Nanomaterials 12 01664

nanomaterials
Review
Review of Recent Efforts in Cooling Photovoltaic Panels (PVs) for
Enhanced Performance and Better Impact on the Environment
Sami Salama Hussen Hajjaj 1,2, * , Ahmad Abdul Kareem Ahmad Aqeel 2 , Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan 3,4,5, * ,
Farah Syazwani Shahar 3 and Ain Umaira Md Shah 3
1 Centre for Advanced Mechatronics and Robotics (CaMaRo), Putrajaya Campus, Universiti Tenaga
Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan Ikram-Uniten, Kajang 43000, Malaysia
2 Institute of Informatics and Computing in Energy (IICE), Putrajaya Campus, Universiti Tenaga
Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan Ikram-Uniten, Kajang 43000, Malaysia; [email protected]
3 Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang,
Seri Kembangan 43400, Malaysia; [email protected] (F.S.S.); [email protected] (A.U.M.S.)
4 Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP),
UPM Serdang, Seri Kembangan 43400, Malaysia
5 Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (944751-A), Prime Minister’s Department, MIGHT Partnership Hub,
Jalan Impact, Cyberjaya 63000, Malaysia
* Correspondence: author: [email protected] (S.S.H.H.); [email protected] (M.T.H.S.)
Abstract: The global need for energy has grown in tandem with mankind’s development and spread.
This has resulted in an increase in the use of fossil energy sources, a decline in these sources and an
increase in pollution, necessitating the search for renewable energy sources. One of the important
ways to reduce pollution resulting from the increasing consumption of fossil energy is to enhance the
sources of solar energy, of which photovoltaic cells (PV) are one of its most important tools. Therefore,
it was necessary to pay attention to improving its efficiency for it to become a promising source of
Citation: Hajjaj, S.S.H.; Aqeel, clean energy. PVs turn solar energy into electricity; however, the amount of electricity generated
A.A.K.A.; Sultan, M.T.H.; Shahar, F.S.; decreases as the temperature of the cells rises in response to the sun’s heat. Cooling of the optical
Shah, A.U.M. Review of Recent
surfaces is one of the most important elements to consider while running solar PV systems to obtain
Efforts in Cooling Photovoltaic
maximum efficiency. The electrical efficiency of PVs is enhanced when suitable cooling technology is
Panels (PVs) for Enhanced
used, and the rate of cell breakdown is reduced over time, extending the life of the PV panels. There
Performance and Better Impact on
are many materials used to remove unwanted heat in PV cells, and in recent years, the focus has been
the Environment. Nanomaterials 2022,
12, 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/
on integrating nanomaterials in specific proportions with traditional cooling materials such as water
nano12101664 to improve their thermal properties. As a bio-material that is environmentally friendly, renewable,
sustainable, inexpensive and has high mechanical properties, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are one
Academic Editor: Andreu Cabot
of the most promising materials for improving the properties of cooling materials for cooling PV cells
Received: 12 March 2022 and improving their performance.
Accepted: 26 April 2022
Published: 13 May 2022 Keywords: solar energy; photovoltaic thermal system (PV/T); cooling materials; environment;
cellulose nanocrystal (CNC); nanofluids
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
1. Introduction
Fossil fuels produce more than 80% of the world’s energy. Combustion residues of
these fuels negatively affect the environment by producing acid rain and causing global
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
warming, which increases rapidly with development and increases in the world population
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
because of the increasing demand for energy [1–3], so it was necessary to search for
This article is an open access article
renewable energy sources [4]. Solar energy is one of the most significant renewable energy
distributed under the terms and
sources since it can readily be turned into thermal and electrical energy, in addition to being
conditions of the Creative Commons
sustainable, available and clean energy [5].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
This paper summarizes a set of research related to enhancing the efficiency of pho-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
tovoltaic cells by controlling their temperature by cooling them using different ways
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12101664 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials

Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1664 2 of 18
and materials, which strengthens their position as a clean and environmentally friendly
energy source.
2. The Review
PV panels convert solar energy into electricity. However, if the temperature of the
cells rises owing to the sun’s temperature, the output of electricity falls. Therefore, different
cooling techniques were used for solar cells to control their temperature, as shown in
Table 1. Many of the research papers published in the literature on improving solar energy
conversion and using it more efficiently have been reviewed and classified, and some
of these papers are represented in Table 2. The thermal control of photovoltaic panels
is emphasized in order to improve solar energy conversion to electricity through the
development of cooling methods and cooling materials.
Table 1. Photovoltaic cooling techniques.
Techniques Advantages Limitations
• Easy-to-use technology. • Has limited thermal capacities and requires a lot

• Air is always accessible. of energy to circulate air blowers
Air cooling • Improves the overall efficiency.
Photovoltaic/Thermal (in active cooling).
• It is economically feasible. • Has low mass-flow rates, so little effect on
[6–10] • Heated air is employed in HVAC systems. PV temperatures.
• Reduces corrosive danger.
• Overall efficiency has improved. • High start-up costs.

• Increased electric energy conversion efficiency. • System life is reduced.
Water cooling
• Hot water is utilized for residential purposes. • In chilly weather, it is possible that you
Photovoltaic/Thermal will freeze.
[11–14] • Space requirements are less than for
individual systems. • Pumping power consumes a lot of electricity.
• Possible corrosion, fouling and leaking.
PV/water spraying • Increased conversion of solar energy. • The PV panel’s surface area is partly cooled.
[15–18] • Higher thermal conductivity and heat capacity • A higher price (maintenance, pumping power)
(low thermal resistance). • Heat is a waste of resources.
• The depth of submersion has an impact

• Extremely effective. on efficiency.
PV/water immersion cooling • Friendly to the environment
[19–21] • Higher price.
• Both the front and rear surfaces transmit heat. • Because the item is insulated inside the water, the
system is complicated to build.
• At modest temperature changes, huge amounts • PCM has a low heat conductivity in its
of heat may be stored. solid form.
PV/Phase-Change • Phase-change happens at a steady temperature; • Some PCMs are poisonous and provide a
Materials cooling therefore, the system can work even when the fire hazard.
[10,22,23] sun is not shining. • After the conclusion of the life cycle, there is a
• The heat that is absorbed can be utilized to difficulty with disposal.
heat structures. • The quantity of active volume available for
thermal storage is limited by segregation.
• Heat fluxes that are extremely high. • High price.

