWTPs has been contributed by the sludge mifiltered domestic sewage displays the potential to be reused in
treatment unit. In contrary, in VF, the earthworms act as the sludge gardening, toilet flushing, floor washing, horticulture and agricultural
digester by softening the ingested sludge using the grume excreted in the practices, and fruits and vegetable farms.
mouth of the earthworms. In addition, the sludge is further neutralized
by the calcium (Ca) inside the esophagus. Then, in the earthworm’s 5.2. Economic affordability
intestine, the neutralized sludge has been decomposed by the enzymes.
Finally, this stabilized sludge is excreted at the top of the vermibed as The global acceptability of any technology depends on its economic
vermicasting by the earthworms [105]. The vermicasting itself or after feasibility. In order to evaluate the sustainability of VF technology, its
being converted to vermicompost acts as a nutritive plant food and economic affordability has to be examined based upon the data available
improves the soil fertility on its land application [69]. The nutrients on capital cost, operation and maintenance cost, treatment efficiency,
present in the vermicasting are readily available to the crops, and residual management of the VF technology while treating the do
strengthening its acceptability as bio-fertilizer. In addition, the microbes mestic sewage (Fig. 8). The concept of circular bioeconomy has also
and enzymes released with the vermicasting are soil-friendly in nature, been explored to reinforce the economic viability of the VF technology.
thereby helping in improving the soil quality. In fact, unlike the chem
ical fertilizers, the land application of the vermicasting or vermicompost 5.2.1. Capital cost
does not impose any threats to the soil-borne organisms [5]. Being a Capital cost of a technology includes the costs of land acquisition,
chemical-free organic manure, vermicompost, on its land application, raw materials, energy consumed during its construction phase, trans
does not create any chemical toxicity on the soil-based organisms [89]. portation of raw materials to the treatment site, and installation of
Hence, it can be concluded that the vermicasting as well as the vermi various equipment. From the life cycle inventory (LCI) proposed by
compost can be extensively employed as the organic manure in agri Lourenco and Nunes [29], it has been observed that the land area
culture and horticulture for improving the soil fertility through the required for SRI, CWs, and ASP were 2000, 594, and 95 m2, respectively
preservation of land-based ecosystem. for treating the domestic sewage coming from the small communities
with population 120, 120, and 500, respectively. When the aforemen
5.1.5. Preservation of air quality tioned processes were replaced with VF technology, the land area re
From the LCA and LCIA of the VF technology, demonstrated earlier, quirements were astonishingly reduced to 12.5, 12.5, and 50 m2,
16
Table 2
Discharge standards for municipal WWTPs and standards for irrigation water quality (specified by GB18918-2002 [107]) and reusability potential of vermifiltered
effluent.
c
Pollutants Surface water discharge standards for municipal WWTPs Irrigation water quality standards (mg/L) Pollutant concentrations in the vermifiltered
(Secondary standards) (mg/L) effluent (mg/L)
Shucking Dessert Water
vegetable vegetable cultivation
COD 100 100 60 150 24–118

