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QUESTIONING GENDER
Fourth Edition
QUESTIONING GENDER
A Sociological Exploration

Fourth Edition

Robyn Ryle

Hanover College

Los Angeles

London

New Delhi
 Singapore

Washington DC

Melbourne
 FOR INFORMATION:

SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Copyright © 2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

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 Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ryle, Robyn, author.

Title: Questioning gender : a sociological exploration / Robyn R. Ryle.

Description: Fourth Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE Publishing, 2020. | Revised edition of the author’s
Questioning gender, [2018]

Identifiers: LCCN 2020000912 | ISBN 9781544371351 (paperback) | ISBN 9781544371375 (epub) | ISBN
9781544371368 (epub) | ISBN 9781544371382 (pdf)

Subjects: LCSH: Sex role. | Sex (Psychology)—Social aspects. | Sex differences (Psychology)—Social
aspects. | Gender identity. | Sex discrimination.

Classification: LCC HQ1075 .R95 2020 | DDC 305.3—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020000912

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Acquisitions Editor: Joshua Perigo

Editorial Assistant: Sam Rosenberg

Production Editor: Megha Negi

Copy Editor: Mark Bast

Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.

Proofreader: Theresa Kay

Indexer: Integra

Cover Designer: Candice Harman

Marketing Manager: Will Walter

CONTENTS
Specific Areas of Interest
Preface to the Fourth Edition
About Questioning Gender
PART I. WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS TO
ASK ABOUT GENDER?
These first three chapters set up the basic foundations for an
exploration of gender. They introduce the main goals in learning
about gender, the basic theories that help us understand
gender, and the ways in which those theories are used
throughout the text.
Chapter 1 What Is Gender and Why Should We Care About
It? Introducing Gender
Swimming With the Fishes: Learning to See Gender
Gender and the Social Construction of Reality
Gender and Intersectionality
Sex or Gender? What’s the Difference?
A Biosocial Approach
A Strong Social Constructionist Approach
Gender and Bodies
Intersex and the Social Construction of Sex
Transgender People and the Social
Construction of Sex
Historical and Cross-Cultural Evidence
Sex or Gender?
A Word About Biology and Strong Social
Constructionism
Some Notes About Vocabulary
Why Study Gender?
Terms
Works Cited
Chapter 2 What’s the “Sociology” in the Sociology of
Gender? Understanding Sociology and Gender
 Why Do You Need Theory to Understand Gender?
Three Reasons to Learn Gender Theories
Gender in Sociology Before Feminism
Feminist Theories and Their Influence on Sociological
Thinking About Gender
The First Wave of the Feminist Movement
The Second Wave of the Feminist Movement
The Third Wave of the Feminist Movement
The Fourth Wave of the Feminist Movement
He for She: Men and Feminism
Sociological Theories of Gender
Gender and the Sociological Imagination
Sex Roles
Interactionist Theories
Sex Categorization
Doing Gender
Undoing or Redoing Gender?
Institutional or Structural Approaches
Gendered Organizations
Homophily: A Social Network Approach to Gender
Intersectional Feminist Theory
Putting It All Together: Integrative Theories
Hegemonic Masculinity
Conclusion
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 3 How Do Disciplines Outside Sociology Study
Gender? Some Additional Theoretical Approaches
Psychological Approaches to Gender
Sex Difference Research
To Research or Not to Research?
The Bottom Line on Sex Difference Research
Queer Theory
 Origins in the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement
Enter Postmodernism/Poststructuralism
Three Key Features of Queer Theory
Gender Theories in Global Perspective
The Colonial Period
The Development Project
What About Women?
Gender and Development
Ecofeminism and the Environment
How Do We Use Theory?
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
PART II. HOW ARE OUR LIVES FILLED WITH GENDER?
This section uses an interactional, micro-level approach to focus
on everyday aspects of gender. In this part of the book,
students begin to see the ways in which gender matters in their
daily lives and how that impact is socially constructed both
historically and globally.
Chapter 4 How Do We Learn Gender? Gender and
Socialization
Sorting It All Out: Gender Socialization and Intersex
Children
Genital Tubercles and Ambiguous Genitalia
What Can We Learn From the Stories of Intersex
People?
“Normal” Gender Socialization
Some Theories of Gender Socialization
Social Learning Theory
Sex-Typed Behaviors
Cognitive-Development Theory
Stages of Gender Socialization
Gender Schema Theory
What Is a Schema?
 Characteristics of Gender Schemas
Psychoanalytic Theory
The Gender of Ego Boundaries
The Early Years: Primary Socialization Into Gender
Primary Socialization
Gender-Neutral Preschools in Sweden
Doctors Teaching Gender: Intersex Socialization
Doctors and Gender Socialization
Coming Out as Intersex
The Importance of Peer Groups
Peer Groups and Gender Socialization
Varieties of Peer Culture
Learning Gender Never Ends: Secondary Socialization
Learning to Be American: Socialization Through
Immigration
Gender and Hybrid Identities
What Happens to Gender as We Age?
The Gender of Caregiving and Alzheimer’s
Summing Up
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 5 How Does Gender Matter for Whom We Want
and Desire? The Gender of Sexuality
Let’s Talk About Sex
Does Sexuality Have a Gender?
Heteronormativity and Compulsive Heterosexuality
A Brief History of Heterosexuality
The Invention of Heterosexuality
One Sex or Two?
Sexuality in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Mixing It Up: Sex Category, Gender, and
Sexuality
 Measuring Sexuality: What Is Sexual Identity?