Cooling of PV/Heat Pipes • Heat exchange that is passive. • Difficult to produce.
[24–27] • Transfer of heat across large distances. • Non-condensable gas production.
• It is simple to combine. • Working agent leakage.
• Longer life span.
Table 1. Cont.
Techniques Advantages Limitations
PV/Microchannel heat • Removes a lot of heat from a tiny space. • Limitations on pressure decrease.
sink cooling • Low inventory of fluids is necessary. • Corrosion is an issue.
[28–32] • Low electricity consumption; thermal resistance • Manufacturing at a high cost.
is low.
• Technology in its infancy.

PV/Nano-fluids cooling • There are nanofluids on the market. • Influences are unknown (interaction with base
[33–37] • Thermal efficiency that is higher. fluids and characteristics). Nanoparticles
are expensive.
PV/Spectrum filter • The operating temperature has been reduced. • Technology that is not completely developed.
[38–40] • Hybridization with concentrating or other • High-priced (glass filters)
systems is possible.
Table 2. Cooling technique methods.
Cooling Technique Method/Paradigm Finding/Results

Comparison of the overall efficiency between covered The overall annual efficiency of covered PVT is 42.3%
Forced water [41]
and uncovered PVT. and 52.6% for uncovered one.
Numerical and experimental in the current work, a
Photovoltaic systems can benefit from nanofluids to
PV/T Nanofluids [42] comprehensive assessment of nanoparticle applications
improve their thermal, electrical and overall efficiency.
in photovoltaic (PV) cooling was conducted.
Multijunction, non-silicon-based solar cells are chosen
A thorough literature analysis is offered, outlining the for high concentration ratios due to their good
benefits, drawbacks and promise of current CPVT performance at high operating temperatures.
CPV/T cooling mediums [43]
research. There are graphical and tabular summaries of Silicon-based monocrystalline solar cells, on the other
several distinct CPVT design offers in this section. hand, are favored at lower concentration ratios due to
their cost-effectiveness and off-the-shelf availability.
Previous studies show the temperature of the cooling
PVT analysis using inexpensive and readily accessible
medium for photovoltaic cells (low, medium, high) and
spectrum filters liquids (UV–VIS–NIR).
CPV/T cooling mediums [44] the applications in which this heat can be used. In
Electrical and thermal efficiency averages 12.53 percent
addition, it shows the type and efficiency of the
and 47 percent, respectively.
photovoltaic cells used and the type of working fluid.
The output power, conversion efficiency and total
A UV–VIS–NIR spectrophotometer is used to analyze energy efficiency of the proposed combination system
PV/T spectrum filter [40] the absorption and transmission of 200–2500 nm are higher than those of a standard solar concentration
wavelength solar spectrums of various liquids PV system under the same conditions, as per
the outcomes
Thermal efficiency improved from 30.3 percent to
46 percent, while electrical efficiency increased from
Using a varied flow rate of air to cool PV cells and
Forced air [45] 9.5 percent to 10.2 percent, according to the findings.
comparing its efficiency to conventional PV
In comparison to the traditional cell, the flow increased
from 0.021 kg/s to 0.042 kg/s
Experimental examination of the performance of a
High sun radiation and the volume flow rate of the
photovoltaic panel under the influence of different
Forced water [46] cooling fluid have significant influence on PVT
solar rays with stabilization of the amount of coolant
performance, according to the research.
flow and the inlet temperature of the coolant.
1: The PV/T collector with Al2 O3 /water as a coolant
investigate the achievement of a nanofluid-based PV/T has a greater electrical and thermal power than one
PV/T Nanofluids [47] collector using various nanofluids, particle volume with TiO2 /water. 2: Nanoparticle concentration
concentrations and mass flow rates. improves the nanofluid heat transfer coefficient, PV
power and PV efficiency.
The results showed an improvement in the
Experimental performance of the PVT (air) and
performance of air-cooled photovoltaic cells, with great
Forced air [48] mathematical models were compared with
agreement between the theoretical and
commercial PV.
experimental results
Table 2. Cont.
Cooling Technique Method/Paradigm Finding/Results