BOD5 20 40 15 60 8–28
TSS 30 60 15 80 4.1–62
a
pH 6-9 5.5-8.5 5.5–8.5 5.5–8.5 7.1–8.5
b
FC 1000 2000 1000 4000 457–2624
a
pH is unitless.
b
FC is in cells/100 mL.
c
The data has been collected from Adugna et al. [55], Arora et al. [53], Arora et al. [42,43], Kumar et al. [61], Kumar et al. [52], Kumar et al. [60], and Liu et al.
[63].
respectively. Sinha et al. [31] inspected that the provision of 1–2 h HRT Unlike the conventional treatment methods, vermifilters are easy to
was sufficient to achieve substantial removal of organics and solids from construct and do not involve any external energy consumption, except
the raw municipal sewage using the VF process (Table 1), cutting down during the earthwork (excavators may be used), throughout the con
the requirement of large footprint. On the other hand, the HRT to be struction phase [29]. Since they are easy to build, skilled manpower is
maintained for WSPs, especially for facultative ponds, varies between 5 not required to construct the vermifilters, cutting down the capital cost
and 30 days, involving a larger footprint [7]. According to Taylor et al. of the VF technology. Generally, in case of the conventional treatment
[108], the construction costs of the vertical subsurface flow CWs (VSSF- plants, the installation of various heavy-duty equipment includes high
CWs) and FWS-CWs were 0.20 €/user.m2 (i.e., 16.80 rupees/user.m2) energy consumption and to construct the WWTPs, skilled manpower is
and 0.29 €/user.m2 (i.e., 24.40 rupees/user.m2), respectively. The required, triggering the capital cost of the WWTPs [11].
construction cost of the WSPs was very high as compared to the CWs and Sharma et al. [84] have compared the capital costs of the various
VF. The higher surface area requirement (2–7 m2) triggers construction onsite domestic wastewater treatment systems. They have found that the
cost of the WSPs. Generally, up to 60 % of the total investment is capital costs of the septic tank with percolation area, membrane biore
accounted for the cost of land. Mara [109] reported that the construction actor (MBR), moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), sequential batch
cost of WSPs varied from 105 €/user (i.e., approximately 8826.30 ru reactor (SBR), and CWs were 1132, 1800–2000, 1500, 620–900, and
pees/user) in France to 343 €/user (approximately 28,832.60 rupees/ 1800 €/user, respectively (in Indian currency, the values are 95,156,
user) in Germany. In contrary, the land area requirement for VF has been 151,308–168,120, 126,090, 52,117.20–75,654, and 151,308 rupees/
reported to be 0.25, 0.06–0.21, and 0.5–0.6 m2/user in France [110], user, respectively), whereas Sinha et al. [112] have inspected that the
China [111], and India [112], respectively, which reduced the cost of capital cost of VF was only 100–150 €/user (i.e., 8406–12,609 rupees/
land acquisition, leading to the reduction in the capital cost of the VF user), indicating the cost effectiveness of the VF technology.
process.
Coming to the raw material requirement, the bed materials used in 5.2.2. Operational and maintenance cost
the VF process such as peat and wood flour [113], sawdust and vermi The operational and maintenance cost of any technology involve the
compost [62], woodchips, gravel, and quartz sand [55,77], riverbed costs regarding the consumed energy during operational phase, bed
materials, mud balls, and glass balls [60], sand and vermicompost [1], material renewal (especially for VF), replacing or repairing the equip
ceramsite and coal [114], etc. are locally available at very low cost and ment or parts, engagement of the skilled manpower, sludge manage
mostly obtained as the waste from the other activities. Since the packing ment, and chemical requirements. In addition, the longevity of the
materials are available in abundance, the acquisition of raw materials process also affects the cost of the process.
involves zero to minimal cost [29]. Apart from the bed materials, the As previously mentioned, Lourenco and Nunes [29] have performed
vermifilters have to be incorporated with the earthworms (Fig. 9). Sinha a LCA study on the VF technology and compared its sustainability with