Men as Sexual Subjects
Women as Sexual Objects
The Double Standard
Playing the Part? Sexual Scripts
Grinding and Sexual Scripts on the College Dance
Floor
Sexuality in Islamic Perspectives
Stabane and Sexuality in South Africa
Violating the Scripts
Men and Abstinence
Women at Female Strip Clubs
Bisexuality and the Bisexual Umbrella
Asexuality
Sexuality and Power: Hetero-privilege in Schools
Nationalism and Heteronormativity
Red = Top; Black = Bottom
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 6 How Does Gender Impact the People You Spend
Your Time With? The Gender of Friendship and Dating
Love, Inside and Outside the Family
Defining Friendship
My Friend Jane Versus My Friend Joe: Who’s Better at
Being Friends?
Friendship in Historical Perspective
Gender Differences in Friendship
Face-to-Face and Side-by-Side
Friendship and Social Structure
Child-Rearing, Social Networks, and Friendship
Gender Similarities in Friendship: Are Women and
Men Really All That Different?
 Are Our Friendships Really All That Different?
The Intersectionality of Friendship and Gender
Friendship in Global Perspective
Choosing Your Friends
Families of Choice
The Rules of Attraction
Courtship to Dating: A Brief History
Hookups and Friends With Benefits
Romantic Love in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Love Without Gender
Summing Up
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 7 How Does Gender Matter for How We Think
About Our Bodies? The Gender of Bodies and Health
A Brief History of Bodies
The Beauty Myth
Beauty and Gender Inequality
Exporting the Beauty Myth
The Problem With Bodies
Eyelids and Empowerment: Cosmetic Surgery
Race and the Beauty Myth
What Is Cosmetic Surgery?
Is Beauty Power?
Men and Body Image
The Importance of Being Tall
Masculinity, Puberty, and Embodiment
Gender and Health: Risky Masculinity and the
Superman
Is Masculinity Bad for Your Health?
Dangerous Masculinity in Palestine
Masculinity, Health, and Race
 Women, Doctors, Midwives, and Hormones
The Gender of PMS
Menopause in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Eugenics, Sterilization, and Population Control
Throwing Like a Girl
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
PART III. HOW IS GENDER AN IMPORTANT PART OF
THE WAY OUR SOCIETY WORKS?
This portion of the text focuses on how gender permeates
various institutions in society. Working at the institutional, macro
level, these chapters are concerned with how gender operates
as a system of power and reinforces inequality.
Chapter 8 How Does Gender Impact the People We Live
Our Lives With? The Gender of Marriage and Families
Something Old, Something New
A Brief History of Marriage
Antony and Cleopatra: The Real Story
So What Is Marriage, Then?
The Demographics of Marriage
All the Single Ladies
The Marriage Squeeze
Race and the Marriage Squeeze
Transnational Marriage
Who Does What? The Gendered Division of Labor
The Sexual Division of Labor and Gender
Inequality
Transgender Families and the Division of Labor
The Doctrine of Separate Spheres
Modern Marriage
Gender and the Doctrine of Separate Spheres
Separate Spheres in Global Perspective
 Transnational Motherhood
Transnational Fatherhood
The Division of Household Labor
The Second Shift
Gay and Lesbian Households
Power and the Household Division of Labor
Families in Transition
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 9 How Does Gender Affect the Type of Work We
Do and the Rewards We Receive for Our Work? The Gender
of Work
What Is Work?
Measuring the World’s Work
A Man’s Job: Masculinity and Work
When Men Can’t Work
Men in Predominantly Female Occupations
The Glass Ceiling and the Glass Escalator
Sex Segregation in the Workplace
Gender and Dangerous Work: Protective Labor
Laws
The Anatomy of Sex Segregation
#MeToo, Sexual Harassment, and Sex Segregation
The Wage Gap: Why Sex Segregation Matters
Making Connections: Sex Segregation and the
Gender Wage Gap
Explaining Sex Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap
Socialization as an Explanation for Sex Segregation
Human Capital Theory
Gendered Organizations
Trans Men at Work
 Comparable Worth and Other Solutions to the Gender
Wage Gap
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 10 How Does Gender Affect What You Watch,
What You Read, and What You Play? The Gender of Media
and Popular Culture
The Media: An Interesting Institution
Behind the Scenes: The Gender of Media
Organizations
Women Making Movies
The Bechdel Test
Gender and the History of Screenwriting
Gender, Advertising, and the Commodification of
Gender
Media Power Theory: We’re All Sheep
Audience Power Theory: Power to the People
Transgender in the Media
Gender, Sexuality, and Slash Fiction
Super Girl Fan Fiction in China
The Struggle Over Images
Harems and Terrorists: Depictions of Arabs in the
Media
Beware of Black Men: Race, Gender, and the Local
News
Homer and Ralph: White, Working-Class Men on
TV
Sexuality in the Media
Sexuality and Subculture
Disney, Cinderella, and Genderbent
Masculinity and Video Games: Learning the Three Rs
The Gender of Leisure
 Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Chapter 11 How Does Gender Help Determine Who Has
Power and Who Doesn’t? The Gender of Politics and Power
Power: Good and Bad
Masculinity and Power
Who Really Has the Power? Hegemonic Masculinity
Coercive Power
The Geography of Fear
Sexual Assault on Campus
Violent Intersections: The Gender of Human
Trafficking
Gender Rights and Human Rights?
Hijab and Ethnocentrism
Institutional Power: Defining Gender
Men and Women in Office
The Smoke-Filled Room: Descriptive
Representation
Strangers in the Halls of Power: Substantive
Representation
Gendered Leadership Styles
Symbolic Violence
Big Questions
Gender Exercises
What Can You Do? Resources for Social Change
Terms
Suggested Readings
Works Cited
Glossary
Index
About the Author
SPECIFIC AREAS OF INTEREST
FEMINIST THEORY
Chapter 2

