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PUBL PEAKN
CHOICES AND RESPONSIBILITY

WILLIAM KEITH· CHRISTIAN 0. LUNDBERG

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ICHOICES AND RESPONSIBILITY
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Wllflam Keith, Christian 0. Lundberg
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Printed in China
2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13
 Contents
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Public Speaking 3
Introduction: Why L am Public Speaking? 4 Your Goals (Chapter 5) 18
h ls Powerful 4 Creating Your First
Th Power of Public Speaking to Change the World 5 Speech 19
Th Power of Speeches to Change Your World 5 Information and Arguments
peaking Connects You to Others: Democracy (Chapters 6, 7) 19
In Everyday Life 6 Research (Chapter 8) 20
The Conversational Framework 7 Organizing (Chapter 9) 20
The Communication Process 9 Finding the Words (Chapter 10) 21

The Public in Public Speaking 10 Giving Your First Speech 22

Delivering the Speech (Chapter 11) 22
Speaking Is About Making Choices 12 Overcoming Anxiety (Chapter 11) 23
Preparation 12 Presentation Aids (Chapter 12) 23
Informing 14
Persuading 14 Making Responsible Choices 24
Good Speeches Are the Result of Choices 24
The Speaking Process: Thinking, Creating, Taking Responsibility Means Respecting the Audience 24
and Speaking 16
Thinking Through Your Choices 17
Your Responsibilities (Chapter 2) 17
Your Audience (Chapters 3, 4) 17

Ethics and the Responsible Speaker 27

Introduction: Why Ethics Matter in Public Speaking 28 How to Create an Ethical
Ethical Pitfalls in Public Speaking 29 Speech 39
Deceptive Speech 29 Respect Your Audience 39
Inappropriately Biased Speech 31 Respect Your Topic 40
Poorly Reasoned Speech 32 Present Other Views and
Treat Them Fairly 42
Seven Principles of Ethical Public Speaking 32
BeHonest 33 Avoid Fallacies and Prejudicial Appeals 43
BeOpen 33 Name Calling 43
Be Generous 34 Glittering Generalities 43
Be Balanced 34 Inappropriate Testimonials 44
Represent Evidence Responsibly 35 Plain-Folks Appeals 44
Take Appropriate Risks 36 Card Stacking 44
Choose Engagement 36 Bandwagoning 45

How to Avoid Plagiarism 37

•
2

r
 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
Understanding Audiences and Publics 47
Introduction: Those People Sitting in Fro nt of You 4 8 Two Views of the Audience:
Audience Analysis 49 Marketing vs.
The Literal Audience: Demographics 49 Engagement 55
Problems With the Demographic Approach 51 Marketing 55
Engagement 56
The Rhetorical Audience 51
The "As" Test 52 The Audience and the
From "Me" to "Us" 54 Public 58
Advancing the Public Conversation 59
Adapting Your Speech to Your Audience 54
Identify Common Interests 54 Your Responsibilities to Your Audience 60
Make the Most of Shared Experience 55
Work from Common Premises 55
Be Directive 55

.... .......................................................................................
Becoming a Skilled Listener 65
Introduction: Public Hearing and Listening 66 Giving Constructive and
Types of Listening 66 Useful Feedback 77
Passive Listening 66 Criticize Speeches, Not
Active Listening 67 People 79
Critical Listening 68 Be Specific 79
Focus on What Can Be
The Ethics of Listening 69 Changed 79
Obstacles to Good Listening 71 Be Communication Sensitive 80
Distractions 72
Your Mental Zone 73
Taking Good Notes 74

...........................................................................................
Choosing a Topic and Purpose 85
Introduction: Picking a Topic How to Focus Your Topic
and Defining Your Purpose 86 for Your Audience 93
Geography or Location 93
A Strategy for Picking a Topic 86
Past, Present, or Future 94
What Interests You? 88
Typical Audience
What Will Interest Your Audience? 88
Interests 94
What Is the Occasion? 88
What Is Your Purpose? 89 Speaking Purposes and Speaking Situations 95
What Is Your Thesis? 89 General Purposes of Speeches 95
Types of Speaking Situations 95
How to Find a Topic Among Your Interests 90
Time Constraints 98
What Do You Already Know or Care About? 90
What Do You Want to Know More About? 91 The Thesis Statement: Putting Your
Brainstorming 91 Purpose Into Words 98
Choosing One of Your Topic Ideas 92

• CONTENTS
 ······················-· · · · · ······· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · ··· · ··· · · · · · · · ···· · · • · " '
Informative Speaking 103
Introduction: T lling It Like It Is l04 Technlqut'S of rnformatlvP
Goals of Informative peaking l05 Spt:'nl<lng 11r,
P1 ent New Information lOti Deflnlnl( I In
Provide Ne, Perspectives 107 D�s rlhln� 11.l'i
Generate Positive 01· N gntlVl' l�eellngs 108 Explaining 117
How to Choose nn Int'ormnt.lve Gonl 100 hole s 'fhat Make
The Responsibilities of the Informative Speaker 110 Information Effective 119
Keep It Simple 119
Topics for Informative Speech s 112 Connect Your Topic to Your Audience l lf.J
Objects and Events 112 Use Supporting Material Wisely 120
People 113
Choose Effective Organizational Patt rns 120
Processes 113
Choose Effective Language 121
Ideas 114

...........................................................................................
Being Persuasive 125
Introduction: Giving the Audience Proofs 126 Formal Arguments
(Deductive
Ethos: Why Audiences Should Believe You 128 Reasoning) 139
Classical Dimensions of Ethos 130
Causal Arguments 140
Why Are You Speaking on This Topic? 130
Arguments From
Pathos: The Framework of Feelings 131 Analogy 141
Appeals to Positive Emotions 132 Arguments From Signs 142
Fear and Other Negative Appeals 133 Arguments From Authority 143
Framing 134
What About the Other Side? Dealing
Logos: Who Needs an Argument? 135 with Counterarguments 144
Making Connections: The Process of Reasoning 138 Why Addressing Counterarguments Is Persuasive 144
Tips for Dealing With Counterarguments 144
Types of Arguments 138
Arguments From Examples (Inductive Reasoning) 138

......................................... ..................................................
Research 149
Introduction: Becoming an Expert 150 Biogs 163
News Articles 164
Researching Responsibly 151
Opinion or Advocacy
The Research Process 152 Pieces 164
Figuring Out What You Already Know 153 Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed
Designing a Research Strategy 154 Articles 165
Deciding Where to Go 155 Wilds 165
Making a Methodical Search 158 Websites and Web Pages 165
How to Conduct an Online Search 158 Revising Your Claims 166
Creating Search Terms 158
Focusing Your Search 159 Organizing Your Research Information 166
Gathering Your Materials 160 Choosing the Sources for Your Speech 167
Reading Your Materials and Taking Notes 161 Citing Your Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism 168
Evaluating Sources 163 Getting Help From a Research Expert 169

CONTENTS •
 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organization 173
Introduction: Getting Organiz d 174 Patterns of
ThP Basic Three-Parl Structure 174 Organization 184
Chronological 184
The lntroduct ion 176 Spatial 186
Fu net Ions of an Efft'ctlvc I nlroducl.lon 176 Cause and Effect 186
Ell•ml'nts oftlw Introduction 176
Problem-Solution 188
The Body 179 Topical 188
Functions of the Dody 180 Combination 190
Point 180 Choosing the Order of Points: Prima.c.-y vs. P.ect:n,~1 l/.,
Transitions 180
Arranging Your Supporting Materials 192
Internal Previews 181
Outlining 193
The Conclusion 183
Outline Structure 193
Functions of the Conclusion 183
Preparation and Delivery Outlines 194
Elements of the Conclusion 183

.. ......................... ...................................... .........................

Verbal Style 197
Introduction: What Is Style, and Why Tropes 207
Does It Matter? 198 Tropes of Comparison:
Characteristics of Effective Style 198 Metaphor and Simile 207
Concrete and Lively Language 199 The Trope of Substitution:
Respectful Language 199 Metonymy 209
Tropes of Exaggeration:
Classifying Verbal Style: Figures and Tropes 201 Overstatement
Figures 201 and Understatement 210
Figures of Repetition 201 The Trope of Voice: Personification 211
Figures of Contrast 204 Matching the Style to the Topic and the Occasion

...........................................................................................
Delivery 215
Introduction: Stand and Deliver 216 Walking 229
Speaking or Talking? 217 Using Gestures 230

Creating Focus and Energy From Your Anxiety 218 Communicating

Credibility 230
Types of Preparation and Delivery 220 Making Eye Contact 231
Speaking From Memory 220 Choosing Your
Speaking From Manuscript 220 Appearance 232
Extemporaneous Speaking 221
Impromptu Speaking 221 How to Practice Delivering Your Speech 232
Staying on Time 222 Practice, All the Way Through, at Least Four Times n:.
Practice in Front of an Audience 233
Types of Speaking Aids 223 Practice Making Mistakes 233
Using Your Voice Effectively 224 Breathe, Breathe, Breathe 234
Volume 224 Answering Questions from the Audience 234
Speed 226 Anticipating Questions 235
Articulation 226 Interpreting the Questions 235
Inflection 227 Giving Your Answers 235
Using Your Body Effectively 228
Standing 228

• CONTENTS
 ............................................. ..... .. ..................................... ..
Presentation Aids 239
Introduction: Adding Media to Your Message 240 Non-Electronic Media 253
Why Use Presentation Aids? 241 Handouts 253
Posters and l<'lip Charts 254
Principles for Integrating Presentation Aids 241 Objects 254
Static Visual Elements 246 Demonstration Speeches
Pictures and Photos 245 and Presentation
Charts and Graphs 247
Aids 266
Maps and Diagrams 251
Text 252 Presentation Software 256
Moving Images 262 Delivering Your Speech With Presentation Aids 259
Preparing to Use Digital Media 260
Audio 253
Developing a Backup Plan for Digital Media 260

··························································································
Special Types of Speeches
and Presentations 263
Adapting Your Skills to New Challenges 264 Group Presentations 277
Speeches at Life Transitions 264 Cooperation 277
Toasts 266 Coordination 279
Eulogy 268 Delivering the Group
Graduation 270 Presentation 280
Rehearsing the Group
Speeches at Ceremonies 272 Presentation 280
Introducing a Speaker 272
After-Dinner Speaking 274
Presenting an Award 275

Appendix: Selected Speeches 282

Statement to the Iowa House Judiciary Committee by Statement on Behalf of the African National
Zach Wahls 282 Congress, on the Occasion of the Adoption by the
Rated "D" for Deficiency: The Sunshine Vitamin by Constitutional Assembly of the Republic of South
Nicole Platzar 284 Africa Constitution Bill 1996 by Deputy President
Thabo Mbeki 294
Speech at Kensington Town Hall ("Britain Awake")
(The Iron Lady) 287 The Perils of Indifference by Elie Wiesel 298