et al. [31] reported that the cost of 500 earthworms was approximately conventional ASP during the treatment of domestic sewage. They re
20 A$ (approximately 1126.40 rupees). The cost of earthworms is ported that during operational phase, including electricity consumption
considered as the one-time investment because once the VF process is for lights, pumping the domestic sewage, recirculating the effluent, and
over, the earthworms can be taken out from the exhausted vermibed and mechanical aeration, the total energy consumed in ASP was 1.16 × 106
employed in new vermifilters or sold to various farms as feedstock, MJ/PE, whereas in case of VF, the consumption of energy was only
thereby promoting the circular bioeconomy, which in turn cuts down during the pumping of wastewater in the operational phase. The natural
the cost of the VF technology [89]. Unlike the conventional methods, aeration due to the earthworm’s burrowing activity eliminated the
owing to the decentralized treatment facilities and less area require requirement of external aerators, making the VF technology energy-
ment, the VF technology can also be implemented in the vicinity of the efficient [1,11]. Thus, when ASP was replaced by the VF technology,
domestic wastewater source. In fact, it can be applied for individual the electricity consumption was drastically reduced to 4520 MJ/PE,
households as well as for the small communities, thereby reducing the lessening the operational cost of the VF process. Similarly, Abello-
cost of transportation of the wastewater from source to the treatment Passteni [28] also compared the sustainability of VF technology with
site [5]. Lourenco and Nunes [29] found that the raw materials to be that of the ALs and ASP. He has reported that the requisite electric
used in ASP has been travelled for 26 km/PE, involving and additional powers for ALs and ASP were up to 5.5 and 3.0 kwh/kg BOD5 removed,
cost of 104 €/PE (approximately 8742.24 rupees). Such expenses are not whereas for VF, it was only up to 1.7 kwh/kg BOD5 removed.
associated with the VF process. Apart from this, the VF technology does Since the operation of VF is very simple and it does not require any
not necessitate the installation of the heavy-duty instruments, which heavy-duty instrument, it does not demand any skilled manpower. In
makes the VF technology a cost-effective alternative (Singh et al., 2008). contrary, the conventional WWTPs, employing ASP as the secondary
According to USEPA, the cost of construction of the centralized STPs in treatment step, require skilled manpower, increasing the operational
the rural area was up to 2,321,840–3,750,530 $ (approximately cost of the process. Thus, attributing to the same reason, the VF tech
176.76–285.56 million rupees). nology does not bear the expenses related to the repairing and
17
replacement of any instrument or its parts, negotiating the maintenance treatment efficiency i.e., the performance of a specific wastewater
cost of the VF process [5]. treatment technology needs to be considered before investing the money
The production of sewage sludge is a compulsory consequence of on it. The treatment efficiency of a wastewater treatment technology
treating the wastewater. The conventional WWTPs, especially employ depends on the type of wastewater it is supposed to treat [7]. As already
ing ASP as the biological treatment facility, have been reported to pro discussed, and portrayed in Table 1, it is clearly evident that the VF
duce humongous quantity of sludge which needs further treatment technology has the potential to substantially remove various pollutants,
before its land application or disposal [5]. The provision of the sludge including organics, nutrients, and pathogens from the domestic waste
treatment facilities acquires a major portion of the total cost of treating water. Arora et al. [53] and Kumar et al. [52] have concluded that the
the wastewater. For example, Wei et al. [115] have carried out a brief effluent coming out from the VF of domestic sewage satisfied the