For CPV cells, a multi-channel heat sink is used.
The thermal efficiency sinks for various designs with
The conversion efficiency was around 32 percent, and
PV/heatsink [49] varying fin thicknesses and fin heights, as well as their
the net power was around 4050 W, thanks to a 91 ◦ C
effect on PV, were evaluated using a simulation model.
cell temperature and 0.6 m/s flow velocity.
The thermal performance of two systems (wickless At no reduction in the temperature, wickless and
heat pipe PV/T and wire-meshed heat pipe PV/T) wire-meshed heat pipe PV/T systems’ thermal
PV/heat pipe [50]
operating at varying inclination degrees was efficiencies were 52.8 percent and
investigated experimentally using a solar simulator. 51.5 percent, respectively.
Different degrees of the heatsink’s fin width and their
The suggested heatsink design has superior hydraulic
influence on hydraulic performance, as well as the
properties, resulting in increased heat transmission
PV/heatsink [51] temperature level and uniformity of the PV module,
while utilizing the same amount of material as a
are investigated using numerical simulations using
traditional design.
CFD software.
During the day and at night, the heat loss coefficients
of Formal PV/T and PV with heat pipe systems are
The PV/heat pipe system’s decreased night-time heat
inversely proportional. Based on data from a typical
loss greatly enhances photo thermal performance while
PV/heat pipe [52] climatic year in Shanghai, the impacts of each on the
somewhat lowering photovoltaic performance when
annually successful supply days, yearly heat gain and
compared to a normal PV/T system.
yearly electric gain are compared and analyzed in
this study.
The results demonstrate that the solar panel’s highest
When compared to a steady-spray water cooling
electrical energy generation improves by roughly
system and an uncooled PV module, a pulsed-spray
33.3 percent, 27.7% and 25.9%, respectively, as
PV/spraying water [53] water cooling system is developed for solar panels to
compared to non-cooled panels while using spray
enhance efficiency and reduce water usage throughout
water cooling (steady and pulsed) and non-cooled
the cooling process.
panels.
To better understand the heat transfer characteristics At an optimal flow of 170 L/h, the electrical efficiency
between the solar panel and water, the impact of the of the system was 15.73 percent, with a panel energy
PV/spraying water [54] water spray’s mass percent on heat transfer coefficients capacity of 40.25 W, and the system produced a peak
was investigated by calculating the best quantity of power of 39.48 W, while the pump needed 0.77 W
total spray water to use for cleaning and cooling PV. of power
For linear concentrating photovoltaic systems, cooling The electrical behavior of the silicon-oil-immersed cells
PV/immersion [55] by the immersion of solar cells in dimethyl silicon oil is is steady, and after 270 days, no significant efficiency
suggested as a heat diffusion solution. deterioration was found.
The temperature distribution of the module is very
A dish concentrator (250X) with tracking was used to
uniform; however, after a wide time of immersion in
PV/immersion [20] test a unique CPV system that used de-ionized water
de-ionized water, the cell module’s electrical
for cooling by immersing.
efficiency drops.
PV–PCM integrated systems have been shown to
To lower the working temperature, solar panels using increase electricity efficiency by up to 5%. According to
PV/PCM [56]
phase-change materials (PCM) are employed. the findings, inorganic PCMs offer a high potential for
PV cooling.
Under hot climatic circumstances, this study illustrates The use of a PCM improves the performance of a c-Si
PV/PCM [57] how to use paraffin wax (PCM) to reduce the running PV panel by controlling its thermal properties, which is
temperature of a c-Si PV module. critical for its reliable operation in hot regions.
In this work, we divide reviews of previous studies according to the reasons that
prompted researchers to work on developing the performance of photovoltaic panels as
a promising source of energy and a suitable alternative to fossil energy. This review is
divided into three areas:
2.1 Improving the generation of clean energy by cooling techniques to reduce environ-
mental effects.
2.2 Improving solar cell’s low efficiency.
2.3 The use of cellulose nano-crystal (CNC) nanofluids as a cooling material.
It is clear from the total research reviewed in this paper that the percentage of research
interested in using nanocellulose in thermal applications, which is shown in Table 3, is low,
indicating that more attention should be paid to the use of this bio-sustainable, friendly
environmental material.
Table 3. Nanocellulose in thermal applications.
Application Challenge/Question Materials Used Finding/Results

The flat plate solar collector’s energy gain and thermal
efficiency were both increased. For 0.5 percent Al2 O3 , the
Low energy efficiency and low output Addition of nanoparticles (Al2 O3 and CNC) to a greatest efficiency was 2.48 percent, while for 0.5 percent
Improve the solar collector’s efficiency [58]
temperature in solar collectors. basic fluid. CNC nanofluids, it was 8.46 percent. Using CNC/water-EG
nanofluid in a flat plate solar collector, an increase in
efficiency of around 5.8% may be attained.
Because the nanofluid displays greater thermal conductivity
Strengthening the thermo-physical Base fluids are suffering from low thermal Using nano cellulose at different concentrations and viscosity at elevated temperatures, it may be deduced
characteristics of the solar collector’s fluid [59] physical properties. and different temperatures. that it is suitable for use in a
higher-temperature environment.
Adding cellulose nanocrystal at different As the CNC volume concentration and temperature grow,
Flank wear, chipping and abrasion are the most
Improve machining performances [60] concentrations and different temperatures to the thermal conductivity of the base fluid increases,
common causes of MWF machining failure.
cooling fluid. enhancing its influence on the cutting machine.
Investigate the performance of car radiator
It may be observed that employing cellulose nanoparticles
In a heat exchanger, nanocellulose is used as a coolant using a cooling material consisting of As a coolant, cellulose nanoparticles combined
in a car radiator as a cooler in combination with ethylene
heat transfer liquid [61] cellulose nanoparticles combined with with Ethylene Glycol were used.
glycol is practical and improves the heat transfer rate.
Ethylene Glycol.
When compared to distilled water, the use of nanocellulose
Impregnate nano-cellulose with EG for car Nanoparticles improve the convective heat As a coolant, cellulose nanoparticles combined
with Ethylene Glycol for automobile radiator applications
radiator applications [62] transfer performance of the base fluid. with Ethylene Glycol were used.
demonstrates a higher heat absorption effectiveness.
CNCs have attracted the attention of business and academia
Using cellulose nanocrystals in different Increase the use of crystal nanocellulose in a due to their unique qualities, which include cheap cost,
Adding crystal nanocellulose to certain materials.
thermal applications [63] variety of applications. renewable resource extraction, minimal toxicity and good
mechanical strength.
In most technical applications, the low heat Thermal conductivity and relative viscosity increase with
Addition of crystal nanocellulose materials to the
Thermal applications [64] transfer capability of conventional thermal the volume concentration of nanoparticals and
base liquid.
transport fluids is an unresolved problem. the temperature.
Enhance the thermo-physical properties of base
The thermal conductivity Al2 O3 /CNC composite
fluid by adding nanomateials to it with different
Coolant of automotive engine radiator [35] Enhance radiator performance. nanofluids’ enhancement increases with the temperature
volume concentrations and
and volume concentration.
different temperatures.
The mono Al2 O3 nanofluids outperformed the CNC and
The rapid rise in energy demand needs additional
Changing percentages of hybrid metal oxides just TiO2 nanofluids in terms of thermal conductivity
improvements in the heat transfer process as well
Car radiator application [65] like Al2 O3 and TiO2 both with and without CNC enhancement. The Al2 O3 /CNC nanofluids, on the other
as a decrease in energy loss owing to inefficient
taken from the plant base. hand, had better thermal conductivity than Al2 O3 /TiO2
system operation.
nanofluids (mono and hybrid)
Table 3. Cont.
Application Challenge/Question Materials Used Finding/Results