Endnotes 301
Index 304

CONTENTS •
----·
Preface

Those of us who teach public speaking know that the abilicy to engage an audi­
ence with skill, elegance, and clarity can make a decisive impact in the lives of students.
The difference between success and failure in a student's academic work, personal re­
lationships, and vocational path can often turn on the ability to create ethical and effec­
tive speech. Although future personal success is one important reason a student should
cultivate skill in public speech, it is not the only reason. In an increasingly globalizing
and information-saturated world, educating more engaged, informed, and responsible
public speakers may well be one of the last and best hopes for our civic and democratic
life together. In an era of hyperpartisan politics and creeping disillusionment with pub­
lic discourse and the political system, our best recourse may be turning to the ancient
arts of rhetoric and public speaking. These arts can teach us, once again, how to really
listen to, respond to, and respectfully engage with our fellow citizens. Thus, this book
seeks to remake an art with ancient roots for modem times, or, to put it in more con­
temporary terms, to remix an ancient beat for the information era
We wrote PUBLIC SPEAKING: Choices and Responsibility because we be­
lieve firmly that public speaking matters profoundly to our personal and collective
futures. We hope this text embodies a vision of public speaking that is accessible,
easy to engage, and relevant to our students without sacrificing the most important
lessons the tradition of public speaking has to teach us. While many approaches to
public speaking present a catalogue of tips and techniques for giving a speech, we
have attempted to create a simple framework for helping students learn to be better
public speakers.
This framework is easy to understand and teach, and better yet, it pays homage to
the best insight of the traditions of public speaking, which is that addressing any au­
dience is about making choices and taking responsibility. For us, "making choices"
means seeing every public speech as a collection of decisions that starts with invent­
ing a topic, moves through effective research, organization, and delivery, and ends
with successful interaction with an audience. "Taking responsibility" means owning
your choices, both by making them very intentionally and by accepting the obligation
to be responsive to the audience.
In making these two concepts the core of the book, we believe we have provided
a set of guiding principles that ties many of the best insights of public speaking peda­
gogy together around a central theme and that satisfies the demands of the current
generation of students for broader civic and social engagement. The style of the book
also reflects our concern not only to engage students but also to inspire them to use
their voices to make a difference in their communities, future workplaces, and the
broader public sphere. Many of our examples are directly relevant to student's every­
day lives; others are drawn from issues that occupy the front pages of newspapers,
websites, and social media sources. In both cases, our goal is to provide students with
examples that are relevant and engaging and that demonstrate the importance of pub­
lic speaking to the broader health of civic life.
To create a text that is intuitive, easy to teach and learn from, and engaging to
students, we have placed special emphasis on significant themes. In the introductory
chapter we emphasize the world-changing power of public speech, and we introduce
 st11de nts t.o our cen t ral con cepts of making choices and taking responsibilit
y \,
them. Our goal here is to "pu t the public back in public peaking" �Y introd cing �
� � ,�
den ts to the idea that every speech bot h targets a specific strategic goal (mfonni
ni
or persua ding an audience, for exa mple) and si multaneously fonns a pa rt of the lar
er public conversation around issues important to each of us. In addition, studrn ;
need to unde rstand that this is also the best approach to speaking in professional a �
n
business contexts. Speeches here need to be well argu ed and researched and cleari
organized, just like those in the civic context. If a "pu blic" is a group of people wii�
a common set of concerns, then there are publics bot� intern� and ext ernal to an
\
business or organization. The basic skills of good choice-making can be applied 1,,
nearly any context.
To help get students up and speaking, and more importantly, to give them a ba�ir
understanding of the choices that go into an effective public speech, in Chapter
1
we provide a brief, early overview of the process of creating and delivering a PUhlir·
speech. Perhaps most significantly for many first-time speakers, this chapte r tackJf'\
the issue of speech anxiety head on, offering effective introductory advice for dealin�
with public-speaking jitters.
Because this book is so centrally concerned with the idea of responsible speak.
ing in personal, work, and public contexts, Chapter 2 on ethics is the first subs tantive
chapter of the book. We believe our approach to ethics will resonate with contempo.
rary students because instead of simply producing a list of dos and don'ts, we have
provided a set of principles for thinking about ethical public speaking practice as an
intrinsic element of every communicative interaction. The chapter treats all the stan.
<lard topics in an ethics chapter-including properly citing sources, accurately rt0pre­
senting evidence, avoiding deception and prejudicial appeals--but it does so L the
broader context of encouraging students to think about the health and quality the
relationship they are establishing with their audience.
To be ethically sound and strategically effective, good public speaking sho1. ·,e­
gin and end with thinking about the audience. In Chapter 3 we discuss how th ng
about the audience influences the choices speakers make and the ways they :hr
take responsibility for the audience in composing and delivering speeches. Not c io
we talk about skills at the core of good public speaking in this chapter-for ex, le.
analyzing and adapting to your audience-but we emphasize thinking about uc
speaking as an opportunity for engaging the audience in a conversation around ies
of personal and public concern. Our goals in this chapter are to take advantage 1he
current sentiment among students, promoted in colleges and universities, for g irer
public and civic engagement and to demonstrate to students that in addressing ,pe­
ci.fic audience, they are also making their views known in the context of a br !der
public conversation.
For the model of public speaking as a part of a broader public conversat ·1 to
work, we believe a public speaking text should present more than just the bes1 ays
to speak to an audience. Thus, Chapter 4 addresses how we should listen. One ,1ur
goals is to help students be better audience members and more responsive spl ,ers
by emphasizing the role of active, critical, and ethically sound listening. We in •1de
detailed advice on eliminating impediments to good listening, taking good note::-. and
giving constructive feedback. But perhaps more importantly, we believe that pri'- tlt>g­
ing listening in the public speaking classroom is a pivotal first step toward i.rnpro1·­
ing the quality of public conversation in that it emphasizes paying attention to Llw
claims of others as a necessary part of participating in a robust and respectf ul public
conversation.
In the subsequent three chapters, we move from a basic framework for rnak·
ing choices and taking responsibility in public speech toward a practically orient·
ed treatment of how to make effective choices in selecting a topic and purpose

• PREFACE
(Chapter 5), ghing an infom1ati e speech (Chapter 6), and giving a persuasive
speech ( hapter 7). hapter provides students a pra tical rubric for making good
speech choices that be t balance their interests, lhcir goals for inlera lion with
the audience. and the nature of the public speaking situation. We provide easily
implementable solutions for picking a topic area, dellning a purpose, generating a
th · statement, and focu ing the speech in light of the occasion and character of
the audience.
Chap er 6 focuses on infonnati e speaking by beginning with thinking about how
our contemporary conte.xt and news media in particular have changed the way we
think about information. More than ever, the culture broadly, and our students specifi­
cally. haYe begun to think about the notion of "spin" in presenting information. Our
goal in this frame is to help students think about responsible choices for presenting
information in a \\'-ay that is clear, well organized, and useful for the audience. This
chapter returns to theme of topic selection to deal with l:he unique challenges of pick­
ing a good informative topic and then moves on to discuss techniques for informative
speaking and the set of choices a speaker might make to ensure that information is
helpful for the audience.
Chapter 7 updates from Aristotle's three modes of proof-logos, ethos, and pa­
thos, or rational argument:, the speaker's character, and emotional appeals-to give
concrete guidance to students in composing and delivering an effective speech.
Though our inspiration is ancient, we draw from contemporary examples to provide a
basic framework for thinking about how to best convince modern audiences through
appeals to reason, character, and emotion. This chapter places special emphasis on
processes of reasoning, not only to help students give better speeches, but also to help
them sharpen their critical thinking skills.
But public speaking is about more than simply using appeals to logic, character, or
emotion. It is also about teachlng students to make claims that are well supported by
evidence. A culture of search engines and social media have fundamentally changed
the way students relate to information, and any public speaking pedagogy worth its
salt needs t-0 take this sea change in information culture into account. Chapter 8 faces
head-on the unique challenges of researchlng in a digital world, providing students
with a detailed guide to navigating a research context substantially more challenging
than it even was a decade ago. Once again emphasizing the central role of making
choices and taking responsibility, our chapter on research provides a detailed, easy­
to-follow, step-by-step protocol for designing a research strategy. Because contempo­
rary students research primarily online, we start with a discussion of all the research
options available to them and provide concrete instructions for effectively searching
the Internet and other sources. Given changes in student research practices, we place
a heavy emphasis on methodical searching, including designing and keeping track
of search tenns, and on focusing research efforts amid the near-avalanche of online
sources from which students can choose. Because today's student often struggles with
what to use and how best to use it, we devote parts of the chapter to evaluating the
credibility of sources and to thinking critically about the role evidence plays in the
composition of a good speech.
Chapter 9 teaches students how best to integrate their claims, arguments, and
evidence in a lucid and compelling format that effectively engages an audience. Our
chapter on organization presents a rubric from thinking about introductions, sign­
posting, the body of a speech, and a good conclusion. But instead of simply offering a
catalogue of possible speech formats or deferring to the nature of the topic for invent­
ing an organizational pattern, we discuss organization as a choice that, like any other,
entails specific advantages and drawbacks. Thus, students should come away with a
set of resources for developing a capacity for critical thinking about organizational
choices.

PREFACE •
 Chapters 10 and 11 deal with verbal style and deli ver y, applyi ng the san1e h·
sic fr amewor k for m akin g choices and taking responsi bi lity tha� we h ave Wovr�.
throughou t the text. Chapter 10 addresses the best of the rhetoncal trnctition's rr'.1
flec tions on lively language use, borrowing fro m a wide range of contemporary an,
1
pop culture discourses to discuss effective choices for the use ?f �gures and trop!'\
including treatm ents of repetition , contrast, comparison, subs titution, exaggeratiri n
and personification. We conclude this chapte r by re flecting on the ways the speak.
er's topic and the occasion might se r ve as a guide to the style choices goo d speak�
t\
make . Chapter 11 extends this same line of thinking to choices to make in deliver.
ing a speech. To help students negotiate these choices, we discuss differ ent typ
e,,
of delivery-from mem ory, f rom a manuscript, extemporaneously , with the help or a
presentation aid, and so on. We conclude this chapter with sections on how best l.ri
practice and effectively handle audience interaction.
We follow physi cal delivery with a detailed and visuall y rich chapter that
applies the principles of choice and responsibility to the use of presentation aido.
Whether the student is using a static visual aid such as a chart, moving ima ge s, an
audio clip, or presentation softw are, we believe applying the basi c frame work or
choices and responsibility can provide important insights. Chapter 12 in cludes an
integrate d section on how to give a demonstration speech, which by its nature h as
a multimedia element. It concludes with a pragmatic, detailed discuss ion ahou1
integrating presentation software into a speech without leaning on it as a replace.
ment for good public-speaking practices. Here we discuss a number of messy �,ut
critically important practicalities that go into effective presentation softwan- ·,e.
including how to think about delivery with presentation software, how to r
tice with and use presentation software in the classroom, and how to deve 1 a
backup plan.
Chapter 13 concludes the text by focusing on other types of speeches and sr :1
occasions. Although a first course will appropriately focus on basic informatiH
persuasive speeches, with classmates as the main audience, students will enco­
many other speaking situations in the world, and these will present new corc ,.
nication challenges. We believe the skills to meet these challenges are exten�
of the skills already learned. Students can easily learn to give effective and ; ,·
pelling speeches at life transitions and ceremonial occasions, and at work in g ·.1p
presentations.
So, we believe we have produced a public speaking curriculum that is
• Comprehensive, but systematically organized around a coherent systen ,r
making good speech choices and taking responsibility for them
• Simple to learn and to teach, always returning to the themes of making chr ,,
and taking responsibility
• Rich in practical advice and concrete detail for composing and deliw •1g
speeches
• Focused on the biggest struggles and conceptual issues public speaking ,Pt·
dents face
• An effective "remix" of ancient arts for the modern world-faithful to the bl'SI
insights of the rhetorical tradition but responsive to the contemporary stuctr1H
in its use of examples, composition and delivery practices, and style
• A curriculu m that puts the civic and relationa l character of public speaking in
the foreground of choice making
We have included a number of instructional features we think advance these
goals. We have tried to compose a visually engaging book, with images that match
the diversity and vitality of contemporary public culture. Each chapter begins with

,:EFACt
a vigne"e that tit� th art\utl " rk of student t tJu, nt nt f tJu, h. ptt>r In to .
Ii rm and nd "itJ, re,iew and di · n qui: Hons, \\ E' ha al lndud«-d t, major
kind f interncth f-e-at\u in the lt>�"t t kffp tudt'nt e1\gn,;tetl Try ltl pt't' nt ru1
e tudent an d wllile wadit tlw t xt. I rovi ling m1 immediate pp rtu-
d n prn 'ti wiU1 the 1wepts in th tJu� Try
" up w rk, think-pail'-sh m rk
k-ature. Q uently sked hrume
fi nlin it ·
.Q. bo. anticl tud
vari u pro.ts f te..�, providing a brief in · · · king
ate uni ulum and toward m f tl1 bigg q ·
impli p
peaking.
ial resources for students iu1d ill b1.1ctors d igned to treamlin t ach­
ing and facllitat leamitlg romplete the teaming packag for P 1JLl SPEAK11 G:
1wi aud Responsibility.