cost analysis of windrow composting of activated sludge obtained from stringent surface water discharge standards in terms of pathogens and
the small- and mid-scale urban WWTPs in China. They observed that the could be efficiently reutilized for various non-potable purposes. Hence,
total cost of windrow composting of the activated sludge was up to it can be rightly stated that the VF technology has shown enough
349,000 $ (approximately 26.61 million rupees). Similarly, Ghazy et al. promise to be potentially implemented for remediating the domestic
[116] have reported that the cost of the windrow composting facility in sewage.
Egypt, handling 1–65 t sewage sludge/day, ranged between 74,000 $
(5.64 million rupees) and 79 × 104 (60.24 million rupees) per ton of the 5.2.4. Production of value-added byproducts and linkage to circular
dry sewage sludge per day. On the other hand, the cost of construction of bioeconomy
the engineered landfill was reported to be 65 $ (4956.25 rupees) per ton Apart from the trivial GHG emission, the following byproducts are
of sewage sludge in Australia. In contrary, the produced sludge, also obtained during the VF of domestic sewage: treated effluent as the liquid
known as vermicasting, has already been stabilized inside the earth output and the vermicastings as the solid residue. In addition, once the
worm’s body and can be directly used as fertilizer without any further VF process is over, the earthworms can also be taken out from the ver
treatment [31]. The vermicasting can be easily scrapped from the top of mibed [3]. Chowdhury et al. [32] have mentioned that the doubling
the vermibed and can be replaced with the fresh bed materials [35]. time of the earthworms is approximately two months. As a result, the
Being a self-driven, self-improved, and self-powered zero-waste tech number of earthworms obtained after the process is over will be more
nology, the VF process possesses high longevity. The VF process has been than the number of earthworms incorporated at the beginning of the VF
reported to last up to 3–4 months or even 7–8 months without any dif process.
ficulties, especially while treating the low-strength domestic sewage [5]. Owing to the nutritional value, the vermicasting itself or after being
Owing to this everlasting nature, the cost of the VF technology gets converted to the vermicompost can be potentially employed as the
reduced. organic manure to improve the fertility of the soil [1,32]. The vermi
Apart from all the above-mentioned factors, the external chemical compost is reported to have the ability to replace the conventional
requirements also govern the operational cost of a technology. Abello- chemical fertilizers in the global market [89]. Moreover, a huge mone
Passteni [28] investigated the external chemical requirements during tary investment is required to develop the infrastructure to produce the
the treatment of domestic wastewater in Chile using ALs, ASP, and VF. chemical fertilizers, which, in turn, increases the cost of the food pro
He observed that to remove 1 kg BOD5, ALs necessitated 0.9 kg sodium duction [32]. In addition, the crops produced by utilizing the chemical
hypochlorite, 0.1 kg chlorine, 1.1 kg ferric chloride, and 0.02 kg poly fertilizers also get contaminated by the toxic chemicals, which subse
mer, whereas the same for the ASP were 0.2, 0.04, 0.1, and 0.01 kg/kg quently affects the human beings adversely after the consumption of the
BOD5 removed, respectively. On the other hand, the VF necessitated food. On the other hand, the cost of producing the vermicasting and
only 0.1 kg sodium hypochlorite/kg BOD5 removed for disinfecting the vermicompost is trivial due to the abundant availability of the raw
effluent, cutting down the cost of the process. On the other hand, in materials, including domestic wastewater. According to the report of the
conventional nitrification and denitrification, just before the denitrifi Status of Sewage Treatment Plants 2021, published by CPCB, the gen
cation unit, the organic carbon sources such as methanol has been added eration of domestic sewage from the Class I cities and Class II towns was
