P.W.

H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

G-12 Physics
Chapter (1): Rational Motion

1 mark
Def (1) Difference between circular motion and rotational motion
Circular motion Rotational motion
(1) In a circular motion, the object just (1) In rotational motion, the object rotates
moves in a circle. about an axis.
(2) For example, (2) For example,
(i) artificial satellites going around the earth (i) rotation of earth about its own axis
at a constant height which creates the cycle of day and night
(ii) motion of the blades of a fan
(iii) motion of a Ferris wheel in an
amusement park

Def (2) Rigid body

A rigid body that does not deform or change shape. That is, no matter how the body
moves, the distance between any two particles within the body remains constant.

Def (3) Rational motion under constant angular acceleration

If the angular velocity of the rotating object changes at a constant rate, then we can
say that the angular acceleration is constant and the motion is called the rotational motion
under constant angular acceleration.

Def (4) Centripetal acceleration

For uniform circular motion, the centripetal acceleration vector points towards the
center of the circular path while the linear velocity vector is tangential to the path. This
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
2
v
In symbol, ac = (or) ac = rw2
r
Where, ac = centripetal acceleration
v = linear velocity
r = radius
w = angular velocity

2 marks
Review Exercise (pg – 3)
(1) Under what condition the angular acceleration of a rotating object is equal to zero?
Answer
The angular acceleration of a rotating object is equal to zero under the angular
velocity of a rotation object is constant.

1
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Review Exercise (pg – 6)

(1) In circular motion, how is a tangential acceleration produced?
Answer
The magnitude of linear velocity will also a change when the magnitude of the
angular velocity of a rotating object change. Then, a tangential acceleration is produced.

Review Exercise (pg – 10)

(1) Suppose a piece of food is on the edge of a rotating microwave oven plate. Does it
experience tangential acceleration, centripetal acceleration, or both when
(i) the plate starts to spin faster? [both]
(ii) the plate rotates at constant angular velocity? [only centripetal acceleration]
(iii) the plate slows down to stop? [both]

Exercise (pg – 11)

(1) Consider a rotating circular plate of a lathe machine. Are the angular and tangential
speeds at any point on the plate the same? Explain.
Answer
The angular speeds of all points on a rotating circular plate of a machine are the
same when the tangential speeds at different points are not the same.
Because the tangential speed of a point on the plate depends on its distance from
the axis of rotation.
The farther the point is from the center of rotation, the greater its distance from the
axis of rotation, and therefore the greater its tangential speed.

Exercise (pg – 11)

(2) Why is the centripetal acceleration produced in a circular motion?
Answer
In uniform circular motion, the direction of the velocity of an object continuously
changes due to a net fore directed towards the center of the circular path.
The magnitude of the velocity remains constant, but the direction of the velocity
remains constant, but the direction of the velocity vector changes, and this change
constitutes the centripetal acceleration.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter (2)
Forces in circular motion
1 mark
Def (1) Difference forms of centripetal force
(i) Tension force
(ii) Gravitational force
(iii) Electric force
(iv) Frictional force
(v) Normal force

2
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (2) Centripetal force

Centripetal force is the force acting on an object in circular motion which is directed
towards the axis of rotation (or) center of curvature.
2
mv
In symbol, Fc =
r
Where, Fc = centripetal force
m = mass
v = linear velocity
r = radius

Def (3) Banking

Banking of roads is raising the outer edge of the curved road higher than the inner
edge.

Def (4) Angle of banking

The angle that the inclined track makes with horizontal is called angle of banking.
2
v
In symbol, tan θ =
rg
Where, θ = angle of banking
v = linear velocity
r = radius
g = acceleration due to gravity

Def (5) Centrifugal force

Centrifugal force in a circular motion is not a real force; it acts radially away from the
center of the circle. It results the effect of inertia.