Reso1u--ces for Stt1de11ts

PUBUC SPE,4KING features an outstanditlg array of supplements to assist in malting
this course as meaningful and effective as p0&5ible. Note: If you want. our students to
have acces5 to the online resources for PUBLJ, SPEA.KI. G please be sure to order
them for your course--if you do not order them your students will not have access to
them on the first day of class. These resources can be bundled with every new copy of
the text or ordered separately. Students whose instructors do not order these resources
as a package with the text may purchase then, or access them at cengagebrain
.com. Contact your local Wadsw01th, Cengage Learning sales representat'i:ve for
nwre detail.s.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..
■ CourseMate
Cengage Learning's Speech Communication CourseMate for PUBLIC SPEAKING
brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exan1 prepara­
tion tools that support the printed textbook. Watch student comprehension soar
as your class works with the printed textbook and the textbook-specific website.
CourseMate includes an integrated eBook, student workbook, interactive teaclung
and learning tools including quizzes, :flashcards, Interactive Video Activities, Making
Choices Simulations and Engagement Tracker-a first-of-its-ldnd tool that monitors
student engagement in the course. VI.Sit www.cengage.com/coursemate to learn more
about CourseMate. Students can access (and purchase access if necessaiy) at www
.cengagebrain.COIIL

.............................................................................................
■ Interactive Video Activities
Interactive Video Activities give your students a chance to watch videos of real
speeches that correspond to the topics in PUBUC SPEAKING. Each speech activity
provides a video of the speech; a full transcript so that viewers can read along; the
speech outline-many in notecard, keyword and sentence form; evaluation questions
so that students are guided through their assessment; and a note-taking tool. While

PREFACE •
 it:'v in� C'RC'h dip, i-uct nts evaluat th e speec h or scenario by completing s hort ai
, <'r nmt 1T1ultiple
ho\ e qu stlons or by embedding notes into the video and sun �
ting th Irr ult� dir ctJ nii
y to th Ir Instructor.

Making holces Simul at ions help students identify the moments of choice 1,
preprutng a p h I an d guid th m in making ethical decisions based on their aIJ.
di n ru1d P aking goal . Th s simulations are built around key topic s and con.
pt in th book, fi•om hoosing a focus and theme to selecting source s and Visua
\
ttid and mo r .

Thi online video upload and grading program improves the learning comprehension
of yolU' public speaking students. With Speech Studio 2.0, students can uplo ad video
files of practice speeches or final performances, comment on their peers ' speeches.
and review their grades and instr uctor feedback . Instructors create courses ancl as­
�<1nments, comment on and grade student speeches with a library of commenr� and
grading rubrics, and allow peer review. Grades flow into a gradebook that allow, 'hem
to easily manage their course from within Speech Studio. Grades can also be c 011.
ed for use in lea.ming management systems. Speech Studio's flexibility lends it :· ro
use in traditional, hyblid, and online courses .

.............. ....... . ..... . .. . . . . .... . . .... . . ...... . .. . . ... .... . . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . .
■ Speech Builder Express 3.0™
This e..'<:clusive program guides students through every step of the speech-b 1 .1 g
process. Nine sin1ple steps provide a series of critical-thinking questions that de
students to effective speech delivery. Links to video clips and an online dict1 .try
and thesaurus help students pull all aspects of their speeches together. Tutoria rip
is included for every aspect of the speech building process. Any portion of the 01 .111e
can be e-mailed to the instructor.
• Speecl1 Communication CourseMate (with eBook, Speech Builder Expn , ".
and InfoTrac®) for PUBLIC SPEAKING Printed Access Code: 97812850. _;!
• Speecl1 Communication CourseMate (with eBook, Speech Builder Exprf 11
and InfoTrac®) for PUBLIC SPEAKING Instant Access Code: 97812850� .�l1
• Speech Communication CourseMate (with SpeechStudio 2.0, eBook, S1 ·,·h
Builder ExpressTM , and InfoTrac®) for PUBLIC SPEAKING Printed A t ,,�s
Code:9781285O7234O
• Speech Communication CourseMate (with SpeechStudio 2.0, eBook, Sp,'1',·h
Builder ExpressTM , and InfoTrac®) for PUBLIC SPEAKING Instant Acct'ss
Code:9781285O72357

............ ... ..................................................................... ..

■ WebTutor
The WebTutorTM for WebCT® and Blackboard® provides access to all of the content
of this text's rich ComseMate and eBook from within a professor's course 1muiagt>·
ment system. CourseMate is ready to use as soon as you log on and offers a wide ,u-raY

PREFACE
of \\ b quizze , a tivitie , erci e , and \, eb links. Robust communication tools-
u h as a com e calendar, asynchronous discu ion. real-time chat a whlteboard, and
an int grated email t m-make it easy to stay connected to the course.
• In tant ode for WebTutor with eBook for WebCT® 9781285072012
• In tant ode for \\ebTutor with eBook for BlackBoard® 9781285071992
• Print ct ard for WebTutor with eBook fo r WebCT® 9781285072326
• Printed ard for\ ebTutor with eBook for BlackBoard® 9781285072296

lnfoTrac ollege EditionTM, This vutual library's more than 18 million reliable, full­
I ngth ruticles from 5,000 academic and popular periodicals allow students to retrieve
re ttlts almost in ta.ntly.

engageBrain Online Store. CengageBrain.com is a single destination for more than

1-,000 new print te..'..1:books, textbook rentals, eBooks, single eChapters, and print,
digital, and audio study tools. CengageBrain.com provides the freedom to purchase
engage Leruning products a la carte-exactly what you need, when you need it VJ.Sit
cengagebrain.com for details.

A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students. Written by Esther Yook, Mary
Washington College, this guide for non-native speakers includes strategies for accent
management and overcoming speech apprehension, in addition to helpful Web ad­
dresses and answers to frequently asked questions.

Resources for Instructors

PUBUC SPEAKING features a full suite of resources for instructors. These resources
are available to qualified adopters, and ordering options for student supplements are
flexible. Please consult your local Wadsworth Cengage Learning sales representative
for more information, to evaluate examination copies of any of these instructor or
student resources, or to request product demonstrations.

Instructor' Resource Manual Written by Terri Metzger of California State Univer­

sity San Marcos, the Instructor's Resource Manual provides a comprehensive teaching
system. Included in the manual are suggested assignments and criteria for evaluation,
chapter outlines, and in-class activities. All the Web Connect links and activities listed
at the end of each chapter of the student edition are included in detail in the Instruc­
tor's Manual in the event that online access is unavailable or inconvenient.

The Teaching Assistant's Guide to the Basic Course. Written by Katherine G.

Hendrix, University of Memphis, this resource was prepared specifically for new in­
structors. Based on leading communication teacher training programs, this guide clis­
cusses some of the general issues that accompany a teaching role and offers specific
strategies for managing the first week of classes, leading productive cliscussions, man­
aging sensitive topics in the classroom, and grading students' written and oral work.

Power Lecture. This one-stop lecture tool makes it easy for you to assemble, edit,
publish, and present custom lectures for your coru-se, using Microsoft PowerPoint®.
The PowerLecture lets you bring together text-specific lecture outlines and art,
along with video and animations from the Web or your own materials-culminating
in a powerful, personalized, media-enhanced presentation. The CD-ROM offers an

PREFACE •
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Gulde tn Teaddng Publk Speaking Online, � by"f,M ��111 rt .v-""'1 ,

CommunU), �, d:u8 betpful ,mne gi,ide pr,� ��,r� �? r�,1'),: :i,.,
� online · itb ffp8 wr �JJIWling (#,�1J(Kti' w.m� wirl'• ��,t.-t .t 1i,..,
OOUJ"8C r� �ft ace and ,� e�./JUT�� �� 1'f�� 11:l,r;,, « ,_
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18 different ooline, �� ror �� and u� sucli � �«fk �J::::r) ,,,..
aitutue and c.-valuatioo form tail(xed to the ootine cm:m!'e,

Ser1Jke learning in CornnumkatJon !Jflulles: A Hr.uulbook, -.,.r-x - -,

� and Jet! �n. � is an invaluable r�ee kx � -� ;-,
sic� that jJtt!:_¥� or wm f!,Q(Jn integrate a.� learning <:fKfiV.K•
handbook pr� guidcli� for,� service learning Olk witl-1 c
ooncept8 and� for r;orlmlg (,,fffflively with� and 01�>!',.
provute.s moocl fmms and rt'J)Orts and a diredmy of ooJine :r�ces.

CourseCare 1raining awl Support. Get�� connecud, and g£=t ttf:

you need for tbc � integr"'dU(JD of digital r�as into your CfJUl:'JI':
paralleled tecluwlogy �a and tmining program provides robust onliw: r-­
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c.ount oo... Visit �.ge..com/�.re/ to sign up for onJine sen1inaIS, fi2''.
cl.a8s �, teclmi.<:al support, or�.ted face-to-face ttaiuing.. Om r;r;
on.site ttaini� are frequently led by one of our Lead TeacbeJs, faculty mem1>
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unique as your� quickly, simply , and affordably. As part of our fk:-x-:-
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oov: rand up to 32 � ot your own cootatt-at no additional cost.

Acknowledgments
J would like to thank aJJ the students I've taught over the last 30 years; 1 ban: . ., :..-,
HO much about teaching public .speaking from them. I also owe heartfeh a;:,;::-.:;i·
tkm to the wa(.iung � I've worked with at Oregon State University �-•: ·.::r
niv� of Wi8con8in-Milwau.kff. Their creativity, freshness, and passion ru:.·,c- -=?