externally to facilitate the growth of heterotrophs, enhancing the cost of approximately 29,129 MLD (as per 2001 census) [8]. Thus, the appli
the process [7]. In contrary, during VF, the nitrification and denitrifi cation of the vermicompost as organic manure helps in lessening the cost
cation occur simultaneously inside the vermifilter without any external of food production. According to Sinha et al. [89], a significant drop in
addition of the chemicals, making the VF technology economically the cost of food production (up to 60–70 %) has been noticed by
affordable [5]. replacing the chemical fertilizers with the vermicompost. The produced
Machado et al. [117] have reported that the operational cost of the food will be safe and chemical free. Sinha et al. [89] inspected that the
CWs varied between 0.17 and 0.28 €/m2.year (14.4–23.7 rupees/m2. risk of occurrence of any disease on consuming the foods has been
year) (for FWS-CWs) to 0.21–0.34 €/m2.year (17.8–28.8 rupees/m2. reduced by 75 % due to the application of vermicompost as organic
year) (for VSSF-CWs). On the other hand, Mara [109] observed that the manure. Sinha et al. [119] have found that the application of vermi
operational cost of WSPs was up to 4 €/user.year (338.40 rupees/user. compost helps in reducing the harvesting time of the crops. This has
year) in France. Again, Sharma et al. [84] have made an effort to helped the farmers to gain more profit by cultivating more crops in a
compare the economic feasibility of various onsite domestic sewage single year using the same plot. In addition, the vermicompost is re
treatment facilities. They reported that the operational costs of the septic ported to have the capability to hold the soil moisture for longer dura
tank with percolation area, MBR, MBBR, SBR, and CWs were 14, 50–70, tion, cutting down the water demand by 30–40 % [120]. In fact,
20–30, 4–7, and 175 €/user.year, respectively (in Indian currency, these vermicompost also helps in obtaining better growth and higher yield of
values are 1184.40, 4230–5922, 1692–2538, 338.40–592.20, and the crops [106]. Webster [121] found that the application of vermi
14,805 rupees/user.year, respectively. In contrary, the operational cost compost enhanced the grapes’ production by 23 % than that using the
of the VF technology was reported to be only 0.05 €/m3.year (i.e., 4.23 chemical fertilizers. In light of the above discussion, it is clearly evident
rupees/m3.year), subjected to further decrease with the increase in the that the vermicastings and vermicompost can be a potential replacement
number of users [112,118]. of the chemical fertilizers across the globe. Devkota et al. [122] found
that the production cost of vermicompost was 15.68 rupees /kg, whereas
5.2.3. Treatment efficiency it has been sold to the market at 25 rupees/kg as the biofertilizer,
The treatment efficacy of a particular wastewater treatment tech obtaining a net profit of 9.32 rupees/kg of vermicompost, which, in turn,
nology also determines its economic feasibility. In other words, it needs lessened the cost of VF process.
to be worthy investing on a particular technology in terms of its Similarly, the effluent obtained from the VF of domestic sewage
18
embraces nutrients in high concentrations, thereby satisfying the criteria 5.3. Social acceptability
to be utilized in irrigation and agricultural practices [74]. Hence, it also
adds positive economic value to the VF process. In addition to the environmental sustainability and economic
The presence of earthworms adds 100–1000 times more value than affordability, the VF technology needs to be socially acceptable for its
the conventional processes [123]. The obtained earthworms can be consideration as the sustainable wastewater remediation technology.
again reutilized in other vermifilters. The earthworms can also be sold to The social acceptability of a particular wastewater treatment technology
the farmers or to the various farms such as poultry, dairy, and fishery depends on the following factors: protection of public health, pubic
farms as feedstocks since the earthworms are rich in protein content (65 involvement and community development i.e., the growth of local socio-