Because of its exceptional mechanical
characteristics, renewability and biodegradability,
nanocellulose has gotten a lot of interest in Incorporating nanocellulose with other Nanocellulose has enhanced the thermal and
General thermal application [66]
research and industry in recent years as a compounds to form nanocomposites. thermomechanical properties of nanocomposites in general.
nanoscale material for reinforcing polymer
matrix composites.
The colloidal stability of GNPs/CNC nanofluids at a
In numerous engineering processes, standard
0.1 percent volume concentration was exceptional in the
working fluids (such as water, motor lubricant Graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and cellulose
Radiator for automobiles [67] base fluid of EG: W at a 60:40 ratio. Traditional heat transfer
and ethylene glycol) have a limited ability to nanocrystal (CNC) spread in a base fluid.
fluids may be replaced with the present hybrid nanofluid,
transmit heat.
resulting in more efficient and compact thermal structures.
The density has a proportionate relationship to volume
concentration and an inverse relationship with temperature,
Invent nanofluid with the highest thermal CNC (nanomaterial) distributed in a combination according to the results of the experiments. The specific heat
Thermal applications [68]
conductivity and specific heat capacity. of ethylene glycol and distilled water. capacity, on the other hand, has a proportionate relationship
with temperature and an inverse connection with
volume concentration.
To increase product quality and the cutting When CNC-based nanofluids are utilized, the total heat
CNC is dispersed in a combination of ethylene
Machining process cooling [69] equipment’s life, it is critical to reduce heat generated at the cutting tool and the temperature created at
glycol distilled water.
generated during machining. the chip when milling both improve dramatically.
Coolant handling and disposal costs are
The greatest temperature measurement achieved with MWF
considerable, and with the potential of harmful
Nanofluid made of ethylene glycol is 225 ◦ C, but the greatest temperature reading produced
Machining process cooling [70] materials, the disposal of spent coolant is a major
and nanocellulose. with nano-fluid is 154 ◦ C, reflecting a decreased temperature
issue, since it may have a negative impact on
distribution for the chip developed during milling.
the environment.
2.1. Improving the Generation of Clean Energy by Cooling Techniques to Reduce

Environmental Effects
Because of the increasing demand for energy and the excessive use of traditional
energy sources, this has led to an increase in environmental pollution due to emissions
from burning fuels. Cooling solar cells increases their potential to create clean energy and
use it as an alternative to traditional polluting energy sources.
Researchers provided an in-depth analysis of the design components of a concentrated
photovoltaic thermal, heat transfer medium and new application sectors in this paper. The
findings show that CPVT systems are a promising system for producing high amounts of
clean electrical and thermal energy that are in line with the seven sustainable development
goals by using this energy in a variety of thermal applications such as space heating and
cooling, desalination, electrical energy generation, greenhouses and so on [71–73]. Other
researchers compared the performance of a water-based photovoltaic system (thermal),
a PV/T system with PCM, an air-based PV/T system and a conventional PV panel in
different studies.
In comparison to alternative kinds of cooling, it was found that the efficiency of the
systems in producing energy depends on the type of material used, and all the arrangements
proved to be more important solutions for delivering superior thermal and electrical
efficiency systems (compared with the conventional system), thus serving as a promising
source as an alternative to fossil energy that gives rise to air pollution and an increased earth
temperature [48,74,75]. Some researchers focused on the increasing consumption of fossil
energy and the accompanying emissions and pollution as a result of urban transformation
and expansion of the construction and service sectors in developing countries in particular.
Accordingly, the researchers’ efforts focused on improving the performance of photovoltaic
cells, whose efficiency is affected by atmospheric conditions, to make them a suitable
substitute for the production of clean energy [76–80].
Researchers [3,81,82] looked at the energy-increasing and environmental impacts of
using nanofluids (NFs) in PVTS by measuring their physical and thermal properties. The
researchers discovered that dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fluid increases the
PVTS’ thermal and electrical performance, which improves the systems’ environmental
characteristics. In fact, a nano-fluid-based solar system may avoid the release of greenhouse
gases emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2 ), into the environment more effectively
than pure heat pumps by producing more energy. The performance of the integration of
the Kalina cycle with CPVT for a multi-generation and hydrogen production system was
investigated utilizing air and water as a cooling medium and three distinct mass flow rates.
According to the findings of these studies, electricity, hydrogen and hot air production were
increased. These kinds of systems would be used to minimize pollution in the environment
because the emissions will decrease significantly [83,84].
The steady increase in population numbers and the need to address the problem
of food insecurity in some countries made some researchers search for quick, effective
and environmentally friendly ways to dry food, as the drying process consumes energy
intensively, and the use of fossil energy in the drying process increases pollution. In these
cases, the focus was on improving the performance of solar energy systems to provide the
appropriate energy [85–87]. On the other hand, water is also a paramount necessity for
human life, and the need to provide for drinking water in water-poor countries requires
desalination since desalination consumes a large amount of energy. Some researchers have
developed ways to use solar energy when desalinating water as well as storing energy
for use when needed. This reduces the consumption of fossil energy and the emission of
gases [88,89].
2.2. Improving Solar Cells’ Low Efficiency