• PREFACE
me inspired more t.han they know, and they have improved my teaching immensely.
hlis Lundberg is the b st co-author imaginable, and I owe him more than I can say:
EuxaptOT6 EKarnvranMata, q>LA� µou. And finally, enormous thanks to my wife Kari­
you make everything possible.
-William Keith

I would like to thank Bill Keith for being a fantastic co-author and colleague, and Beth
Lundb rg for putting up with us in the process of writing this book.
-Chris Lundberg

The authors would like to thank the amazing editorial team at Cengage, including
Monica Eckman, as well as Elisa Adams, Barbara Armentrout, and Edward Dionne.
-Will'iam Keith and Chris Lundberg

........ . ....................................................................................
Reviewers
We are grateful to all the reviewers whose suggestions and constructive criticisms
have helped us shape this book.
Brenda Armentrout, Central Piedmont Community College
Joseph Averbeck, Marshall University
Thomas Benson, Penn State University
Marcia Berry, Azusa Pacific University
Sakile Camara, California State University Northridge
Nick Carty, Dalton State College
Mark Chase, Slippery Rock University
Jodi Cohen, Ithaca College
Doug Cole, Elizabethtown Community and Technical College
James Darsey, Georgia State University
Deanna Dannels, North Carolina State University
Katrina Eicher, Elizabethtown Community and Technical College
Lisa Eutsey, Dine College
Michael Fleming, Mt. San Jacinto College
Bonnie Gabel, McHenry County College
Susan Gilpin, Marshall University
Deborah Haffey, Cedarville University
Daria Heinemann, Keiser University
Kirn Higgs, University of North Dakota
Lawrence Hosman, University of Southern Mississippi
Mike Hostetler, St. John's University
Macdonald Kale, California University of Pennsylvania
Jim Kuypers, Virginia Tech
Rona Leber, Bossier Parish Community College
Richard Lindner, Georgia Perimeter College
Matt McGarrity, University of Washington
Terri Metzger, California State University San Marcos
Diane Monahan, Belmont University
Dante Morelli, Suffolk County Community College
Phyllis Ngai, University of Montana-Missoula

PREFACE •
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. CHOICES AND RESPONSIBILITY
One
CHAPTER 1
Public Speaking
CHAPTER 2
Ethics and the Responsible
Speaker
CHAPTER 3
Understanding Audiences
and Publics
CHAPTER 4
Becoming a Skilled Listener
 n h
mmuni ion

• in hy ubli
in i p w rful
o h in
•I n ify h kill
o compo e
p ch
choices at
g of the speech
er ion proc s

CHAPTER OUTLINE
In roduc:tlon: Why Learn Public
Sp king?
Sp ch I Pow rful
Th Communication Process
Th Public in Public Speaking
Sp king I About Making Choices
Th Sp king Proce s: Thinking,
Cr tlng, and Speaking
Thinking Through Your Choices
Cr tlng Your Fir t Speech
Giving Your Fir t Spa ch
M king R pon lbl Choices
 Public Speaking
anielle has a problem. Rather, her town has a
problem. Supplies at the local blood bank are
starting to get low, and this could be a problem
for the local hospital and trauma center. As the head of a
student volunteer group, she has been assigned to give
speeches to different groups on campus, trying to persuade
them to donate blood. As she thinks about her task, it seems
pretty intimidating. So many students! They are all so busy!
Who cares about blood donation while they are trying to make
rent or scrounge up some extra money for social activities?
Danielle imagines herself standing in front of lecture classes
and social groups like fraternities and sororities, and she feels
lost. Should she just get up and say, "Please donate?" No, it
needs to be more than that: She needs to give a short speech.
But how should she even get started?

Overview
If you want to be an effective speaker, first you'll want
to understand a few basic principles about public
speaking as a communication activity. This chapter will
give you an overview of the communication process,
highlighting the difference that public speaking can
make in your life and in the lives of the people listening
to you. You will learn about the process of composing
and delivering a public speech, focusing on the variety of

•
 C'hoices you have to make when you give a speech. Finally, to
g t you started on the process of composing and delivering a
peech, we will walk you through the basic element s of speec:h
preparation, wh ich are the topics of the subsequent chapters. )

Introduction: Why Learn Public Speaking?

Caution: The con tent s of this book can be dangerous. Dangerous--but also PO\\·(c'rf
Whet her used for good or for ill, speech is one of the most powerful forces in hUrr�­
hist ory. Sometimes it ha s
been used to unite people aroun d a com mon demoer·a�
goal-for e xamp le, to advance the cause of civil righ ts. Other times dictators J- .,
1<:"
used speech as a powerful weapon. But however it is used, speech can change -�
world. More importantly, your speech can change your worl d in big and smaJ1 \"\· -
a:,
�
The principles we'l l introduce will help you give better speeches in almost �­
conte xt-even when your goal is modest. They will help you learn to be a bet ter pur1�'.
speaker-cle arer and more persuasive, but also more engaged, respon s ible, and w�-­
reasoned.
We often hear that public speaking is just about clear communication. It is in !k.
and people sometimes assume that anyone can do it without much effort or thout·
But performance counts too-actually getting up and talking in front of other pi:r)�:=
You may be surprised to find out by the end of this course, however, that getti.:- i -�
and speaking in front of other people can be the easy part. In this book, we wou. ��
to introduce you to the range of skills that go into preparing, producing, and deli- -:-.:.�
a speech, and that will make you a more effective advocate f o r yourself and : ·-:
people and ideas you care about.
You may not be in this class for the sake of changing the world: Many sr
take a public speaking course because it is required. But taking this course, v.
through this book, and adopting your instructor's advice on how to be a better
speaker will make you more successful not only in class but also in your every __
and beyond the classroom.
You are about to become part of a tradition of skills that stretches back tho ::5
of years. So stick with us: We hope to convince you of the power of words.
world-changing capability that each of us has if we learn how to develop and ...
responsibly.
Whatever brought you to this class, public speaking is important not only fc• ·· �•
education and career, but also for your life and for the health of our democrac ·x:
will argue that speech is powerjul and that speech matters.

Speech Is Powerful
The study of publi c speaking began in ancient Greece. For the Greeks, public spec ,::r;
rhetoric Term from ancient was part of the broader field of rhetoric, or the study of how words could persuade> :lf,
audience. In the modern world , many people associa te public speaking with marnpul.1-
Greek for the study of how
words can persuade an
audience. tion, and the term rhetoric with "empty talk." They may say, "Let's have less rhewn,
and more action." Although it is true that talk is sometimes empty, good speech car
also be a f orm of action, motivating people to make important changes in the worl,1
yo1,
To see why, the first thing to understand is that bec ause speech is powerful.
f .
speech c an be pow er ul
SPEAKING
• PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD

j
 ■ Th
• • . • ♦ • ♦ • •• • ♦ • • ♦ • • • • . ♦ •• t ••• t. t • t • t • •

Pow r of Publi Speaking

• t . • . t ♦ t t• • I I I • • ♦ •
♦ t f I • • • • ♦ • t I I • • • ' ♦ • • ♦ • • • • • I • ♦ • • • • • • ♦ • • •
l
to Chang th World
ne of the fu Ip ople t.o W1ite about U1e power
of public p cch, th Greek phllosopher Gor­ Why start try talking about
gias f L ntini, claimed that "sp ech is a pow- the Greeks?
rful lord." 1\v<>nty-fl hundred y ar later, Our culture has Inherited a number of ideas about communication
bW1dant evidence u1 pmts Gorgias's insight. and pollttcal institutions from andent Greek and Roman (also called
h ha, e be n u ed for good and bad "dassleal") practice. The founders of the Unrted States used them
nd . They have introduced and converted as models, Many elassical principles and terms they developed are
many to the world's great religions. They have still useful and relevant; for example, in Chapter 7 we'll examine
h lped elect presidents and overthrow dicta­ persuasive appeals in speaking through the lens of the classical
to1 . Th y have begun wars and ended them. distinction between ethos, logos, and pathos.
Wm ton Churchill's and Franklin Roosevelt's
p ch s rallied the British and U.S. popula-
tions during World War II. In the 19th century, Elizabeth Cady Stanton spoke out to make
p ople aware of the rights of women. In the middle of the 20th century, the speeches of
Martin Luther King showed people in the United States how to think differently about
civil rights and issues of race and racism.
We need the power of words to speak a
beUer world into existence. Speech, used ef­ Can speeches really change
fectively, should not only motivate us to make the world?
changes on our campuses, in our communities, Here are some speeches that helped to change the course of
and as a nation. It should also help us make history. If you would like to learn more about any of them, access
better decisions about the kinds of changes. your CourseMate at CengageBrain.com and look in Web Lfnks
We need to speak with clarity and conviction, under Chapter 1.
but we also need to listen and be attentive to "Against Imperialism," William Jennings Bryan
other people's viewpoints. Thus, one of the "Acres of Diamonds," Russell H. Conwell
biggest challenges of our time is to learn how "Mercy For Leopold and Loeb," Clarence Darrow
to speak in a way that generates cooperation "Statement to the Court," Eugene V. Debs
and insight and that avoids division and "Farewell Address," Dwight D. Eisenhower
narrow-mindedness. "197 6 DNC Keynote Address," Barbara Jordan
"Inaugural Address," John F. Kennedy
But what can learning how to speak well
ul Have a Dream," Martin Luther King
do for you? After all, you will probably not be
"Every Man a King," Huey Long
in the position of addressing the nation in a "The Ballot or the Bullet," Malcolm X
time of war or convincing Congress to change "Farewell Address to Congress," General Douglas MacArthur
a law. The point of this course is not to change "Pearl' Harbor Address to the Nation," Franklin D. Roosevelt
you into an Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Winston "The Fundamental Principle of a Republic," Anna Howard Shaw
Churchill, or Martin Luther King. "Declaration of Conscience," Margaret Chase Smith
........... . ...................................................................... ...........
■ The Power of Speeches to Change Your World
Even though speeches can change the world, common sense tells us they can also
make a big difference in your individual history. Every day, people speak in court­
rooms, boardrooms, and classrooms to persuade others of their points of view or to
inform others about things they need to know. A good speech can make all the differ­
ence in winning a lawsuit, pitching a business idea, or teaching people about some­
thing that might significantly change their lives. And, ultimately, that is the point of this
book: Because speech is such a powerful tool, we should learn to use it as effectively
and as responsibly as we can.

e
The skills you will le arn here will also make you a more effective speaker in your
career. If you want to come across as the candidate to hire when applying for a dream

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING

 job, being well spoken is a crucial part of your suc­
an speeches really make cess. U you prepare well for the interview, thinking
a dilference in my life? about how to present yourself as a fitting and capable
Here are som e examples of the kinds of speeches that can candidate, if you perform well by speaking clearly
ch ange the course of your life If you deliver them effec tively: and articulately, if you make a persuasive case, and
if you invite the participation of the interviewers by
• The spe ech you give as an answer to the job intervi ew
question, "Tell us a little bit about yourself" fostering a good dialogue, you can be a shoo-in for
• The speech you give when you pitch an Important business idea
the position. By the same token, if you pitch a busi­
ness proposal to a supervisor, client, or a lender, you
The speech you give when you are trying to persuade
will need to project an attitude of competency and
people In your community (for example, a town council or
neighborhood association) to change something In your meticulous preparation as well as speak articulately
com munity that needs changing and build a relationship with your listeners.
The basic principles are similar for any speech,
• The speech you give when convincing a loved one to do
whether it is delivered on the Senate floor, in a State
somethin g-to enter a long-term relationship, for example, or
to support you in an important endeavor of the Union address, in a business meeting, or be­
• The speeches you give to convince others to vote for a
fore a local community group. In each instance, you
candidate or a law that affects your everyday life need to plan carefully what you will say and how
you will say it, and you need to build a relationship
with the audience.

democracy A system of
1:- good public speech, no matter what the context, ultimately strives towards the best
government where people ideals of democracy. If you have a dollar bill in your pocket, take it out. The Great
govern themselves, either S�al of �he U �ted States is reproduced on the back of the bill. On the left side is a pyra­
through direct votes on policy _
mid mside a c�cle, and on the right side is a circle with an eagle in it. The eagle has a
issues (direct democracy) _
or by electing officials who small scroll m its mouth. If you look closely, you will see the Latin phrase E pluribus
deliberate and make decisions
on their behalf (representative
unum, m:aning "From many, one." The many people who make up the United States
democracy). are all UIUted-we are all in this together.