% of the total wight of the earthworms) [89]. In Australia, the cost of economy, and aesthetics [15,84] (Fig. 8).
500 earthworms is approximately 20 A$ (1126.40 rupees) [31], whereas
Devkota et al. [122] have found that the cost of production of one 5.3.1. Protection of public health
earthworm was only 0.40 rupees. In recent few years, vermiculture has Since the VF technology has the potential to substantially eradicate
become one of the fastest growing industries. Hati [124] found that the various pollutants including organics, nutrients, and pathogens from the
villagers in rural areas were gaining a yearly profit of 5–6 lakh rupees by domestic sewage, the outbreak of the water-borne diseases has been
selling the earthworms and vermicompost. Hence, the earthworms also drastically reduced, reducing the risk of human toxicity [53,82]. In fact,
indirectly help in reducing the cost of VF process. Few examples of the Kumar et al. [52] and Arora et al. [53] have reported that the VF process
commercial business models, established/proposed worldwide, can successfully eliminate the FCs from the domestic sewage and the
regarding the production and trading of the earthworms and vermi treated effluent has satisfied the surface water discharge standards
compost have been portrayed in Table 3. regarding the pathogen count. In addition, Kumar et al. [60] have
In reference to the above discussion, it can be concluded that the VF postulated that the NO−3 -N concentration in the effluent obtained from
technology helps in converting the wastewater coming from the the VF of domestic sewage was <45 mg/L. Thus, the discharge of the
households, communities, agricultural fields, and various farms into vermifiltered effluent to the surface water bodies would not cause the
highly nutritive vermicastings. The vermicastings, after being converted blue baby syndrome [2]. In addition, as already discussed, being an
to vermicompost, can be utilized in the agricultural fields and subse organic fertilizer, the application of vermicastings and vermicompost
quently, the wastewater coming from the agricultural field through results in the production of safe and chemical free food, cutting down
municipal sewer systems can be subjected to the VF process, thereby the risk of hazardous impact on the human beings due to the con
completing a cycle (Fig. 10). Moreover, the treated effluent can be sumption of foods. Sinha et al. [89] have reported a drastic fall (up to 75
employed for the agricultural and horticultural purposes, thereby %) in the risk of occurrence of such diseases when the chemical fertil
imparting a positive economic value. The earthworms employed in the izers were replaced with the vermicompost. Generally, the effluent ob
VF can also be taken out once the process is over and sold to various tained from the domestic wastewater has been advised to utilize for non-
farms as feedstock. In fact, the same earthworms can also be incorpo potable purposes [31]. However, in rural areas, the people may use the
rated into a new vermifilter, thereby completing a circle of economy. surface water, which may accommodate the discharge from the vermi
Hence, the VF technology converts the domestic wastewater with filter, for drinking purpose. Moreover, the human beings share the same
negative economic worth into highly nutritive effluent, vermicastings, food chain with the fishes [3]. Since the VF technology is capable of
and vermicompost having positive economic values using the earth reducing the concentration levels of the contaminants below the
worms (i.e., biological agent), thereby reinforcing the concept of cir permissible limits, it can be stated the implication of VF technology cuts
cular bioeconomy (Fig. 10). down the risk of human toxicity to a great extent, thereby promoting the
Table 3
Business models for the production and trading of the earthworms and vermicompost.
Region/country Enterprise/facility Business model Waste holding capacity Current References
status
South Pacific Island – Organic farming – Proposed Pierre-Louis et al.