Def (6) Difference (or) Comparison between centripetal and centrifugal force
Centripetal force Centrifugal force
(1) Centripetal force is the force acting on (1) Centrifugal force in a circular motion is
an object in circular motion which is not real force, it acts radially away from the
directed towards the axis of rotation or center of the circle. It results from the
center of curvature. effect of inertia.
(2) If a car is travelling through a horizontal (2) When a car in motion takes a sudden
road, the centripetal force provided by the turn in a curved path, passengers in the car
force of friction between the tires of the experience an outward push. This is due to
vehicle and the road surface allows the car the centrifugal force acting on passenger.
to negotiate the turn.
(3) A satellite orbiting a planet is supported (3) Removing the excess water by spin
by the centripetal force. drying clothes in a washing machine is with
the help of centrifugal force.

3
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

2 marks
Reviewed Exercise (pg – 20)
(1) When a skater forms a circle, he has no lean inwards. Explain with a force diagram.
Answer
A centripetal force is force that is necessary to keep the skater in a circular motion.
The centripetal force is always acting towards the center of the radius of curvature.

Fc = FN cos θ

Exercise (pg – 21)

(1) Imagine a car driving over a hillock at a constant speed. Once the car has reached the
apex of the hillock, does it have the acceleration? If so, what is the direction of acceleration?
Answer
It has the acceleration called centripetal force.
The direction of acceleration is always towards the center of the circle.

Exercise (pg – 21)

(2) Does the centripetal force and centrifugal force constitute an action-reaction pair?
Explain.
Answer
The centripetal force and centrifugal force constitute an action-reaction pair.
Because they have equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Exercise (pg – 21)

(4) For an object moving in a circle with constant angular velocity, what is the direction of
acceleration of the object?
Answer
The direction of acceleration of the object is towards the center of the circle.

Exercise (pg – 21)

(5) When a bob is swinging in the vertical circle at which point on the circular part is the
tension in the rope the greatest?
Answer
When a bob is swinging in the vertical circle at lowest point on the circular part is the
tension in the rope the greatest.

4
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Chapter (3)
Fluid Dynamics
1 mark
Def (1) What is fluid?
A substance offers no permanent resistance to deforming forces.

*Def (2) What is ideal fluid?

It is a fluid having all ideal properties like no viscosity, no surface tension,
incompressible, irrotational, etc. If this condition is satisfied, then it called an ideal fluid.
(Bulk modulus for ideal fluid is infinity).

*Def (3) What is steady flow?

If all the properties do not change with respect to time, then the flow is said to be
steady flow.

*Def (4) What is unsteady flow?

If even a single parameter changes with respect to time, then the flow becomes
unsteady flow.

Def (5) Streamline

The path or flow of the fluid particles is called streamline.

Def (6) Types of motion

(i) Laminar flow
(ii) Turbulent flow

Def (7) Laminar flow

If fluids particles are moving steady in smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving
smoothly past is called laminar flow.
Eg: flow through a capillary tube, flow of blood in veins and arteries, ground water flow

Def (8) Turbulent flow

If the flow or path of the fluid particles are irregular, their direction is always
changing or whirling; this fluid movement is called turbulent flow.
Eg: high velocity flow in a conduit of large size, nearly all fluid flow problems encountered in
engineering practice have a turbulent character

Def (9) What is the continuity equation?

It depends upon the conservation of mass, and it is defined as the mass flow rate
entering the cross-section being equal to the mass flow rate at the exit.
In symbol, A1 v 1 = A2 v 2

5
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (10) Continuity equation

Continuity equation is defined as the mass flow rate entering the cross-section being
equal to the mass flow rate at the exit.
In symbol, A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
Where, A = cross-section area
v = speed of flow

Def (11) Work-energy principle

The work done on section of fluid must equal the change in total mechanical energy
(that is kinetic energy + potential energy).

Def (12) What is Bernoulli’s equation?