"From many, one" on the

U.S. dollar bill expresses the
essence of democracy.

PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

 Democracy only works, or at least we wil l
only be able to make it work, if we respect the Can speeches really make a
fact that we are many people with substa ntial difference on campus?
diff r nces in opinion, race, class, sexuality, At most schools, the student government controls thousands of
gender, religion, and belief. But we also strive dollars for student programs. In addition to universfty policy, what
to make from these differences a common determines how that money is spent? Typi'cally, elected members
identity or at least a common commitment to of the student governmE!nt decide, How? They get together in a
democracy and the well-being of our fellow room ancl talk. If you are in favor of spending money on a particular
citizens. activity or club, you;II speak up in favor of it. Here's a case where
Public speaking, at its best, is about re­ your ability to be clear and persuasive with your peers could change
specting that common commitment-public th e quality ot campus life for a huge number of students. No matter

speaking is about the unity of democracy. But how strongly you believe in your cause, your speech is what makes
your beliefs matter.
it is also about respecting the pluralism of
democracy-namely, that we need to speak
and listen in a way that preserves the impor-
tant differences that make each of us who we are.
Now you may be saying to yourself, "Wait

FAQ
What do pluralism and unity mean
a minute. I was hoping to get some communi­
cation skills out of this class that I could use for pub{ic speaking?
in business, for my job." In fact, you will get
Pluralism m eans that our de 1T:1ocracy is made up of people who are
that, and more. Successful and effective per­
diffe rent�they have differen�. backgroun ds, including diffe re nces of
suasion and informative speaking in politics, class, n:ice; ge n c':ler, s exuality, relrgious ori.entatfon, an d geographkal
business, and even personal life can invoke . rigiiil,s. But ptl.ir'alisrn is more than jUJst our different backgr,ounds.
Lo 1

the highest democratic values. Why? Because Th ere .is also €iifrferen�e· in 0 er-m9cracy becaus e we have differe l\lt
speakers who make good decisions consider ideas qnd be llie fs.
the effects of their words on all stakeholders, Unit� meamsthgt·these clifferemces are not disabling: We are all
or all the people who have something at stake members o{ the s•ar;n� l,il· atim,al' gubli'c.
in the decisions. Skilled speakers not only
know how to adapt to their audience of stake­
holders, but they understand their audience's diversity.
unity Harmony among related

... .. .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . ... . ... . .... . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .... .... .. . . ... . . .. . . . .

parts

■ The Conversational Framework pluralism The coexistence

of numerous ethnic, cultural,
In this book we'll distinguish different approaches to communication, especially political or religious groups in
public communication. Speakers are never just informing and persuading; there one nation.
is always a larger context that creates mutual responsibilities between speakers
and their audiences. To sharpen the picture, let's compare advertising and de­
mocracy as contexts for communication. They represent fundamentally different stakeholders The people who
have something to lose or gain
approaches to public discourse and different ways of understanding this mutual as the result of a decision or
responsibility. policy.
In advertising, a company is trying to sell something, to get someone to buy some­
thing. Ads target specific groups of people called market segments-men between
30 and 40, for instance, or working women who live in urban areas, or Twitter users.
Advertisers are successful when sales increase; their responsibility to their audience
is fairly limited and communication is usually just in one direction.
In contrast, in the context of democracy, communication is among people or citi­
zens "thinking together." Decisions should emerge as a result of the mutual exchange
of arguments, information, and points of view. Democracy is big and messy; imag­
ine it as an enormous system in which different ideas and arguments circulate, being
expressed (and maybe changed) at many different points. Sometimes it's you and a
friend talking about what the government should do about student loans; sometimes
it's you reading a debate about student loan :finances in the newspaper or on a website.

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

 ,' "' :-4u �- ,, , � If n: nm te- w tching an m-gurnent being mocked on a satirical
t, u, t'thm it'$ your pru"f'nt attending a community meeting to hear

part oft.he larger public dialogue, and you might

·t-n if you don't ee yourself as particularly politi ­
p tmck for a few days of how often you think and
Ip i -the matter.
m ndvertlsing. Democratic conversation, or dla-
o ell product . It involves everybody, not just a
c-essful, arguments have to be adaptable to bo th
. and of different races, religions, regions of the
nn . and o on. Adverting bypasses differences like
Y sele<'th l_\· t ler a tdi nee of people that have something in
i\\l\lOorl.
""' � :\ ud nt is ,.,, ing t ·ve an informative speech on a surprising or con­
troYt•fSinl t · , u h the ampu need for transgender bathrooms. An advertising
ooonlaCti '< uld probably tru1 by de.fining the target market as the types of people
most fil..'e)y to be upntheti t xualities different from their own and would igno re
� 1 else. It hard t imagine, however, how the student would give a speech to a
class and · 1ore many · m t of the people in it.
hl contrast, in a dem era.tic conversation or dialogue, the speaker would begin
by identi(ying the larger public issues that connect to the availability of transgender
bathroon equruity, ci\il rights,, and the increasing acceptance of gay and transgen­
der people. The speak-er would be placing the issue of transgender bathrooms within
lamer discussions that have been going on for 10, 50, or maybe 150 years, portraying
the issue as part of a larger convei:sation about civil rights or equality.
Or for another example, consider a speech about yoga. In a public speaking class,
· it the speak-er"s job to '"sell" yoga to her classmates? Probably not. But she could

Democracy relies on mutual

exchanges of opinions and
information, often through
public speaking.

• PART ONE • FU DAME TALS OF GOOD SPEA I G

J)t'<' nl th infom,nllon slw gnhwct from hN re. earch on yoga in the context of public
ro11 C't nU n nb 111 h<'ollh, nthl<'lk perfonnancc, or en spirituality.
ur point here I t.hnt. while y011 are learning many new techniques in public
P aldng I , 11 h n oullinlng, research, and delivery, you will also learn new ways
of nnctc1 tandlng Uw kind of ommtmlcntlon that makes up truly public speaking. It
I n't quite Iii tH.lking t.o Mends about movies and music, and It isn't like a sales pitch.
Public P aking is t.he adventure of taking your turn In one of the amazing ongoing
publi onv rsntions t.hat arc happening 1ight now.
In hort, peech is powerful, m,d it matters in ways you may not have thought
t mu h about, but aft. r taking U,is course, you'll never hear a speech the same way
again. N w let' look at an ove1vie w of the actual process.

The Co1n1nunication Process

In this book, we'll often refer to communicating in the context of public speaking as
rh t01·i.c, but with a different meaning than you're used to. As we noted, today the
tenn rheto1·ic is often negative and refers to discourse that is empty, insincere, and
pmnpous. In its classical sense, however, rhetoric is about the art of speaking, and it
requires at least tlu-ee components:
• a speaker,
• a listener, and
• some means of getting information between them.
There might be a conversation between two people or among several people, as
in a group discussion. Or, as in public speaking situations, there might be one speaker
and a large audience. Or the medium might change: One person writes a letter or email
to another, or a letter is published in the newspaper and read by thousands of people.
Even though the "speakers" and "listeners" are not physically present, we can still use
the tem1s speaker (writer) and listener (reader) because the communication situa­
tions are parallel: In all of them, the speaker is trying to accomplish something with
tl1e listener, using language. Of course, there are also differences: Speakers in person
generate nonverbal cues to meaning, and for writers, layout, design, and color can
communicate more than the words say or sometimes something different from what
the words say.
For most of us "speaking" involves opening our mouths and having words come
out. But if you are Deaf, speaking means using your hands to create American Sign
Language (ASL) or American Signed English. And what about the many of the pub­
lic speeches that are written out in advance, some existing only as texts? Many
"speeches" inserted into the Congressional Record, for example, have never been spo­
ken aloud. We mention ASL and written speeches to emphasize that "speaking" is a
complex phenomenon and to encourage you to think about what speech is and how
it is generated.

Try It! Tour Rhetorical Situations

Make a list of the most common rhetorical situati0ris yoll engage in:
• Wliio ar.e the most common listeners? Why?
• Are these situations l!JSl!lally face,to-face 0r electnomic? Why?
• Wliiich 0nes ar;e easiest? Most difficult? Why?

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

 I ompl0x
t ny forms,
n n I n u ge,
11hown I T: I Llhua of
th Chi P ople's Political
Consult tlv Conference
(I ft) joins a panel discussion
in B ljing with the help of a
lgn I nguage interpreter.

The Public in Public Speaking

An audience is not the same as the people listening or reading by chance; people
who happen to overhear a conversation are not the audience for the con ersation.
Audiences are made up of a variety of people, with different beliefs, values, and life
experiences. And the speaker wants something from all of them-their attention
their patience, their comprehension, their openness, a change of mind, a change
of action.
Much of the time speaking (and writing) is not only an expression of the speaker's
thoughts but is also in an important sense tailoredfor the audience. Speakers need to
know something about their audience so that they can adapt to them. Just as in ordi­
nary conversation, you say different things or the same thing in different ways depend-
ing on whom you are talking to, speakers adjust their topic and presentation to their
ndaptatlon Adjusting a topic, audience. Adaptation is one of the central concepts of rhetorical communication. 1
arguments, and presentation to
fit a particular audience.
Is the audience ever more than just the people in the room with the speaker? To
explain why it is called public speaking, we need to consider the concept of a public,
or a group of people who share a common set of concerns.
public A group of people who In Figure 1.1, the speaker is attempting to influence or inform an audience
har a common set of concerns. whose members belong to more than one public. For example, the audience at a
PTA meeting will be part of the public that cares about the fate of children as well
as the public that pays taxes. If the speaker is making an informative presentation
about the current state of student achievement in the district, she will need to
think about a particular public in deciding what information is relevant and how
to frame it.
Yet the diagram in Figure 1.1 is incomplete. Why? Because it pictures the speaker
as separate from or outside the public. However, when you are speaking to an audi­
ence in public, you are speaking with an audience composed of fellow members of
your public. The speaker portrays herself and the audience not as opposed to each
other ("I care about one thing, and you care about something else") but as pai.t of the
same public ("Here is what we care about"), as shown in Figure 1.2.

PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

•
 FIGURE 1.1
Audience members belong
to more than one public.

So whether we're looking at informative, persuasive, or special-occasion speak­

informative speech A speech
ing, we'll generally talk about the public as a way of talking about the context for an whose primary purpose is to
audience. This is important because speakers need to understand who the audience educate the audience about
a topic.
is if they're going to adapt their information to them. For example, if you were giving
an informative speech on the idea of a taxpayer bill of rights, the public would most
likely be "people concerned about tax policy." If you were giving a persuasive speech persuasive speech A speech
whose primary purpose is to
arguing for changes to make student loan programs more widely accessible, the rel­ change the audience's opinion
evant publics would be "people concerned about access to education" and "people about a topic or to encourage
them to take a particular action.
who believe education is essential to the economic success of the United States." Even
a special-occasion speech, such as a eulogy at a funeral, can be addressed to a public;
if the deceased volunteered at the Humane Society, his friends will talk about how his special-occasion speech A
speech made on the occasion
accomplishments mattered to people who care about animals. of a life transition (such as a
The concept of the public allows us to distinguish public speaking from adver­ wedding) or at a professional
event (such as introducing a
tising and other forms of private and personal communication. (More about this in speaker).
Chapter 3.) The concept of the public provides a means for you to connect to an

FIGURE 1.2
The speaker and the
audience both belong to
the same publics.