More than 50% of the solar radiation falling on PV cells turns into thermal energy
rather than electricity [90]. This may cause a harmful consequence, such as a significant
reduction in the efficiency of PV cells by approximately 0.45% per ◦ C [34,91,92], and
structural damage to the unit if heat stress persists for a long time [93]. In order to obtain
high efficiency for PV cells, it is necessary to maintain a low temperature as much as
possible, especially when using solar concentrators, which increase the temperature of
cells very much [94]. When the temperature of solar cells rises, the maximum power
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
output decreases (some photovoltaic cells, such as amorphous silicon and thin film cells,
are exempt from this requirement); see Figure 1 [95].
Figure 1.
Figure Effectof
1. Effect of temperature
temperature on
on the
the I–V
I–V characteristic.
characteristic.
Several ways
Several ways for
for cooling
cooling the the PVPV module,
module, suchsuch as as the
the PV/T air-heating manifold
PV/T air-heating manifold and and
water-cooled PV/T,
water-cooled PV/T,havehavebeen beenintroduced
introducedand andused.
used. The Theheatheattransfer
transferprocess
processfromfrom PV PV
modules should be improved; the operating temperature
modules should be improved; the operating temperature must be reduced to improve the must be reduced to improve
the system’s
system’s efficiency.
efficiency. A hybrid A hybrid
PV/T PV/T solar system
solar system is one method
is one method for cooling
for cooling the PV
the PV panels.
panels. It consists of a cooling system connected to a solar PV
It consists of a cooling system connected to a solar PV panel, so the hybrid model can panel, so the hybrid modelbe
can be considered as two different mechanisms, one providing electrical energy and the
considered as two different mechanisms, one providing electrical energy and the other
other producing heat (thermal energy), which is used to warm the cooling medium [96].
producing heat (thermal energy), which is used to warm the cooling medium [96]. It was
It was found that cooling PV panels with water increases the solar cell’s output power
found that cooling PV panels with water increases the solar cell’s output power by ap-
by approximately 50% approximately and keeps the surface temperature of the cell at an
proximately 50% approximately and keeps the surface temperature of the cell at an ac-
acceptable level [97].
ceptable level [97].
There is a lot of research that has studied the possibility of cooling photovoltaic cells
There is a lot of research that has studied the possibility of cooling photovoltaic cells
using different materials such as phase change materials (PCM), salts, oils, nanomaterials
using different materials such as phase change materials (PCM), salts, oils, nanomaterials
and metallic materials with different thermal conductivities. In the same line, many
and metallic materials with different thermal conductivities. In the same line, many re-
researchers have also focused on improving the performance of PV cells by cooling them
searchers have also focused on improving the performance of PV cells by cooling them
via traditional methods using air and water.
via traditional methods using air and water.
Because air is a less efficient coolant medium than water, water cooling functions at
Because air is a less
higher temperatures. It efficient
allows for coolant
more medium
efficient than
wastewater, water cooling
heat recovery functions
by utilizing at
it for
higher temperatures.
household water heating It allows
or airfor more efficient
conditioning. waste heat
A coolant recovery
is a liquid by utilizing
or gas that is usedit forto
household water heating or air conditioning. A coolant is a liquid
lower and regulate the system’s temperature. A good coolant has a high thermal capacity or gas that is used to
lower
and a and
low regulate
viscositythethat system’s temperature.
is inexpensive, A good
chemically coolant
inert, has a high
non-toxic and thermal
does notcapacity
corrode
and a low viscosity that is inexpensive, chemically inert,
the cooling system. In order to benefit from the thermal energy absorbed from non-toxic and does not corrode
the PV
the cooling
panels, theysystem.
are cooledIn order
and heat to benefit fromfrom
is extracted the thermal
them, which energy absorbed
is reflected onfrom
theirthe PV
overall
panels, they
efficiency andareincreases
cooled and theirheat is extracted
electrical from which
efficiency, them, which is reflected
is negatively on their
affected overall
by heat.
efficiency and increases their electrical efficiency, which is negatively
Researchers worked to address the effect of the efficiency of photovoltaic cells on affected by heat.
Researchers
temperature worked to
by working on address
cooling thethem effect of the efficiency
in different ways. Coolingof photovoltaic
by air wascells oneon of
temperature
the first and simplest methods used, which a group of researchers used in differentof
by working on cooling them in different ways. Cooling by air was one the
ways
first
and and simplestThe
conditions. methods
resultsused, which
indicated a groupperspective
a modest of researchers used thermal
because in different ways and
air capacity is
conditions.
low, but there Theare
results indicated
advantages toathe
modest
use of perspective
air, as it isbecause thermal
used directly in air capacitywithout
buildings is low,
but there are advantages to the use of air, as it is used directly in buildings without heat
exchange; the problems of fluid leakage are also not as critical when using air, and the
problems of corrosion and freezing do not exist [48,98,99]. Air’s thermal properties make
it less efficient as a coolant medium, so water cooling operates at higher temperature lev-
els and allows waste heat recovery to be more efficient because of its high thermal capac-
heat exchange; the problems of fluid leakage are also not as critical when using air, and
the problems of corrosion and freezing do not exist [48,98,99]. Air’s thermal properties
make it less efficient as a coolant medium, so water cooling operates at higher temperature
levels and allows waste heat recovery to be more efficient because of its high thermal
capacity, which encouraged a large number of researchers to use water in innovative and
multiple ways to cool photovoltaic cells. As a consequence, the final findings imply that
installing water-cooled PV panels is an appealing and realistic alternative for improving
short- and long-term efficiency, with a significant influence on the PVs’ power growth and
durability [41,46,100–102]. The development of using traditional materials (air and water)
as cooling materials in different ways and forms, and the possibility of obtaining different
amounts of energy according to the amount of coolant flow, led to an expansion in the use
of the resulting thermal energy according to the need for thermal applications [31,44].
As seen in Table 4 from the following research, the researchers add different nano-
materials to a base fluid in different quantities to determine the best concentration of
nanoparticles for their application. The results showed that nanofluids have higher con-
ductivity when the fluid density and viscosity increase slightly compared to the base fluid,
and the higher the nanomaterials’ percentage in the base liquid, the more thermal the
conductivity becomes.
Table 4. Using nanomaterials in thermal applications.
Materials Used Problem/Challenge Concentration Finding