Bernoulli’s equation is based on the law of conservation of energy. It is defined as the
sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume of an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined laminar flow remain constant.
1
In symbol, p + ρ v2 + ρ gh = constant
2

Def (13) Bernoulli’s theorem

Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy per unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined
laminar flow remains constant.
1
In symbol, p + ρ v2 + ρ gh = constant
2
Where, p = pressure in liquid
ρ = density of water
v = speed
g = acceleration due to gravity

*Def (14) Write the assumptions of Bernoulli’s theorem.

The following assumptions are made in derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem.
(1) The liquid is ideal and incompressible.
(2) The flow is steady and continuous.
(3) The flow is along the streamline that is it is one-dimensional.
(4) The velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean velocity.
(5) The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity forces and the pressure forces.

Def (15) Manifestations of Bernoulli’s theorem

(1) Lift on the wings of an aeroplane
(2) Insect sprayer
(3) Magnus effect on a spinning Ball
(4) The roof of houses can fly away during cyclones

6
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (16) What is viscosity?

The resistance to fluid motion (or) internal resistance of fluid is called viscosity.
Def (17) Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient.
F
−
A
In symbol, η=
dv
dy
Where, η = viscosity (Pas)
F = shearing force
A = area
dv
= velocity gradient (s-1)
dy

Def (18) Explain the variation of viscosity with temperature.

The viscosity liquids decrease rapidly with an increase in temperature, and the
viscosity of gases increases with an increase in temperature.

Def (19) Two ways to measure the fluid’s viscosity

(1) Dynamic viscosity
(2) Kinematic viscosity

Def (20) Dynamic viscosity

To measure fluid’s resistance to flow when an external force is applied. This is known
as dynamic viscosity.

Def (21) Kinematic viscosity

To measure the resistive flow of a fluid under the weight of gravity. It is known as
kinematic viscosity, which is more useful than dynamic viscosity (absolute viscosity).

Def (22) Shear stress

Shear stress is the shearing force per unit area.
F
In symbol, τ=
A
Where, τ = shear stress (Pa)
F = shearing force
A = area

Def (23) Newton’s law of viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress between the two adjacent
layers of fluid is directly proportional to the negative value of the velocity gradient between
the same two adjacent fluid layers.
dv
In symbol, τ =-η
dy

7
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Where, τ = shear stress (Pa)

η = viscosity (Pas)
dv
= velocity gradient (s-1)
dy

Def (24) Drag force

Drag force is acting upward in resistance to the fall of a spherical object in a viscous
liquid.
In symbol, F=6 πηrv
Where, F = drag force
η = viscosity (Pas)
r = radius of spherical object (m)
v = velocity (ms-1)

Def (25) What are the factors upon which the drag force acting upon a small sphere of
radius moving down through a liquid depends?
The drag force depends upon the velocity of an object in a fluid.
The other factors upon which the drag force depends are the shape and size of the
material.

Def (26) Cohesion

Cohesion refers to forces between molecules of the same substance.

Def (27) Surface tension

Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length that acts across any line on a
surface tending to pull the surface apart.
F
In symbol, Υ=
l
Where, Υ = surface tension
F = force
l = length

Def (28) Adhesion

Adhesion refers to the forces between molecules of different substances.

Def (29) Capillary action

Capillary action is defined as the spontaneous flow of a liquid into a narrow tube or
porous material.

Def (30) Why does capillary action happen?

The capillary action happens due to the cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.

Note (31) Height of liquid

8
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

2Υ cos θ
In symbol, h=
ρgr
Where, h = height of liquid
Υ = surface tension
θ = contact angle
ρ = density of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ms-2), r = radius (m)
2 marks
Reviewed Exercise (pg – 24)
(1) Is motor car bake oil compressible or non-compressible?
Motor car brake oil are non-compressible.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 24)

(2) Are gases compressible or non-compressible?
Gases are compressible.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 24)

