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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

THE MINISTRY COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT GENDER, WOMEN

AND SPECIAL GROUPS

TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATE IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

(NTA LEVEL 5)

CDT05108 Module: COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

Notes for community psychology.

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THE BASIC CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology; is the study of mind and behavior according to the American Psychological
Association. It encompasses or comprises biological influences, social pressures and
environmental factors that affect how people think, act and feel.
Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and behavior
in different contexts. In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data
systematically.
Etymologically psychology means the science of the soul.
 Psyche’ mean ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘science.’
The earlier psychologists maintained that the function of psychology was to study the nature,
origin and the destiny of the human soul.
Modern psychologists, however, doubt the existence of the soul since there is no empirical
evidence for its existence.
Many of the earlier psychologists, however, believed in the existence of the mind.
Some contemporary psychologists also believe in the existence of the mind.
 Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain, related to cognition.
 We use mental processes when we think or remember something, or solve a problem.
 However, these mental activities are -different from neural activities, though they are
mutually overlapping processes.
 Mental processes include reasoning, learning, thinking, problem solving and others.
 Experiences: can be defined as the learning acquired through everyday life situation.
 Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual.
 We cannot directly observe or know someone’s experience.
Only the experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his or her experiences. Thus,
experiences are imbedded in our awareness or consciousness.
Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiences.
The nature of the experience can only be understood by analyzing a complex set of internal and
external conditions.
 Experiences are important because most of our learning is based on experiences.
 Behaviors are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. E.g. one can feel
the heart pounding before taking an examination.
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 Some behaviors such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or enduring. (iii) On
the other hand, some behaviors can be outwardly seen or sensed and are called overt, for
example laughing.
 All behaviors can be explained on the basis of S-R (Stimulus Response Relations). :

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
A group of psychologists having similar point of views and making similar approaches to study
the human mind or behavior constitutes a school of thought in psychology.
There are several schools of psychology and each has developed some systems of ideas which
not only influenced the development of various trends and approaches for the study of behavior
but also affected the process and product of education.
The important schools of psychology are

i. Structuralism

ii. Functionalism

iii. Behaviorism

iv. Psychoanalysis
v. Gestalt psychology

STRUCTURALISM
Widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook focused on breaking
down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers associated with
structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
Wilhelm Wundt a German psychologist was the father of Structuralism

The focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic
elements. The structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes
of the human mind. Examples of mental processes or inner processes include: sensation, feelings,
emotions, memory attention, thought
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The introspective experimental technique used by the structuralists involved having trained
observers examine their inner responses. Using this approach, also known as experimental self-
observation, experimenters like Wundt trained people to analyze their thoughts as carefully and
objectively as possible.
The mind is the sum total of various mental experiences (thoughts feelings experiences pain joy,
sorrow etc.) and the consciousness is the sum total of mental experiences at a given time.
There are no causal relationship between mind and body. But they are parallel to each other in
such a way that for every event in consciousness there is a corresponding event in the body.

Functionalism; Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of

thought and was heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's
functions and adaptations.
Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were interested in
the role that these processes play.

In a functionalist approach, for example, instead of trying to understand the underlying processes
that cause mental states, the focus would be on understanding the function that those states serve.
Gaining a better understanding of the purpose would allow psychologists to better understand
how the mind allows people to respond and adapt to their environments.

The functionalist school was interested in the purpose of thoughts and behaviors, whereas
structuralism was concerned with the elements that make up consciousness. While functionalism
largely disappeared as a school of thought, its influence persisted in applied psychology,
behaviorism, and educational psychology.1
Basic psychological processes or mental processes
A psychological process is a series of steps or mechanisms that occur in a regular way not
necessarily a deterministic one to attain changes in behavior, emotion and others.
Psychological processes are a way to explain changes in the behavior of individual organisms
and are formulated a series of organized changes in the state of that organism and its
environment.
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Sensation. Is the process that allows our brain to take in information via our five senses which
can be experienced and interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs through our five sensory
systems: eyes (vision), ears (hearing), skin (touch), tongue(taste) and nose(smell).

Perception .is responsible for us having an image of the reality that surrounds us.
Also, it is responsible for organizing and giving the meaning sensory stimulus or receptors, also
helps us to be aware of the environment are round us to move and interact.
Learning. Means modification and acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills, behaviors and
others. Learning also helps us to relate our behaviors with their consequences.
Language; the human being is the social being that’s why language is such an important
process. It gives us the ability to communicate with others. This in case of humans is carried out
through a complex symbolic code or language us to accurately describe almost anything be it the
past, present or the future. The usefulness this process comes from our need to maintain complex
social relationships that allow us to survive in hostile environment.
Thought; This the complex process that psychology defines as the process in charge of
transforming information to organize it and give it meaning.
Attention. It focuses our resources on series of stimuli while ignoring the rest. We receive a
large number of stimuli all at once and we cannot attend to all at the same time.
Memory. It allows us to encode information for future storage and retrieval. This is an essential
process and closely related to all other processes.
Memory exists because it is really useful to have information about our past experiences at our
disposal. This allows us to make guesses about the future and act o them.
Motivation; it is responsible for providing the body with resources to perform behavior. it is the
process in charge of activating the body and putting in the ideal state. Another important aspect
of motivation is direction. The function of motivation is to get individual to direct their behavior
toward their goals and objectives.
Emotion; are reactions to external stimulus. They allow us guide our behavior and act quickly in
response to demands of our environment.
Behaviorism theory
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Behavior is becoming a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the
work of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner.
Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Examples of behavioral theories
that emerged during this time include:

 Classical conditioning: This is a type of learning that involves associating a previously

neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. For
example, pairing the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. After an association is
formed, the previously neutral stimulus will produce the same response as the natural
stimulus.
 Operant conditioning: This type of learning involves using rewards and punishments to
create an association between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists
believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.1

In simple terms, according to this school of thought, also known as behavioral psychology,
behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner regardless of internal mental
states.2 Behavioral theory also says that only observable behavior should be studied,
as cognition, emotions, and mood are far too subjective.

Strict behaviorists believe that any person—regardless of genetic background, personality traits,
and internal thoughts— can be trained to perform any task, within the limits of their physical
capabilities. It only requires the right conditioning.

What is conditioning: is the process of training or accustoming a person or animal to behave in a

certain way or to accept certain circumstances.

Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of

learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

This behavioral approach says that when a desirable result follows an action, the behavior
becomes more likely to happen again in the future. Conversely, responses followed by adverse
outcomes become less likely to reoccur.

Consequences Affect Learning

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner as an American psychologist described operant conditioning as the

process in which learning can occur through reinforcement and punishment. More specifically:
By forming an association between a certain behavior and the consequences of that behavior,
you learn.

B.F Skinner focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

For example, if a parent rewards their child with praise every time they pick up their toys, the
desired behavior is consistently reinforced and the child will become more likely to clean up
messes.

WHAT IS REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is anything that strengthens or increases a behavior. 3 In a classroom setting, for
example, types of reinforcement might include giving praise, letting students out of unwanted
work, or providing token rewards, candy, extra playtime, or fun activities.
Types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement: refers to the introduction of desirable or pleasant stimuli after the
performance of a behavior. This reward can be used to further encourage that behavior, or
change a pre-existing one.
Also can defined as something is added to increase the likelihood of the behavior
Negative reinforcement: something is removed to increase the likelihood of the behavior
Punishment: Means decreasing behavior
Positive punishment: something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior
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An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in
class.
Negative punishment: something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior
you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a
parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to
decrease the behavior.

Classical conditioning
It is the theory proposed by Ivan Pavlov a Russian psychologist.
Is a process that involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a
previous neutral one. Classical conditioning process involves pairing a previously neutral
stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).
This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the
food which is known as the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral stimulus and
the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response.
The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to
the bell is known as the conditioned response
What is a stimulus refer as something or anything that cause something to happen or to develop
or to become more active. It can be external or internal factors
Or something that causes reaction or activity or growth
What is response means reaction of something or an event.
Or is the behavior that is manifested by a living organism which is the result of an external or
internal stimulus

Psychodynamic theory or psychosexual theory

Psychodynamic theory (sometimes called psychoanalytic theory or psychosexual theory)
explains personality in terms of unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and
fears of which we’re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in
shaping adult personality.
Psychodynamic theory is most closely associated with the work of Sigmund Freud, and with
psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy that attempts to explore the patient’s unconscious
thoughts and emotions so that the person is better able to understand him- or herself.
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Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result
of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.
This theory, known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role
of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality.
Dynamic interactions among these fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through
five distinct psychosexual stages of development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas
have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main
driver of human personality development
Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind
According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as
the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among
these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,”
determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given
situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral
tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal
control over those drives.
The Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic
physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For
example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice
cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone
else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.
The Superego
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their”
conscience” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child learns what their culture considers
right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice
cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your
superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over
your actions.
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The Ego
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of
our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s
what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the demands of the id and
superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream
one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I want that ice cream right
now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your
own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate
your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire
for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality
and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He
believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this
system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy
behaviors.
Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego change over time
as a person grows from child to adult. Specifically, he maintained that these conflicts progress
through a series of five basic stages, each with a different focus: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of development, with each psychosexual
stage directly related to a different physical center of pleasure.
Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts between their biological
drives (id) and their social and moral conscience (supereg0) because their biological pleasure-
seeking urges focus on different areas of the body (what Freud called “erogenous zones”). The
child’s ability to resolve these internal conflicts determines their future ability to cope and
function as an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that stage,
leading to unhealthy personality traits; successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.
Psychosexual development stages

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
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During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the
child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training the child has to
learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment
and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this
stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents
take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could
develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
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Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to
describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully
resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This
energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and
self-confidence.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier
stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during
this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
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If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego
were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which
demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the
need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
Moral behavior
Moral reasoning refers as the process I which individual tries to determine the difference
between what is right and what is wrong.