countries (Samoa and Fiji) [127]
Greece Pylaia-Chortiatis Organic fertilizer production through food 32.30 t/year Conlen et al.
municipality waste management [128]
Australia – Organic manure production 200 t/week Existing de la Vega [129]
Rochester, New York, US Worm Power (World’s Agri-business, organic farming, production of 16.33 t/week
largest VC facility) cattle feedstocks (corn grains)
Portland, Oregon, US Portland community Soil amending 6.176 t/year
college
Monroe, Washington, US Monroe correctional Trading earthworms and vermicompost 10 t/month
facility
Seattle, Washington, US Woodland Park zoo Selling Zoo Doo through ‘Endangered Feces’ –
online lottery system
Durham, California, US The Worm Farm Earthworm trading 204.12 kg/two weeks for
each windrow facility
Sancti Spiritus, Cuba Finca de Casimiro Selling organic fertilizer 54.43 kg/d
Havana, Cuba Vivero Alamar Selling fruits and vegetables produced by Manure from 7 horses and
Organoponico organic farming, Selling vermicompost 13 bulls
Guana-Coboa, Cuba Granjita Feliz Production and sale of food Waste from 50 rabbits/d
North-East India – Agri-business and organic fertilizer production – Proposed Kadirvel et al.
[130]
New Zealand Maketu Production and sale of organic fertilizer 0.50 t/d Existing Quintern &
Hamilton 13,500 t/year Morley [131]
Rotorua 10,000 t/year
Te Puke 900 t/year
North Vancouver, Canada Loutet Farm, Edible Vermicompost trading (Mid-scale urban Waste from 56 local Proposed Hanam et al.
Garden project vermicomposting facility project plan) businesses [132]
19
Fig. 10. Economic sustainability of VF technology from the perspective of circular bioeconomy.
protection of public health. development, the VF technology ensures the growth of local socio-
economy.
5.3.2. Growth of local socio-economy
Being an environmentally sound and decentralized wastewater 5.3.3. Aesthetics
remediation technology, VF can be effectively employed to remediate Another parameter that plays a pivotal role in determining the social
the domestic sewage generated from the individual households or small acceptability of a wastewater treatment technology is the maintenance
communities [5]. Owing to the ease of construction and operation of VF, of the aesthetic assets [15,84]. As we already know, the burrowing ac
the common people of the communities can take the decisions and ac tivity of the earthworms makes the VF process naturally aerobic. Being
tions by themselves, reflecting local values through a public process in an aerobic method, VF process does not produce any pungent smell.
which the common people have the sense of ownership over the decision Basically, by tunneling action, the earthworms inhibit the action of the
making i.e., the common people can decide how to construct and use the anaerobic microorganisms releasing mercaptans and hydrogen sulphide
system for their economic growth. In other words, VF ensures the public [31]. Hence, the VF technology does not cause any nuisance to the
involvement which is not possible in case of the conventional waste surrounding people, thereby maintaining the social aesthetics. Being a
water treatment methods [15]. decentralized method, VF technology can also be employed in small-
As already discussed, the VF of domestic sewage results in the pro scale communities or individual households and it does not occupy
duction of various value-added byproducts such as vermicastings, ver large space. In addition, unlike the conventional aerobic wastewater
micompost, treated effluent, and earthworms (Fig. 10). The treatment methods, VF process does not produce any sludge, promoting
vermicompost can be sold to the market as fertilizer. Devkota et al. the conservation of social aesthetic values. The effluent coming out from
[122] reported that the vermicompost has been sold to the market at a the VF of domestic sewage is crystal clear and rich in DO [1,31]. Thus, its
rate of 25 rupees/kg with a net profit of 9.32 rupees/kg. In addition, as disposal to the surface water bodies does not cause any color change of
already mentioned, the earthworms can also be sold to various farms as the water. Apart from this, the disposal of the vermifiltered effluent does
feedstock. Sinha et al. [31] observed that the price of 500 earthworms not result in the formation of algal bloom inside the surface water bodies
was approximately 20 A$ (approximately 1126.40 rupees). Hence, VF [2,60]. Furthermore, as discussed earlier, VF helps in maintaining the
process also helps in boosting up the economy, which makes the local balance of the aquatic as well as the soil-based ecosystems [2,53],
people in rural areas attracted towards the VF process. Since it is a thereby strengthening the concept of preserving the aesthetic assets.
decentralized method, all the members of the community can equally In light of the above discussions, it can be concluded that the VF
take the benefits of the VF facility. Moreover, the treated effluent can be technology has satisfied almost all the criteria to be regarded as the
used for various non-potable purposes by the beneficiaries. It also pro sustainable treatment alternative for treating the domestic sewage.
motes social resiliency and stability through the wise use of the re Especially, in rural and urban communities of both the developing and
sources. Thus, due to the implementation of the VF technology for developed countries, the provision of the centralized WWTPs may not be
treating the domestic sewage, all the members of the community will be fruitful in near future as the sustainable wastewater treatment facility
able to prosper to their highest potential through appropriate natural owing to the accrescent need for the clean water. Hence, the need of this
resource-based development. In other words, the VF technology, as a hour is to treat particularly the domestic sewage coming from the single
whole, helps in the community development [15]. households and small communities in decentralized manner employing
Hence, through the public involvement and community the VF technology, thereby ensuring the reduction of the burden of the