..,.
0
N
0,

E
�

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

 audien e in an ethical and efiectiYe way by fo using on in.le ts that
not just as tudent in a c.lassroom but also as memb rs f a broad r itizem .. Wh<'n
you speak in class, you will be addr ing a public only if the tJtin w u talk abou t
implk..ate the interests of your auctien ce members not just as fe llO\ 1 mate· hut
also as members of a larger national pu blic.

Speaking Is About Making Choices

It may seem a little strange to think about speaking as making choic • Isn't peaking
just saying what you 're thinking? However, if you reflect for a momen you ma real­
ize that you are often sure of what your thoughts are only as you are saying th m, and
you may say them differently depending on the person you're talking to.
choices In public speaking, In creating a speech, you make choices about what to say. Two thousand Y ars
the choices are about topic,
information and arguments, ago, when public figures in classical Greece and Rome wanted to give a spe h,
organization, visual aids and they might turn to a rhetorician (called a logographer, or "speechwriter") to figtu·e
other supporting materials, and
type of delivery.
out how to compose and deliver the speech. Now, most of us do this for ourselve s.
Ancient rhetorical practice was organized around the canons (rules or principles) of
rhetoric, which broke the process of speaking into five parts: (1) Come up with con­
tent, (2) organize it, (3) choose words for it, (4) memorize it, and then (5) deliver it.
We teach public speaking a little bit differently 2,000 years later, and in this book
we propose a simplified and updated model that focuses on the choices you will need
to make to give a successful speech.
First, preparation: How will you prepare your speech? What do you want to say?
What information and arguments will you use to support your claims? How will
you organize the speech and move from point to point? What words, images,
or technology will be important to creating a compelling experience for the
audience?
Second, per:formance: How will you deliver or "perform" you speech? What
tone, pace, and gestures will you use? You will need to make sure that you speak
clearly, loud enough for the auctience to hear, and you will need to eliminate
distracting speech and body tics. Few speeches are memorized nowadays, but
you'll have to decide how to master the information in your speech and create
materials like notecards or slides that allow you to deliver it.
delivery The act of making a When you think of public speaking, performance, or delivery, is probably the part
speech to an audience.
of the process you think of first. Images of shaking knees, sweaty palms, and a nervous
stomach may come to mind, but effective preparation can result in more comfortable
performances. Preparation means planning the best way to present your message so
that the audience will respond favorably. You need to ask what the audience's inter­
ests are in this topic and in listening to you talk about it; you also need to think about
their expectations and predispositions. Finally, you need to give the audience a stake
in what you are saying by providing them an opportunity to participate. They may
( respond by asking questions, and you need to have a strategy for dealing with their
questions, but you also need to give them an opportunity to participate by changing
their beliefs and or actions as a result of the speech.

...... ..... .. ......... .................................................... .. .. .... .. . ... ... ..

■ Preparation
The moment when you s�d up and give your speech may not be the most important,
or even the most difficult, part of the process. Although the performance components
may trigger the nerves that make your stomach shaky as you think about giving a

• PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

speech, the prepnml.ion Lhat goes inLo cleciding what to say is more difficult and prob­
ably more important. thm1 I.he performance. Great. delivery with nothing much to say
isn't effective communication. We all admir· and ef\Joy a great performer, and some­
times we assume that a musician's or actor's talent is responsible for the impressive
concert or play. In fact, no matter how talented, the rutist has put a huge amount of
careful preparation into creating that compelling event for the audience.

Jry It! Preparation Choices Checklist

Run through the following checklist when you are preparing a spe ech:
How do I want to structure the speech?
• What arguments do I want to use?
What kinds of research will be most helpful to do and to pr,esent to the audiencrer?
What sources and ideas will the audience find most credible?
• Am I taking into account possible objections or rebuttals to my arguments?
• What is the product of my preparation? A memorized speech, notes, images? And
how should I use them?

The most critical part of speaking may well be the thought that goes into it. Why?
First of all, good delivery depends on good preparation; The preparation that you put
you put into your speech beforehand may be one of your best defenses against feeling
nervous about or even overwhelmed by public speaking.
Speaking should be communication. You should say what you think, or better yet,
you should present the best information and your most thoughtful opinions on your
subject matter. In contrast to acting, which involves saying someone else's words, pub­
lic speaking is speaking your own mind. In the case of actor, it's unclear exactly who
is communicating to the audience. The writer? The actor? A combination of them? In
public speaking, it's all you. You are both writer and actor. So although the way you
give a speech may be a kind of performance, it is important to think of speaking as a
process that allows you to say what you think to someone in particular.

Public speaking is above all

communication.

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

 Deriding u hat to say implies making some important choices based on Your
opin ion and on U,e materials an d too ls that are available to you: ideas, argument.s,
in ,ag words, and metaphors. Thjs means that you have to put work into preparing
our speech, a proce we call invention. As illustration, let's look in more detail at
the kind of ch oices speakers make when they prepare speeches that inform and per­
uade an auili nee.

.. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ...
Informing
Many tin1es as a speaker you are trying to convey information to an auilience. Some­
tin1es you are in the role of an expert, sometimes a sort of teacher; in other cases you
are more like the messenger delivering the news, like a reporter. In each case you're
trying to get information across to the auilience clearly and effectively.
Some people mjstakenly assume that if you know what you're talking about, you'll
automatically be clear, but that's not necessarily true. Think back to some of your least
favorite teachers. They may have been experts, but they may not have been very good
at communicating their knowledge.
Why is that? How can expertise and good communication be two different things?
It happens because communication is not only about the knowledge in the speaker 's
head but about the auilience as well. The auilience can't understand things they don't
understand. That seems obvious, but many speakers ilisregard it. To explain or clarify
something to an auilience, you have to assume that they don't already understand it,
and then choose to explain it in terms their current knowledge.

Making Choices: Example 1 Suppose you are faced with explaining a new univer­
sity regulation to a group of students on your campus. The university has decided
"any drug or alcohol-related tickets or arrests involving students will have aca­
demic repercussions." Right now, you (like the hypothetical audience) are prob­
ably wondering what that means-"repercussions"? As a speaker, you have some
choices.
• First, you have to decide what your role will be. Are you speaking on behalf of
the university or as just a student?
• Even though you'll cover the same information in either case, if you are speak­
ing as a student, you'll highlight benefits or consequences for students, includ­
ing yourself. If you speak on behalf of the school, you may feature the reasons
for the decision and what it means for the school.
• Depending on which way you go, you'll change the order of points
(probably putting the ones most important to the auilience last), and you'll
change any charts or illustrations you use, since these highlight the things that
will be most memorable for the auilience about the information.

. .... .. .. . . . .. . . .. . .... . . ... .. .. . ..... . .. .. .. . .... .... ...... .. . .. . .. .. ....... ..... ... ........
■ Persuading
Sometimes we want more than just to have the auilience understand us·' we want
them to believe or do something. By persuasion, we mean all the ways a speaker can
attempt to influence an auilience, from informing them about a topic to arguing they
should change their beliefs or inspiring them to action. All of these are "persuasive"
in the sense that they are attempts to influence the auilience. Even in an informative
speech, you adapt it to the auilience, trying to make sure they not only understand but
also care about the information.

PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

•
Making Choices: Example 2 You are probably so used to making choices about
what to say that you don't realize that you are always choosing what to say and how
to say it. Here's a simple interpersonal example. Suppose you'd like to get your friend
Brian to go to a movie with you on a Friday night. You start with "movie" and "Brian,"
but from there you have a lot of choices. You have to decide whether you think he
will automatically want to go to a movie, or if you'll have to convince him. If you're
going to convince him, you'll consider what would motivate him. Is he looking for
a relaxing time after a hard week? Is he bored with his job and looking for excite­
ment? Does he enjoy dinner before a movie, or does he love a big bucket of popcorn
with his flick? You might research what movies are playing, and you may choose one
based on what kind of movie Brian likes. Or you may try to convince Brian to see the
movie you're interested in. If Brian were someone you didn't know well, you might
have to approach the request more formally; with a fairly close friend, you can be
pretty inforn1al.
Without realizing it, all of these choices may flash through your head before you
dec to say to your friend, "Hey, bud, want go and check out the midnight showing
ide
of Donny Darko? You know you love that flick, and we can grab some food afterward."
Your process for public speaking will be similar: You need to interpret the audience
and purpose (whom you're talking to and what you want from them), and as the next
example shows, there are always choices about that interpretation.

Making Choices: Example 3 Let's say you need to give a presentation to the city
council asking for a change in the zoning laws for a skateboard park Your audience is
the city council members, who will vote on your proposal. So what are your choices?
You probably don't need to know much about the city council members personally,
because they probably don't make zoning decisions based exclusively on their being
a man or a woman or white, Asian, or Hispanic. Their decisions are more likely based
on their functions as city council members: interpreting the law and serving the public
interest. What you want to say about your topic is to a large extent detern1ined by what
you want to convince them to do, but your approach to your audience and how you
want to persuade them requires some strategic choices.

Responsible public speakers

approach different audiences
in different ways. A town
council meeting is different
from a classroom and from
the halls of Congress. I I
�
CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •
 Why should the city counci l change the zo ning Jaws? Because it b n fits You and
your ftiends? Naturally, yo u think that it does, but will that rnov city ouncil merri.
be1 ? Probably not. Can you argu e that it benefits them? Yes, b ut be car ful : Y ou're not
talking about benefiting th council members personally, b ut rath r you ar arguin�
to their role as council members-they should car ab out the benefits to th :it y. H<Jw
would the ne w park benefit the cit-y? Presumably it will generate som tax rev nue an,J
p erhaps some part-time employment.
However, because t hey have to think about th go od of the dty, th y'll have I.IJ
consider two problems: W hat if noise from the park bothers th neighbors or skaterl!
get rowdy? You'll need to clearly address those issues , or you can't xpect the coun�il
to take you very seriously. As you de cide what to argue, you also ne d to think about.
langua ge choices. You might think about how you want to address them mbers ("Sir"
and "Ma'am" versus "You guys"), and about how you want to desc-r �be the s�� park
Will it be in terms that get them visualizing it ("Imagine all these kids exerc1smg and
staying out of trouble") or in terms that support your argument ("Data on skateparkl!
show they are good civic investments")? You might use analogies to national or state
parks. You may even think about how you 'll dress for the occasion-will it be in skater
clothes or something more formal? You'll have to consider which would be better and
why. Skater clothes might show you're in touch with the future users, but something
more formal might show that you should be taken seriously.

The Speaking Process: Thinking, Creating,

and Speaking
Now that you have an idea about a public speaker's choices, let's look at the actual
process. What do you have to do to give a speech? It's useful to see preparati on as
having two parts: the analysis and the "writing" of the speech. First, you will need to
think-analyze-what you want to say in the particular situation for your particular
audience. Then, you will need to create a speech that is well organized, crafted for
maximum effect, and has good supporting arguments. After that, you are ready to
speak; you will need to deliver the speech in such a way that it will not only be listened
to but also be heard and acted upon by the audience. Here is a brief outline of the
process:
Think:
• Choose a topic: What things are important to you that you would like to say
to your audience?
• Audience: Who will be listening, and what is their interest in the topic?
• Goals: What do you want the audience to do, either by learning, acting, or
changing beliefs?
Create:
• Arguments: What claims, propositions, or ideas would you like the audience
to believe?
• Research: How will you support your arguments with evidence, statistics,
quotes from experts, and other materials that lend credibility to your case?
• Organization: How will you put your points together so that they have a
clear pattern that is easy for the audience to follow?
• Words: How will you phrase your ideas so that they are both clear and com­
pelling to the audience?

PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

•

j
 Speak:
• Deli ery: Whal choic will you make about the peifonnance of the speech.
How will ou act (for example. will you make an effort at eye contact , and
what choices will you make in ,·erbal cyle (tone, pitch, ratf", emphasis. clarity)
to make sure that your speech has maximum persuasive effect?
• Anxiety: What strategies and techniques will ou use for managing yom
nerves?

Thinking Tlu"ot1gl1 Yot1r Cl1oices

To preview how the chapters of this book will walk you through these steps of the speak­
ing proces.5, we'll use the example at the beginning of the chapter, in which Danielle wac;
trying to figure out how to give a speech persuading other stndents to donate blood
Each part of speech preparation involves a set of choices; Danielle needs to recognize
both what her choices are and how to make them responsibly. First, the analytic part of
preparation: Think about who your audience is and what your goals :regarding them are.

................... ................... ................... . . . . ... .... . . . . ........ .......... ...

■ Your Responsibilities (Chapter 2)
First, Danielle has to orient herself to what we'll call the ethical dimensions of this
speaking situation. She needs to ask herself what her relationship is to her audience.
Does she want to get donations, and she doesn't care how she gets them? Even if
Danielle isn't willing to lie to get people to donate, she might still employ half-trntbs
or misleading statements. This stance toward the audience shows a lack of rhetorical
or communicative responsibility, because it divides Danielle from the audience (1m
persuading you"). A more responsible approach would create a context where Dani­
elle and the audience together are coming to understand the mutual benefits of blood
donation ("We need to do something about the local blood shortage"). Before Danielle
can start thinking about what to say, she needs to clarify what she intends to do with,
or to, the audience in this situation.

■ Your Audience (Chapters 3, 4)

Now, Danielle must think about the nature of her audience. She can think about her audi­
ence in general terms, especially the obstacles that might prevent them from being blood
donors already. Some students are busY with schoolwork plus jobs or family or all three.
Other students may be uninterested. Either way, Danielle knows that her speech needs
to be entertaining and informative and that it must give the audience a reason to show up
at the blood donation station and be poked with a needle for little or no compensation.
After she takes these general issues into account, she might think more specifi­
cally about the actual group she will address-is it a random sampling of students in a
course, a volunteer group, or a campus social group? Here, Danielle will need to think
about why people are in the audience in the first place and th.en to think about how
she can use the picture of the audience that she is developing to motivate them to give
blood. Finally, she'll probably realize that there are a couple of specific fears about
blood donation that might come into play with any audience: Some people are afraid
of blood, and some people are freaked out by needles; she'll have to take th.Me fears
into account at some point in her speech. In addition, some people fear (wrongly) that
they can get a disease just from giving blood.

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

- --

ltet· lsst1t,\-the blood supply-is oue that concerns us all, and so it is a public
\ ·· ue. Whul kind of public l h •1· audience of colleg e students relative to the issue of
blood donation'? Despite a]l the cliff rences between students (older, younger, urban,
rurn.l, nuu femal • ), ·iu1 she find a common characteristic that gives them a reason to
say y s to bl od dona.ti n'?
Her I where Dani ll •'s rhetorical creativity comes in. She can describe the audi­
en e lo th rnselv s, Th y m·e busy college students, yes ... but they are also people
who might get l k or h\jur d aml need some blood at the hospital. "Potential blood­
bank u r�" may not be how th students think about themselves, but it's a true de­
s rlpti n, and it' r levant to Danielle's purpose: It transforms the audience into a
publi , with a rnutual. intere t in blood donations. Another possible public would be
"p ·opl who value publi s 1vice." Many college students either fall into this group or
wi h th y lid, and Dm1i 11 an giv th m the opportunity to perform a public service.
ani U ne ds to speak in a way that helps the audience listen and want to listen.
Thi in ·lucle th use of ton , pacing, and transitions to keep the audience involved.
anl ll also n ds to present arguments in a balanced way that takes into account the
n d , xp tations and precli positions of the audience. She also needs to present her-
·lf a a p rson who is op n to and respectf1.ll toward the opinions of the audience.She
n d to 1iv th m all the vidence that they need to mal<e an informed decision, and she
n d to provide th m with concrete steps that they can take if they choose to donate
bl d. Fimuly, Daniell should allow the audience tinle to ask questions, if this is ap­
pr µriate, and to answ r the questions in a clear, engaging, and nonconfrontational way.

............ .. .. ............. .............. . .. ......... ... ....... .. .. .. .... ... . .. . .. .. .......

■ Your Goals (Chapter 5)
Dani II h to ass s th ituation. In this case, she already has a topic (sometimes
that' not th case). What ar her goals? She should clearly distinguish between her
p 1 0118.1 goal (what she wants to accomplish) and her goals with the audience (what
h wants h r sp ch to a complish). She can't just say, "Hey, donate blood, because
if I get In go d with the blood bank people, I'm s t for an internship, and that would
1J a big r sum boo t r." That's her persona.I goal; she will benefit if she can get more

PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

•
blood in the blood bank by recrniting more donors. Her goal with the m1,<.lieru:e would
be to persuade them to voluntarily clonat,e blood through the campus program. But this
goal has some inherent challenges: Why donate blood on campus for a few cookies
when you might be able to get money somewhere else for selllng your blood pl,asma.
Danielle would like to get students to want to show up at one of the campus sites. She
doesn't need to control or manipulate them or make them into better people; she just
needs to get them to see why it would be right to donate. Danielle wants to choose a
goal that is not only appropriate to the situation but also defensible.

Creating Your First Speech

Once Danielle has made some tentative decisions about her audience, her goals, and
the audience's relationship to her topic, she has to start creating her speech, which is
the second part of preparation.

■ Information and Arguments (Chapters 6, 7)

• • • • • • •. •. • • e e • • • • •♦ ♦ ♦ • ♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ e ♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦♦♦♦♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ t ♦♦♦♦♦♦I♦♦♦♦

In order for Danielle to persuade her audience, she'll need to provide information
about blood donation and, for this specific situation, reasons why students should
donate, and then she'll have to choose the best ones. (Her choices here will both deter­
mine and depend on her research, as discussed in the next section.) These reasons will
be arguments, whose conclusion is "I should donate blood." .Arguments give reasons argument A claim backed by
reasons-logic and evidence-in
and evidence, and Danielle has several choices. She can choose examples as evidence: support of a specific conclusion.

Here is a person who was saved by donated blood.

She can make public arguments:
Donating blood is an important public service.
You or someone you love might be in an accident some day, and you want
make sure the local hospital has a ready supply of your blood type.
She can also present arguments based on emotion:
When one of your family members is hurt, there is nothing more com­
forting than knowing that there is an army of volunteers who are
there to support you, even though they don't know you, because they
were willing to give the gift of their blood.
Danielle should brainstorm many arguments from which to choose the ones that
her audience is most likely to understand and that connect to them the best. She may
have to confront the fact that her reasons for donating blood may not be the same as
the audience's reasons. She can choose to use any, all, or none of the following brain­
stormed reasons to make her case:
• It's fun!
• You can help others.
• You have an obligation to help.
• The blood bank needs you.
• Other people will need your help.
• Sick people need your help.
• It's easy.
• You'll feel great about yourself after you do it.
• There's no risk in giving blood.
• What if you needed blood?

CHAPTER 1 • PUBLIC SPEAKING •

 Wlrnt will hl'lp her choose among these? She'll need to select the arguments most
l'rfl'rLlw, with the particular audience/public she has chosen to address. Even if there
arl' many good reasons to do something, the y aren't equally good to everyone. If she
has chosen to addressher aucUe nce as college students, which of these arguments Will
m an lhe most Lo them as •ollege students? The ones about idealism? Community?
Ease of glvlng? We'll return to these questions in the chapter on persuasion and dis-
u show reasoning will help make this choice.

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ... .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . ... . . . .. . .. .... . .. .... .. . .. .. ... ......

Research (Chapter 8)
Once Danielle has chosen lines of argument, she'll need to do some research to find
th facts and information that will fill out her reasoning. She could, of course, just get
up and freestyle her speech, but this would be a failure of her responsibility to her
audience. To become thoroughly informed, Danielle needs a research strategy: She
needs to figure out where the best sources are and then read enough of the literature
on blood donation to make some reasoned conclusions. In order to do this, she'll
need to have an organized approach to research that evaluates multiple perspectives,
instead of just cutting and pasting from a discussion board or a wiki.
Danielle has an enormous variety of sources to choose from: interviews, news
stories, pamphlets, journal articles, web pages, Wikipedia, books, and so on. But she
needs carefully choose her sources and allow the audience to evaluate their credibil­
ity. She also needs to use the research responsibly, offering as full a picture of the facts
as possible. Her speech will be more effective if all the statistics are from credible
sources, such as the American Red Cross or the American Medical .Association, than
from something like www.saveavampiregiveblood.
Good research makes Danielle more credible, and it can give her more choices
about how to present her reasoning. But most importantly, research fulfills the trust
she wants the audience to place in her. If she says that donation is safe, she needs to
have the research to back that up.

···································································· ····················· ··· ·

■ Organizing (Chapter 9)
Once Danielle has chosen her arguments and assembled research to support them,

-
she is ready to choose how to organize her speech. This happens at two levels. First,
she has to decide the best order for her two or three main arguments. Perhaps civic

-
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their words. The American
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instance, is a reliable source
for information about blood I ... ,_ ..
donation.

• PART ONE • FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD SPEAKING

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Seven
daughters
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Seven daughters

Author: Amanda M. Douglas

Release date: September 25, 2023 [eBook #71729]

Language: English

Original publication: Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1874

Credits: Bob Taylor, Aaron Adrignola and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN

DAUGHTERS ***
 BOOKS FOR “OUR GIRLS.”

THE MAIDENHOOD SERIES.

By Popular Authors.

SEVEN DAUGHTERS.
By Miss A. M. Douglas, Author of “In Trust,” “Stephen Dane,”
“Claudia,” “Sydnie Adriance,” “Home Nook,” “Nelly Kennard’s
Kingdom.” 12mo, cloth, illustrated. $1.50.
“A charming romance of Girlhood,” full of incident and humor. The
“Seven Daughters” are characters which reappear in some of Miss
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OUR HELEN.
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“The story is a very attractive one, as free from the sensational
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“Has the ring of genuine genius, and the sparkle of a gem of the
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 THAT QUEER GIRL.
By Miss Virginia F. Townsend, Author of “Only Girls,” &c. 12mo,
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Queer only in being unconventional, brave and frank, an “old-
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Or the Girls of Hive Hall. By Adelaide F. Samuels, Author of “Dick
and Daisy Stories,” “Dick Travers Abroad,” &c. 16mo, cloth,
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The story of Hive Hall is full of life and action, and told in the same
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The above six books are furnished in a handsome box for $9.00,
or sold separate, by all booksellers, and sent by mail, postpaid, on
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LEE AND SHEPARD, Publishers, Boston.
SEVEN DAUGHTERS.
Seven Daughters.
 THE MAIDENHOOD SERIES.

Seven Daughters.
BY
AMANDA M. DOUGLAS,
Author of “In Trust,” “Home Nook,” “Katie’s Stories,” &c.

BOSTON:
LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS.
NEW YORK:
CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874,
By LEE AND SHEPARD,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 TO

KATE ISABELLE HIBBARD.