(3) What is the difference between laminar flow and turbulent flow?
Laminar flow Turbulent flow
(1) If fluid particles are moving steady in (1) If the flow or path of the fluid particles
smooth paths in layers, with each layer are irregular, their direction is always
moving smoothly past the adjacent layers changing or whirling; this fluid movement is
with no mixing; such a flow is called laminar called turbulent flow.
flow.
(2) (i) flow through a capillary tube (2) (i) high velocity flow in a conduit of large
(ii) flow of blood in veins and arteries size
(iii) ground water flow (ii) nearly all fluid flow problems
encountered in engineering practice have a
turbulent character.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 24)

(4) At a river junction, water streams are whirling, is it laminar or turbulent?
It is turbulent flow.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 27)

(1) Why does the river flow faster in passing the defile (narrow river passage)?
1
Since A ∝ , area is inversely proportional to the speed.
v
So, the river flows faster in passing the defile (narrow river passage).

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 33)

(1) Can fluid flow from lower pressure to higher pressure?
Yes, fluid can flow from lower pressure to higher pressure.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 35)

9
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

(1) On which factor does the viscosity of a liquid depend?

The viscosity of a liquid depends on the liquid nature, temperature, pressure and
distance between the layers of the liquid.

Reviewed Exercise (pg – 35)

(2) How does temperature affect the viscosity of a fluid?
The viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature.
Reviewed Exercise (pg – 39)
(1) Water rises in a capillary tube, whereas mercury falls in the same tube. Explain.
Adhesion between glass and water is greater than the cohesion between water
molecules.
Adhesion between glass and mercury is less than the cohesion between mercury
molecules.

Exercise (pg – 40)

(1) How are the flow rate and fluid velocity related?
The flow rate is the volume passing through a pipe per unit of time.
Flow rate = cross-sectional area x velocity
Fluid velocity is the distance the fluid travels per unit of time.
distance
Velocity =
time

Chapter (4)
Sources of energy and Environmental Impacts
1 mark
Def (1) Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas, are important non-renewable sources of
energy.

Def (2) Non-renewable resource

A non-renewable resource is a natural substance that is not replenished with the
speed at which it is consumed.

Def (3) Some non-renewable resource

(1) Coal
(2) Natural gas
(3) Crude oil
(4) Nuclear energy

Def (4) Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources (also called non-conventional energy sources) are
continuously replenished by natural processes.

10
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (5) Some renewable energy sources

(1) Solar energy
(2) Wind energy
(3) Hydroelectric energy
(4) Energy from ocean
(5) Geothermal energy
(6) biomass
Def (6) Energy from Ocean
(1) Tidal energy
(2) Wave energy
(3) Ocean thermal energy

Def (7) The energy transfers which occur in each type of energy resource
(1) Fossil fuels
Chemical energy → thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
(2) Solar energy
Light & thermal energy → electrical energy
(3) Nuclear
Nuclear energy → thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
(4) Wind
Kinetic energy → electrical energy
(5) Bio-fuel
Chemical energy → thermal energy → mechanical energy → electrical energy
(6) Hydroelectricity
Gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
(7) Geothermal
Thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
(8) Tidal
Kinetic energy → electrical energy

Def (8) Solar energy

Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the sun that has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies.

Def (9) Irradiance

The total amount of radiation energy passing through per unit area and per unit time
is called irradiance and is measured in Wm-2 and kWm-2.
total radiation energy ( ¿ ) solar energy recevied
Irradiance =
area x time
Above the earth’s atmosphere → intensity ≈ 1350 Wm-2 (429 Btuh-1ft-2)
At the earth’s surface → intensity ≈ 1000 Wm-2
 Insolation is the solar irradiance received on a horizontal surface as ground.
 Another commonly used term for irradiance of sunlight is insolation.

11
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (10) Main ways to harness solar energy

There are three main ways to harness solar energy. They are
(i) Solar cell
(ii) Solar heating
(iii) Concentrated solar power

Def (11) Photovoltaic effect

Conversion of light energy into electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called
photovoltaic effect.