20
organic loads on the conventional WWTPs. In view of the analyses made rain and extreme heat of the sun [1,33]. In addition, the macrophytes
throughout the review work, the advantages of implementing the VF impart some distinct advantages including rootzone aeration, ac
technology over the conventional wastewater treatment methods, commodation of the microbes at the rhizosphere, enhancement of
especially for treating the domestic sewage have been schematically the porosity of the vermibed media, and nutrient uptake from the
portrayed in Fig. 11. wastewater, further improving the treatment efficacy of the vermi
filters [11]. The issue regarding the operation of the vermifilters at
6. Future perspectives higher HLRs can be overcome to some extent by adopting the step
feeding of the influent at multiple points [1,126]. In step feeding, the
Even though, the VF technology has been extensively employed in flowrate of the influent gets divided among different influent ports.
remediating the domestic sewage, the researchers have faced few chal Thus, the HLRs from each port becomes substantially less as
lenges, especially during the field-scale implementation of the VF compared to the single point wastewater feeding approach. In
technology, which need further attention. addition, in step feeding mode, the uniform distribution of the
wastewater over the entire surface of the vermibed reduces the risk
➢ The earthworms cannot sustain higher HLRs and are unable to sur of ponding. Recently, to address the concern related to the area
vive in water-logged condition for longer duration, which restrict the requirement of the VF process, the researchers have implemented
scaling up of the VF technology. This issue needs special attention of baffled vermifilters [37,38] and hybrid vermifilters [1,33]. In baffled
the researchers. vermifilters, the provision of baffles increases the effective length of
➢ The earthworms are very sensitive to the seasonal variations. During travel of wastewater inside the vermifilter by ensuring the curvi
summer, the earthworm’s skin gets dried up, restricting the move linear movement of the wastewater, thereby facilitating sufficient
ment of the earthworms, which, in turn, ceases the activities of the contact time for substantial nutrient removal from the wastewater by
earthworms. In monsoon, the earthworms may get injured by the engaging smaller area. On the other hand, in hybrid vermifilters, the
direct impact of the rain drops, reducing the efficacy of the VF wastewater has to pass through a VSSF vermifilter followed by a
technology. Similarly, in winter, the activity of the earthworms gets HSSF vermifilter. In VSSF vermifilter, the aerobic condition prevails,
drastically reduced. This is a serious issue and needs to be encoun whereas in HSSF vermifilter, anaerobic condition becomes predom
tered for the successful implementation of the VF technology in field- inant [30,48]. Thus, the provision of the hybrid vermifilter improves
scale applications. the redox condition of the system, triggering the organic and nutrient
➢ To ensure substantial removal of the nutrients from the wastewater, removal efficiency of the VF technology within a minimal footprint.
sufficient contact time has to be provided, which engages large However, the application of all the aforementioned modifications
footprint, negotiating the scaling-up of the VF technology, especially has been mostly limited to the lab-scale. Hence, further research is of
where the space is limited. This has to addressed to further reinforce utmost importance to examine the feasibility of the aforementioned
the sustainability of the VF technology. advanced vermifilters in field-scale applications.
➢ Over the last few years, an awareness has been observed among the
researchers to adopt various strategies and techniques to further 7. Conclusion
improve the performance of the VF technology. Various researchers
have provided a thermal insulation layer (elasticity plastic filler In the present review, the mechanisms taking place in VF and the
layer) at the vermibed surface to protect the earthworms from the contribution of the earthworms in remediating the domestic sewage are
external freezing [113,125]. Some researchers have incorporated the comprehensively elaborated. On analyzing the performance of the VF
macrophytes to protect the earthworms from the direct impact of the technology, based on the data compiled in this review work, it can be
Fig. 11. Advantages of VF technology for treating the domestic sewage.
21
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Water Process Engineering

Sustainability assessment of vermifiltration technology for treating

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of a VF unit.

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the nutrient removal mechanisms in vermifiltration.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the pathogen removal mechanisms in vermifiltration.

active Jaipur, India effluent

Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266

underlain by dia): 100,

Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266

Untreated Mixture of Oxley WWTP in BOD5: TSS: 90–95, Sinha et al.

Journal of Water Process Engineering 50 (2022) 103266

quantity of vermicasting, which, in turn, enhances the organic removal

4 -N: Ammonium nitrogen; NO3 -N:

of the VF technology to remediate human feces ensured substantial COD

nutrients in the produced vermicasting gets increased for plant uptake

4.2. Nutrient removal

Nitrogen (N) is the most common nutrient present in the domestic

nitrification, and denitrification, or adsorption by the bed materials, or

At greater bed depth, with the reduction in DO availability, anoxic

Fig. 8. Different criteria for the sustainability of a wastewater treatment method.

COD 100 100 60 150 24–118

South Pacific Island – Organic farming – Proposed Pierre-Louis et al.

Fig. 11. Advantages of VF technology for treating the domestic sewage.

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