The proposed combination is low-priced,
Add nano-carbon to
Energy shortage 1 wt% nano-carbon easy-to-prepare and accessible, lowering
KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2 O/Na2 SO4 ·10H2 O
the cost of an energy storage device [103].
The optical characteristics of these
solutions are shown to vary continuously
with an increasing concentration in
this investigation.
Dissolve KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2 O in Improving the optical 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1%, 0.125 and
Because the ultrasonic absorption
distilled water specifications of the water. 0.15 gm./mL
coefficient rises for the reason of
concentration, it may be employed as a
coating for moving bodies to detect using
ultrasonic technology [104,105].
The conductivity of
Improving the thermal
Coupled KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2 O KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2 O/GN compounds
conductivity of the 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%
with GN increases considerably as the GN
KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2 O.
concentration increased [106].
The results revealed that when
When the temperature of nanoparticles were introduced to water,
Use nano-(Al2 O3 , CuO and SiC)
solar cells rises, their 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4% thermal conductivity rose, and SiC
with water
efficiency falls. nanofluid had a higher stability than the
other nanofluids investigated [36].
The average amount of electrical energy of
Enhancing the PV/T overall nanofluid-based PVTS rises by 16.3, 24.6
Al2 O3 -water nanofluid 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3
efficiency of the system. and 17.1 percent for 0.05, 0.1 and
0.3 percent, respectively [107].
Enhancement of energy,
PVT/ZnO and PVT/TiO2 systems have
Al2 O3 , TiO2 and ZnO exergy and entropy
0.2 wt.% greater total energy and exergy efficiency
distributed in water generation compared to the
than other systems [108].
PV unit.
Because the nanofluid displays greater
Cellulose nanoparticles Low energy efficiency and thermal conductivity and viscosity at
Ethylene glycol low output temperature 0–1.3% elevated temperatures, it may be deduced
Water plague solar collectors. that it is suitable for use in a higher
temperature environment [58].
When compared to water-based PVTS, the
During the summer season,
electrical energy of Zn–water
Zn-water heat is retained inside the 0 to 0.5% wt.
nanofluid-based PVTS increased by
PV cells.
20% [109].
Table 4. Cont.
Materials Used Problem/Challenge Concentration Finding

PVTS using MWCNT and water had
about 0.14 and 3.67 percent greater TE and
EE than pure water. If you compare it to
PVT’s thermal performance fresh water, the findings of the
MWCNT/water 0 to 1% wt.
should be improved. experimental and numerical tests
indicated that using MWCNT/water
increases the overall power efficiency by
4.11 and 3.81 percent, respectively [110]
The NF volume proportion and the HTF
flow rate were varied between 0 and
PV electric generation
0.15 percent and 20–40 LPM, respectively.
decreases when the
GNP/water 0 to 0.15% volume fraction According to their findings, the PVTS’s
temperature of photovoltaic
overall efficiency improved by 14.1, 12.6
(PV) panels continues to rise.
and 10.9 percent at flow rates of 40, 30 and
20 LPM, respectively [111]
For the PV cell, evaluate the When nanoparticles are present, the
cooling performance using average temperature of the PV cell is
Boehmite water 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5 wt.%
water-based significantly lower than that of the base
Boehmite nanofluids. fluid [112].
So, examination of the performance of photovoltaic cells cooled with nanofluid im-
proves the heat transfer coefficient, PV power and PV efficiency and therefore improves
the overall efficiency of the system [34,42,47,90,113]. Other researchers have used the base
and nanofluids materials as spectral beam splitting cells by installing a layer of coolant
on the surface of the photovoltaic panel so that it cools it by absorbing excess heat and
filters solar radiation by allowing only visible radiation to reach the photovoltaic cell and
convert to electricity. They noticed that nanofluids were a good filter and water also has
the best qualities, and it is easily available to compare with glass filters; in addition, the
results demonstrated a considerable increase in the amount of energy generated by this
suggested system as well as an increase in overall efficiency [114–116].
Some researchers successfully developed tools to increase the performance of solar
cells by using concentrated solar energy to obtain the largest amount of solar radiation
that can be received from these cells. The increase in solar radiation is accompanied by an
increase in temperature, and thus cooling the cells is very important in these cases to avoid
damage and a sharp decline in their efficiency. Multi-junction solar cells are also chosen for
high concentration ratios due to their good performance at high operating temperatures.
The results showed that high sun radiation and the volume flow rate of the cooling fluid
have a significant influence on PVT performance, according to the research [43,117–119].
2.3. The Use of Cellulose Nano-Crystal (CNC) Nanofluids as Cooling Materials