Def (12) Solar cell (photovoltaic cell)

A solar cell (photovoltaic cell) is defined as an electrical device that converts light
energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
 Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar
panels.
 Power conversion efficiency of the solar panel is the ratio of the electrical power
delivered by the panel to the solar power received by it.

Def (13) Requiring material for solar heating

Solar water heating systems installed in homes are comprised of three main
elements:
(i) Solar collector
(ii) Insulated piping
(iii) Hot water storage tank
Function of solar collector
The solar collector gathers the heat from solar radiation and transfers the heat to
water.
Function of storage tank
This heated water flows out of the collector to a hot water tank, and it used as
necessary.
Advantage of solar heating
Solar heating can also play an important role in reducing the impact of global
warming.
 Flat plate collectors are the most common type of collector.

Def (14) Four types of CSP (Concentrated solar power) technologies

There are four types of CSP technologies:
(i) Parabolic trough systems
(ii) Linear fresnel systems
(iii) Power tower systems
(iv) Parabolic dish systems

Def (15) CSP (concentrated solar power) consist of two parts

12
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

(i) One that collected solar energy and converts it to heat

(ii) Another that converts the heat energy to electricity.

Def (16) Function of concentrated solar power (CSP)

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or
lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a specific point of receiver which converts
into heat.
The heat is the used to create steam, which drives a turbine to generate electrical
power.
Def (17) Wind energy
Wind energy is the energy generated or produced by harnessing the power of wind.

Def (18) Hydroelectric energy

The flowing water and water stored in huge dams is also a very important source of
energy which is known as hydroelectric energy.

Def (19) The most common type of hydroelectric power plant

(1) Impoundment facility
(2) Diversion facility (or) Run-off-river facility
(3) Pumped Storage facility

Def (20) Most conventional hydroelectric plants included most common parts
(1) Dam (raises the water level of the river and controls flow of water)
(2) Turbine (a water turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical
energy)
(3) Generator (connected to the turbine by shafts and converts the mechanical energy
from the turbine to electrical energy)
(4) Transformer
(5) Transmission system (transport electricity from the hydropower station to
consumers)

Def (21) Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth’s core (the
internal heat of the earth) and it is one of the oldest types of natural sources of heat.

Def (22) Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy is non-renewable as the uranium fuels are consumed in the nuclear
fission reaction and hence are non-replenishable.

Def (23) Uses of nuclear energy

Nuclear energy has many uses:
(i) Energy produced in a nuclear reactor can be harnessed to produce electricity.
(ii) Nuclear energy is also being used to power submarines and ships. Vessels driven
by nuclear energy can sail for long periods without having to refuel.

13
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

(iii) Radioisotopes obtained as by-products in nuclear reactions are used in medicine,

agriculture and research.

Def (24) Biomass

Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass
contains stored chemical energy.

Def (25) Type of biomass energy sources

The type of biomass energy sources are
- Wood and wood processing wastes
- Agricultural crops and waste materials
- Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste
- Animal manure and human sewage

Def (26) Biomass is converted to energy through various processes

(i) Direct combustion (burning to produce heat
(ii) Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous and liquid fuels
(iii) Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels
(iv) Biological conversion to produce liquid and gaseous fuels

Def (27) Problems that relate to the use of fossil fuels

(i) Global warming
(ii) Acid rains
(iii) Dangers posed by leaded fuels
(iv) Oil spills
(v) Gas leaks and explosions
(vi) Air pollution
(vii) Water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines

Def (28) Global warming

Global warming refers to the gradual increase in the average temperature of the
earth’s surface and its atmosphere which has been attributed to the accumulation of
greenhouse gases.

Def (29) Main greenhouse gases

(i) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
(ii) Methane (CH4)
(iii) Water vapour (H2O)
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
(v) Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)

14
P.W.H B-Tech-MC Education Centre

Def (30) Acid rain

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air.
These substances can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react
with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain.

15