Pp. 19–30: “Gender in Sociology Before Feminism”

Chapter 3

Pp. 84–88: “Ecofeminism and the Environment” to “How Do

We Use Theory?”

Chapter 7

Pp. 240–243: “The Beauty Myth” to “Beauty and Gender

Inequality”

Chapter 8

Pp. 308–322: “The Sexual Division of Labor and Gender

Inequality” to “The Doctrine of Separate Spheres”

Chapter 9

Pp. 389–391: “Comparable Worth and Other Solutions to the

Gender Wage Gap” to “Big Questions”
Chapter 11

Pp. 451–456: “Coercive Power” to “The Geography of Fear”

BEING INTERSEX
Chapter 4

Pp. 98–117: “Sorting It All Out: Gender Socialization and

Intersex Children” to “Some Theories of Gender Socialization”

P. 105: “Cultural Artifact 4.2: Transgender Kids”

Pp. 123–131: “Doctors Teaching Gender: Intersex

Socialization” to “The Importance of Peer Groups”

Chapter 11

Pp. 485: “Big Questions”

BEING TRANSGENDER
Chapter 6

P. 214: “Cultural Artifact 6.2: Swiping Right: Tinder, Online

Dating, and Gender Fluidity”

Chapter 8

Pp. 309–322: “Transgender Families and the Division of Labor” to

“The Doctrine of Separate Spheres”

Chapter 9

Pp. 386–389: “Trans Men at Work” to “Comparable Worth”

Chapter 10

Pp. 416–421: “Transgender in the Media” to “Gender,

Sexuality, and Slash Fiction”
THE INDIVIDUAL APPROACH
Chapter 2

Pp. 38: “Sex Roles” to “Interactionist Theories”

Chapter 3

Pp. 64–79: “Psychological Approaches to Gender” to “Queer

Theory”

Chapter 4

Pp. 108–134: “Social Learning Theory” to “The Early Years:

Primary Socialization Into Gender”

Chapter 9

Pp. 378–386: “Socialization as an Explanation for Sex

Segregation” to “Gendered Organizations”
THE INTERACTIONIST APPROACH
Chapter 2

Pp. 31–44: “Interactionist Theories” to “Institutional or

Structural Approaches”

Chapter 4

Pp. 127–137: “The Importance of Peer Groups” to “Learning

Gender Never Ends: Secondary Socialization”
THE INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH
Chapter 2

Pp. 39–50: “Institutional or Structural Approaches” to

“Intersectional Feminist Theory”

Chapter 9

Pp. 383–389: “Gendered Organizations” to “Trans Men at

Work”

Chapter 10

Pp. 403–416: “Behind the Scenes: The Gender of Media

Organizations” to “Media Power Theory: We’re All Sheep”

Chapter 11

Pp. 457–465: “Sexual Assault on Campus” to “Violent

Intersections: The Gender of Human Trafficking”
INTERSECTIONALITY
Chapter 2

Pp. 45–53: “Intersectional Feminist Theory” to “Putting It All

Together: Integrative Theories”

Chapter 4

Pp. 135–139: “Learning to Be American: Socialization Through

Immigration” to “What Happens to Gender as We Age?”