Nanofluids are the most recent advancement in modern technology for enhancing the
performance of engineering equipment and machinery [120]. The nanomaterial is dispersed
with the basal fluid to prepare the nanofluids [121]. In general, chemical and physical
synthesis techniques are used to produce nanoparticles [122]. Unfortunately, scientists have
noted that the use of nanomaterials poses severe issues regarding toxicity and safety, partic-
ularly because the most-well-studied quantum dots (QDs) include hazardous components
including CdSe, CdTe and CdS [123]. So, nano cellulose has received increased attention in
recent years as a result of some of its significant qualities, including its biodegradability,
excellent mechanical capabilities, decreased density, abundance, and most importantly, an
eco-friendly aspect [124]. Nano cellulose can be considered an excellent material for the
development of high-performance nanocomposites.
CNCs have attracted the attention of business and academia due to their unique
qualities, which include their cheap cost, renewable resource extraction, minimal toxicity
and high mechanical properties. This made some researchers conduct studies to find out
the possibility of improving the thermophysical properties of cooling fluids by adding
crystal nano cellulose at various concentrations and temperatures to them and using these
materials in different applications. The results experimentally and theoretically indicate that
thermal conductivity increases as the CNC volume concentration and temperature increase,
so CNC is a promising material in industrial, electronic, and thermal applications [60,63,64].
Some researchers used experimental and one-dimensional modelling software to forecast
the performance characteristics and efficacy of cellulose nanoparticles integrated with
Ethylene Glycol as a coolant with varying percentages and compared it to pure water. The
results revealed that using nano cellulose with Ethylene Glycol for automobile radiator
applications had a higher thermal absorption effectiveness than using distilled water and
that the heat transfer coefficient of cellulose nanofluids increased as the radiator size grew,
so employing cellulose nanoparticles in conjunction with ethylene glycol as a coolant in
automotive radiators is acceptable and enhances the heat transfer efficiency [61,62].
Furthermore, nano cellulose and aluminum oxide hybrid nanofluids as a novel coolant
for car radiators was examined experimentally by Naiman et al. (2019). The thermal
conductivity of the resultant fluid improved significantly, and the thermal conductivity
of Al2 O3 /CNC composite nanofluids enhancement improved with the temperature and
volume concentration, according to the researchers [35].
Other researchers have been interested in incorporating nanocellulose with other
compounds to form nanocomposites and have studied their properties and investigated
their performance as a superior heat transfer nanofluid than base fluid coolant at various
concentrations and temperatures as depicted in Table 5. The incorporation of nano cellu-
lose has generally improved nanocomposites’ thermal and thermomechanical properties.
The hybrid nanofluids may be used to replace standard heat transfer fluids, resulting in
more efficient thermal structures. They also have good aqueous solubility in the base
liquid. [65–67]. Farhana et al. (2021) studied the addition of nanoparticles (Al2 O3 and CNC)
to the basic fluid of a solar collector and compared their effects on its thermal performance.
They came to the conclusion that flat plate solar collectors’ energy gains and thermal effi-
ciency had increased. For (0.5 percent) Al2 O3 , the greatest efficiency was approximately
(2.48 percent), while for (0.5 percent) CNC nanofluids, it was around (8.46%) [58].
Table 5. Nanocellulose in combination with other substances.
Added Nanomaterial Type Properties Finding
2 For 30 days, the examined nanofluids remained stable,

GNPs with characteristics of an 800 m /g specific surface
with no significant sedimentation. The findings of
area, 99.9% purity, 3 mm size and 1.5 µm diameter
Graphene nanoplatelets and CNC [67] GNPs/CNC nanofluids at a 0.1 percent volume
were employed.
concentration showed outstanding colloidal stability in
Volume concentrations (0.1% to 0.2%)
the base fluid of EG:W at a 60:40 ratio.
The mono Al2 O3 nanofluids outperformed the CNC and
The sizes of the smaller and larger particles are 50–90 nm
TiO2 nanofluids in terms of thermal conductivity
and 1–5 µm, respectively.
Al2 O3 , TiO2 and CNC [65] enhancement. The Al2 O3 /CNC hybrid nanofluids, on
Volume concentrations (0.1%, 0.5% and 0.9%)
the other hand, had better thermal conductivity than the
Temperatures ranging from 30 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C
other mono and hybrid nanofluids (Al2 O3 /TiO2 ).
With an increasing temp. and volume fraction, the
Al2 O3 /CNC composite nanofluids are Volume concentrations are 0.1%, 0.5% and 0.9%.
thermal conductivity of Al2 O3 /CNC composite
made in a 60:40 ratio [35] Temperatures ranging from 30 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C
nanofluids improves.
Nanoparticles’ average size is 13 nm with a
The rate of heat transfer rises as the flow rate of the
Al2 O3 /CNC distributed in a base mixture spherical shape.
coolant or working fluid in the radiator cooling
water to ethylene glycol (40:60) [61] CNC volume concentrations are 0.1%, 0.5%, 0.9%
system increases.
and 1.3%
Using 0.5% Al2 O3 and 0.5% CNC, The thermal conductivity of nanofluids rose, but
volume fractions viscosity decreased as the temperature climbed.
Al2 O3 and CNC [58]
are 0.1%, 0.3% and 0.5%. Nanofluids have the potential to improve the efficiency
CNC crystal diameter from 9 to 14 nm of flat-plate solar collectors.
It can be concluded that the nanofluid is applicable in a
Nano cellulose, ethylene glycol and It was carried out at temperatures of 30–70 ◦ C and higher temperature environment since the nanofluid
water [59] volume concentrations of up to 1.3 percent. exhibits enhanced thermal conductivity and viscosity at
the elevated temperature.
3. Summary and Evaluation

From the previous studies, it is clear that the use of PV cells has become one of the
best ways to produce clean electric power in recent years and to increase the production of
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1664 3. Summary and Evaluation 12 of 18