In thy book, oh Lord, are written all that do what they can, though
they cannot do what they would.
St. Bernard.
Belvidere, N. J.
SEVEN DAUGHTERS.
 CHAPTER I.

“‘How many? Seven in all,’ she said,

And wondering looked at me.”
Wordsworth.

NOTHER girl!”
“Seven of ’em!”
“What a pity!”
“The land sakes alive! Brother Endicott will have to buy calico by
the piece for their gowns! He might get a little throwed off, or a spool
of cotton extry. He, he! ho, ho! Well, children are a great risk! You
don’t s’pose there’ll be a donation party right away—do you!”
“There is donation enough for the present, I think; and the sewing
society will not be called upon.”
I liked that soft, silvery voice of Mrs. Whitcomb. It was just like her
pretty light hair, beginning to be plentifully sprinkled with silver, and
her clear peachy skin, that was just a little wrinkled. Her touch was
so gentle, her motions so graceful and pleasing!
“I was only joking about it. They’ll miss her in the s’ciety—that’s
what they will.”
Aunt Letty Perkins was—dreadful! a thorn in the flesh; a sort of
bitter, puckery presence, as if you had just tasted an unripe
persimmon.
“And it’ll be a puzzle to get husbands for ’em all. That’s the most
unfort’net thing about girls.”
I suppose she meant us, not the society. My face was in a blaze of
indignation. Then the door was shut, and I went on with my dusting.
 It was a sunny April morning, and a pair of swallows were
twittering about the windows.
Another girl and there were seven of us. Some one in the parish
had said that Mrs. Endicott would always be sure of a Sunday school
class, for she could fill it up with her own children. I couldn’t help
wishing that there was just one boy among us, even if it were that
wee bairnie they had been discussing. Boys are nice—in some
ways.
I don’t know that I should have modified my opinion so suddenly
but for two things. My eye happened to fall on my pretty pearl paper-
cutter, that had been sent to me at Christmas. On one side of the
handle was my monogram, done in scarlet and gold, on the other a
little trail of blue forget-me-nots. A few weeks ago Harry Denham
had been in spending the evening with us,—that means Fan and I,
the elders. He and Fanny were having a little scrimmage, and, in a
half tragic manner, he seized my pretty gift, pretending to arm
himself with a dagger, and, somehow, in the melee, the poor thing
snapped in twain.
Hal was very sorry. Then he had such great, beseeching brown
eyes, that when he turned them so appealingly to me, I pitied him
more than I did myself. It was very foolish, I know. I ought to have
scolded. I should have said,—
“You great, rough, careless boy! now see what you have done! I
wish you would never come here again!”
“I can get it mended, I know. There is some beautiful white cement
used for such articles. O, Rose, I am so sorry! I’d get you another
one, only it wouldn’t be it.”
“Never mind,” I said, meekly, with a wonderful tendency towards
tears, though whether they would have been for Harry, or the knife,
or myself, I could not exactly tell.
So he had it mended, and it looked as good as new. But little
Frank Mortimer came to call with his mother, and brought it to grief
again.
 The other event that reconciled me to the advent of my little sister,
whom I had not yet seen, was Tabby, who sprang up on the window
sill, with her cunning salutation, like three or four n’s, strung together
in a prolonged musical fashion, not quite a mew. I don’t want you to
think the word back there was meant for a pun, for it wasn’t. I’ll tell
you in the beginning that I am not a bit bright, or sharp, or funny. I
have even heard jokes that I did not see the point of until the next
day.
Tabby is just as beautiful as she can be. A Maltese cat, with a
white nose and two white front paws. She is very cunning, and
knows almost everything within the domain of cat knowledge. If there
is one thing I do love better than another, in the way of pets, it is
cats. A clean-faced, sleek cat, sitting on the hearth-rug before the
grate, is enough to give the whole household a feeling of
contentment. Then the kittens are always so funny and frolicksome!
“Tabby,” I said, as she arched her back and rubbed her head
against my sleeve,—“Tabby, you wouldn’t be half so happy if there
was a boy in the house. He would lift you by the tail, turn your ears
back, put walnut shells on your feet, and make you dance on your
hind legs. Then he would be forever tormenting your kittens. Boys
are bad naturally. Maybe they are born so, and can’t help it,” I
continued, reflectively. “I suppose they do have a good deal more of
the old Adam in them than girls, because, you see, we inherit Eve’s
propensity to curiosity; but then boys are fully as curious—aren’t
they, Tabby? and as full of curiosity!”
“Yes,” answered Tabby.
She says it as plainly as you do. In fact, we sometimes hold quite
lengthy conversations.
“So we don’t care—do we? If Aunt Letty Perkins would not make
such a row about it! How would she like to have a lot of boys, I
wonder?”
Tabby shook her head sagely, and scratched her left ear. I knew
she felt just the same as I did.
 I finished the parlor, and shut down the windows. Then I went to
papa’s study, took the ashes softly out of the grate, and laid another
fire, in case the evening should be cool, picked up papers and
magazines, and dusted with the very lightest of touches. It was my
part of the work to look after the study. I was so glad to be able to
suit papa!
Just then the door opened. It was papa himself, fresh from a walk.
I think him ever and ever so handsome, though sometimes I wish he
was not quite so thin. He is rather tall, has a fine chest and
shoulders; but it is his sweet, dear old face that I like so much. It’s a
little wrinkled, to be sure, and may be his mouth is a trifle wide. I
never considered it any defect, however, for he shuts his lips
together with such a cordial smile! He has lovely deep-gray eyes,
and his hair, which was once a bright brown, begins to be toned with
silvery threads, as well as his soft brown beard, which he wears full,
except a mustache.
“O, papa!” I cried, clasping my arms around his neck, “are you
very sorry?”
“Sorry for what, my daughter?” And he looked a good deal
surprised.
“That we haven’t a boy. There are so many of us girls!”
“My dear, I have always had a great fancy for little girls, as you
know. And we take whatever God sends. She is very pretty.”
“O, you dear, blessed papa!”
“You will have to be the mother now, for a little while, Rose. You
must try to manage the children nicely.”
“Indeed, I will do my best. Papa, do you not believe that I could go
in and see her? Aunt Letty Perkins is there.”
“O, how could Mrs. Whitcomb! Yes; come along, child.”
I followed him to the sitting-room. The Rectory was a great,
rambling old house, with a wide hall through the middle. Back of the
parlor, quite shut off, indeed, were the dining-room and the two
kitchens; on the other side, study, sitting-room, nursery, and
mamma’s sleeping apartment.
Mamma’s door was shut. Mrs. Whitcomb was wise enough to
keep guard over that. There was a little fire in the Franklin stove, and
before it sat Mrs. Perkins, though everybody called her Aunt Letty.
Her feet were on the fender, her brown stuff dress turned up over her
knees, her black alpaca skirt not quite so high, and a faded quilted
petticoat taking the heat of the fire. She always wore substantial gray
yarn stockings in the winter, and lead-colored cotton in summer,
except on state occasions. Her bonnet was always a little awry, and
the parting of her hair invariably crooked. I’m sure I don’t know what
she did, except to attend to other people’s affairs.
Mrs. Downs was beside her, a helpless-looking little fat woman,
who, Fan declared, looked like a feather pillow with a checked apron
tied around it. She was always out of breath, had always just left her
work, and was never going to stay more than a moment.
“O, brother Endicott!” exclaimed Aunt Letty, reaching her hand out
so far that she nearly tipped her chair over; “I s’spose you ought to
be congratyourlated.” (She always put your in the word, and always
said equinomical, regardless of Noah Webster.) “What does the
Bible say about a man having his quiver full of olive branches? or is
it that they sit round the table? now I disremember. I don’t go much
according to Old Testament. It was well enough for them heathenish
Jews and the old times; but I want the livin’ breathin’ gospel. What
you goin’ to call her?”
Papa smiled, at the absurd transition, I suppose. Fan said Aunt
Letty had only one resemblance to a dictionary—she changed her
subjects without any warning.
“Would Keren-happuch do?” papa asked, with a droll twinkle in his
eye.
“O, now, Mr. Endicott!”
“It’s a nice little thing,” put in Mrs. Downs. “Favors its mar I think.”
“Come and see it, Rose.—May we, Mrs. Whitcomb?”
 “O, yes, indeed,” with her sweet smile.
She led me to the corner of the room, between the stove and
mamma’s door. There, on two chairs, was a tiny bed, and under the
blanket a tiny baby with a broad forehead, black, silky hair, a cunning
little mouth, but no nose to speak of. Yet she was pretty. I thought I
should like to squeeze her to a jelly, and cover her with kisses,
though I don’t know as that would be orthodox jelly-cake for any but
a cannibal.
Papa glanced at her with a tender smile, then sighed. Perhaps he
was thinking of the long way the little feet would have to travel. It is a
great journey, after all, from the City of Destruction to the New
Jerusalem. Something in the baby-face brought to mind Christiana
and the children.
“Great pity ’tisn’t a boy,” persisted Aunt Letty.
“O, I don’t know about that. They are so handy to take one
another’s clothes,” said papa, humorously.
“To be sure. But yours could be cut over,” returned the literal
woman.
“I am afraid that I shall always need mine to the last thread. I have
lost the trick of outgrowing them. O, have you heard that Mrs.
Bowers’s sister has come from the west? Arrived last evening.”
“Land sakes alive! Why, I guess I’ll run right over. Sally and me
was thick as peas in our young days. And her husband’s been a
what you call it out there, senate, or constitution, or something.”
“Member of the legislature,” corrected father, quietly.
“O, yes. Some folks do get along. There’s the middle of my
needle. I should knit there if the house was afire!”
She brushed down her skirts, put her knitting in her satchel, jerked
her shawl up, and pinned it, and settled her old black bonnet more
askew than ever. Mrs. Whitcomb kindly pulled it straight for her.
“Thank’ee. If you want any help, Mrs. Whitcomb, send right
straight over. Ministers are always the chosen of the Lord, and I feel
as if one ought to come at their call.”
“I am much obliged,” returned Mrs. Whitcomb, in her quiet, lady-
like way.
Mrs. Downs took her departure at the same moment. There was a
great bustle, and talking; but father finally succeeded in getting them
to the porch. When Aunt Letty was safely off the steps, she turned
and said,—
“I’m glad you are so well satisfied, Mr. Endicott. It’s a sure sign of
grace to take thankfully what the Lord sends.”
“O, dear,” said papa, with a sigh; “I am afraid I don’t give thanks for
quite everything. ‘Tribulation worketh patience.’ But didn’t those
women almost set you crazy? If I thought another sermon on bridling
the tongue would do any good; I should preach it next Sunday.”
Mrs. Whitcomb smiled and said, in her cool, silvery voice,—
“It takes a great deal of powder and shot to kill a man in battle, and
it takes a great deal of preaching to save a soul.”
“Yes. I get almost discouraged when I find how strong the old
Adam is in human souls.”
I looked at papa rather reproachfully; but just then he opened the
door of mamma’s room, and called me thither.
Mamma was very sweet and lovely. She kissed me many times,
and hoped I would prove a trusty house-keeper, and see that papa
had everything he needed, especially to notice that his cuffs and
handkerchiefs were clean, and that he was in nice order on Sunday.
“And—did I like the baby?” She asked it almost bashfully.
“It is just as sweet as it can be. I only wish it was large enough to
hold and to carry about.”
“Thank you, dear.”
Years afterwards I knew what that meant.
I went out to the kitchen to see about the dinner. We never had
regular servants like other people. It was the lame, and the halt, and