Chapter 6

Pp. 206–212: “The Intersectionality of Friendship and Gender”

to “Friendship in Global Perspective”

Chapter 7

Pp. 247–253: “Eyelids and Empowerment: Cosmetic Surgery”

to “Is Beauty Power?”

Pp. 262–269: “Dangerous Masculinity in Palestine” to

“Women, Doctors, Midwives, and Hormones”

Pp. 275–280: “Eugenics, Sterilization, and Population Control”

to “Throwing Like a Girl”
Chapter 8

Pp. 301–306: “Race and the Marriage Squeeze” to

“Transnational Marriage”

Pp. 327–332: “Gay and Lesbian Households” to “Power and

the Household Division of Labor”

Chapter 9

Pp. 355–359: “When Men Can’t Work” to “Men in

Predominantly Female Occupations”

Chapter 10

Pp. 422–431: “Harems and Terrorists: Depictions of Arabs in

the Media” to “Sexuality in the Media”
MASCULINITY
Chapter 5

Pp. 160–164: “Men as Sexual Subjects” to “Women as Sexual

Objects”

Pp. 170–174: “Men and Abstinence” to “Women at Female

Strip Clubs”

Chapter 7

Pp. 253–269: “Men and Body Image” to “Women, Doctors,

Midwives, and Hormones”

Chapter 8

Pp. 321–327: “Transnational Fatherhood” to “The Second

Shift”

Chapter 9

Pp. 351–361: “A Man’s Job: Masculinity and Work” to “The

Glass Ceiling and the Glass Escalator”

Chapter 10
 Pp. 423–431: “Beware of Black Men: Race, Gender, and the
Local News” to “Sexuality in the Media”

Pp. 431–438: “Masculinity and Video Games: Learning the

Three Rs” to “The Gender of Leisure”

Chapter 11

Pp. 446–465: “Masculinity and Power” to “Coercive Power”

GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Chapter 3

Pp. 79–85: “Gender Theories in Global Perspective” to

“Ecofeminism and the Environment”

Chapter 4

Pp. 119–124: “Gender-Neutral Preschools in Sweden” to

“Doctors Teaching Gender: Intersex Socialization”

Chapter 5

Pp. 156–165: “Sexuality in Cross-Cultural Perspective” to

“Measuring Sexuality: What Is Sexual Identity?”

Pp. 166–178: “Sexuality in Islamic Perspectives” to “Violating

the Scripts”

Pp. 180–184: “Nationalism and Heteronormativity” to “Red =

Top; Black = Bottom”

Chapter 6

Pp. 208–212: “Friendship in Global Perspective” to “Families

of Choice”
 Pp. 212–219: “The Rules of Attraction” to “Courtship to
Dating: A Brief History”

Pp. 224–229: “Romantic Love in Cross-Cultural Perspective” to

“Love Without Gender”

Chapter 7

Pp. 244–247: “Exporting the Beauty Myth” to “The Problem

With Bodies”

Pp. 262–266: “Dangerous Masculinity in Palestine” to

“Masculinity, Health, and Race”

Pp. 271–278: “Menopause in Cross-Cultural Perspective” to

“Eugenics, Sterilization, and Population Control”

Chapter 8

Pp. 303–312: “Transnational Marriage” to “Who Does What?

The Gendered Division of Labor”

Pp. 318–332: “Separate Spheres in Global Perspective” to

“The Division of Household Labor”

Chapter 9

Pp. 346–359: “What Is Work?” to “A Man’s Job: Masculinity

and Work”

Chapter 11
Pp. 462–465: “Violent Intersections: The Gender of Human
Trafficking” to “Gender Rights and Human Rights?”

Pp. 466–485: “Hijab and Ethnocentrism” to “Institutional

Power: Nations and Gender”
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH
EDITION
NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The following features are new to the fourth edition:
New Theory Tables
New tables have been included to help students organize and make
sense of gender theories.
More Data Tables and Graphics
More tables and graphics have been included, demonstrating the
latest research and statistics on gender.
Updated Cultural Artifact Boxes
Cultural Artifact boxes have been brought up to date with more
contemporary material.
New Research on Gender and Biology
Expanded discussion in Chapter 1 of new research on the complex,
interactional relationship between biology and gender.
New Discussion of Fourth-Wave Feminism, the
#MeToo Movement, and Sexual Harassment in
the Workplace
Chapter 2 includes updated discussions of fourth-wave feminism
featuring the Women’s March in 2016 and the #MeToo movement.
Chapter 9 includes new research on the effects of sexual harassment
on occupational segregation and the gender wage gap, as well as a
breakdown of policies by the 2020 presidential candidates to address
the gender wage gap.
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