From the previous studies, it is clear that the use of PV cells has become one of the
best ways to produce clean electric power in recent years and to increase the production
of electricity
electricity while
while reducing
reducing thethe
costcost of solar
of solar systems
systems andand reducing
reducing the the
areaarea on which
on which the the
PV
PV panels are installed. Even though interest in renewable energy sources has
panels are installed. Even though interest in renewable energy sources has grown in recentgrown in
recent
decades,decades, solar energy’s
solar energy’s proportion
proportion of worldwide
of worldwide energyenergy
(power)(power)
outputoutput
remainsremains
below
below 2.5 percent [125], as shown
2.5 percent [125], as shown in Figure 2.in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Renewable energy shares of global electricity production.
The temperature
The temperature of of the PV cell
the PV cell rises
rises when
when the the radiation
radiation intensity
intensity is is high,
high, lowering
lowering itsits
efficiency and increasing the risk of damage. Therefore, it is necessary
efficiency and increasing the risk of damage. Therefore, it is necessary to cool these cells to cool these cells by
exposing
by exposing them to atocoolant
them medium
a coolant medium (coolant
(coolantsystem).
system).
After a thorough examination of the
After a thorough examination of the subject of subject of PV
PV cells and their
cells and their evolution
evolution overover the
the
previous decades, as well as previous studies that looked into different
previous decades, as well as previous studies that looked into different ways to improve ways to improve
the efficiency
the efficiency of PV systems
of PV systems andand different
different methods
methods and and materials
materials to cool them
to cool them soso that
that their
their
temperature does not exceed the required limit, water is one of the best materials used for
temperature does not exceed the required limit, water is one of the best materials used for
cooling because of its availability, easy storage, cheapness and the fact that it can be used in
cooling because of its availability, easy storage, cheapness and the fact that it can be used
relatively high pressures and temperatures and has a high thermal capacity.
in relatively high pressures and temperatures and has a high thermal capacity.
However, it is possible to work on improving water’s mechanical and thermal prop-
However, it is possible to work on improving water’s mechanical and thermal prop-
erties by adding nanomaterials to it, which will positively affect its performance. This
erties by adding nanomaterials to it, which will positively affect its performance. This also
also applies to other cooling materials so that their properties can be improved by adding
applies to other cooling materials so that their properties can be improved by adding cer-
certain materials to them or merging them with each other.
tain materials to them or merging them with each other.
There are many tools and materials used to get rid of unwanted heat in PV cells, and
There are many tools and materials used to get rid of unwanted heat in PV cells, and
in recent years, the focus has been on integrating nanomaterials in certain proportions
in recent years, the focus has been on integrating nanomaterials in certain proportions
with traditional cooling materials such as water to improve their thermal properties. The
with traditional cooling materials such as water to improve their thermal properties. The
use of nanomaterials in cooling depends on their availability, price and environmental
use of nanomaterials
friendliness. in cooling
Its efficiency depends on
by improving thetheir availability,
properties price liquids
of cooling and environmental
depends on
friendliness.
the size of itsIts efficiency bythe
components, improving
volume ratiothe properties of cooling
and its stability in theliquids
liquid,depends on the
in addition to
size of its components,
the temperature. the volume ratio and its stability in the liquid, in addition to the
temperature.
Cellulose nanocrystal (CNCs) are one of the promising materials in improving the
Cellulose
properties nanocrystal
of cooling (CNCs)
materials are be
that can oneused
of the promising
in PV materials
cells’ cooling, in improving
and this is reflectedthein
properties
the performanceof cooling
of it,materials that can
as this material be used in PV
is considered cells’ cooling,
a bio-material thatand this is reflected
is environmentally
in the performance
friendly, renewable,of it, as this material
sustainable, inexpensiveis considered
and has high a bio-material
mechanicalthat is environmen-
properties.
tally friendly, renewable, sustainable, inexpensive and has high mechanical properties.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S.H.H. and A.A.K.A.A.; methodology, S.S.H.H.; sata

curation, A.A.K.A.A.; formal analysis, A.A.K.A.A.; investigation, A.A.K.A.A.; software, A.A.K.A.A.;
visualization, A.A.K.A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.K.A.A.; writing—review and
editing, A.A.K.A.A., S.S.H.H., M.T.H.S., F.S.S. and A.U.M.S.; supervision, S.S.H.H.; project admin-
istration, S.S.H.H., M.T.H.S., F.S.S. and A.U.M.S.; resources, S.S.H.H.; validation, S.S.H.H.; funding
acquisition, S.S.H.H. and M.T.H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the BOLD Refresh Fund, UNITEN, Project ID: J510050002-
2021097). The APC was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, through the Funda-
mental Research Grant Scheme FGRS/1/2019/STG07/UPM/02/2, grant number 5540320.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Innovation & Research Management Centre
(IRMC), the Institute of Informatics and Computing in Energy (IICE), and the BOLD research Fund,
UNITEN, for their continued support of this work. The authors would also like to thank the
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia and the
Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP),
Universiti Putra Malaysia (HICOE) for their continued support of this work and the activities that
led to its development.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12101664 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials

Table 1. Photovoltaic cooling techniques.

Techniques Advantages Limitations

• Easy-to-use technology. • Has limited thermal capacities and requires a lot

• Overall efficiency has improved. • High start-up costs.

• The depth of submersion has an impact

• Heat fluxes that are extremely high. • High price.

Techniques Advantages Limitations

• Technology in its infancy.

Table 2. Cooling technique methods.

Cooling Technique Method/Paradigm Finding/Results

Cooling Technique Method/Paradigm Finding/Results

Table 3. Nanocellulose in thermal applications.

Application Challenge/Question Materials Used Finding/Results

Application Challenge/Question Materials Used Finding/Results

2.1. Improving the Generation of Clean Energy by Cooling Techniques to Reduce

2.2. Improving Solar Cells’ Low Efficiency

Table 4. Using nanomaterials in thermal applications.

Materials Used Problem/Challenge Concentration Finding

Materials Used Problem/Challenge Concentration Finding

2.3. The Use of Cellulose Nano-Crystal (CNC) Nanofluids as Cooling Materials

Table 5. Nanocellulose in combination with other substances.

Added Nanomaterial Type Properties Finding

2 For 30 days, the examined nanofluids remained stable,

3. Summary and Evaluation

Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1664 3. Summary and Evaluation 12 of 18

Figure 2. Renewable energy shares of global electricity production.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S.H.H. and A.A.K.A.A.; methodology, S.S.H.H.; sata

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