Cognitive school of thought (cognitive theory).is the school of psychology that studies mental
processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field
of cognitive science this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines as neuroscience,
philosophy and linguistics. Cognitive psychology emerged during the v1950, partly as a response
to behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes impacted behavior.
Example of theories that grew out of the cognitive school of thought includes:
Stages of cognitive development: a theory proposed by jean piaget, which suggested that
children go through a series of progressive stages of intellectual development.
Social cultural theory: this theory introduced by lev vygotsky, looked at how the interaction of
cultural and social factors contributed to cognitive development.
Information processing theory: This theory suggests that the mind functions much like a
computer and interpret information about the world
BRANCHES OF PSCHOLOGY
There are different types or branches of psychology that serve different purposes. There is no
fixed way of classifying them, but here are some common types.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental processes
means all things that go on inside the brain this include as perception, motivation, emotion,
language, learning, memory, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving.
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Clinical psychology; is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment
of mental illness, abnormal behavior and psychiatric problems. This field integrates the science
of psychology with treatment of complex human problems, making an exciting career choice for
people who are looking to work in challenging and rewarding field.

Developmental Psychology; Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and

grow throughout the entire lifespan. The scientific study of human development seeks to
understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. Developmental
psychologists often study things such as physical growth, intellectual development, emotional
changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the course of the lifespan.
These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric
development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays. This field covers a
huge range of topics including everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease
Counseling psychology.
it deals with a wide range of mental health problems concerning life issues including
bereavement, domestic violence, sexual abuse, traumas and relationship issues. They understand
diagnosis and the medical context to mental health problems and work with the individuals
unique subjective psychological experience to empower recovery and alleviate distress.

Biopsychology; is a branch of psychology is focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous
system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This field draws on many different
disciplines including basic psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology, cognitive
psychology, and neuroscience.

Sports psychology; deals on how psychology influence sports, athletics performance, exercise
and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to
improve performance and increase motivation. Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to
enhance people’s lives and well-being throughout the entire lifespan.

Comparative psychology; is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animals’
behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to deeper and understanding of human
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psychology. This area has its roots in the work of researchers such as Charles Darwin and
Georges Romans and has growth into a highly multi displinary subject.

Cross- Cultural psychology; is the branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors
influence human behavior. The international Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP)
was established in 1972 and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since
that time. Today increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs various
cultures throughout the world.

Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and
social factors influence health and illness. Other terms including medical psychology and
behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably with the term health psychology. The
field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment
of disease and illness.

Experimental Psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to

research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in
psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to social issues.
Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including colleges, universities,
research centers, government and private businesses.

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching

psychology, educational issues and student concerns. educational psychologists often study how
students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to improve
student outcomes. they might study how different variables influence individual student
outcomes. They also study topics such as learning disabilities, giftedness, the instructional
process, and individual differences.

Personality psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the thought
patterns, feelings, and behaviors that make each individual unique. Classic theories of
personality include Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. Personality psychologists might study how different factors such as
genetics, parenting, and social experiences influence how personality develops and changes.
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Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch that applies psychological principles to

research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. This field of psychology often
referred to as I-O psychology, works to improve productivity and efficiency in the workplace
while also maximizing the well-being of employees. Research in I-O psychology is known
as applied research because it seeks to solve real-world problems. I-O psychologists study topics
such as worker attitudes, employee behaviors, organizational processes, and leadership.

Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics
including group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social
influences on decision-making.
This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior, social
perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. Social influences on
behavior are a major interest in social psychology, but social psychologists are also focused on
how people perceive and interact with others.

Forensic Psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law.
Those who work in this field of psychology apply psychological principles to legal issues. This
may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments or working directly in the court system.
Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court
cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony
and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.

Community Psychology; is the branch of psychology concerned with person environment

interactions and the ways society affects individual and community functioning.
It can be defined as a branch of psychology that involves the study of how individuals relate to
their communities and the reciprocal effect of communities on individuals. Researching
unpleasant, undesirable, or problem situations in a community allows these psychologists to
uncover ways to make improvements.

Community psychology focuses on social issues, social institutions, and other settings
that influence individuals, groups, and organizations. Community psychology as a
science seeks to understand relationships between environmental conditions and the
development of health and well-being of all members of a community. The practice of
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community psychology is directed towards the design and evaluation of ways to

facilitate psychological competence and empowerment, prevent disorder, and promote
constructive social change. The goal is to optimize the well-being of individuals and
communities with innovative and alternative interventions designed in collaboration
with affected community members and with other related disciplines inside and outside
of psychology

Community; is a small or large social unit (a group of living things) that has something in
common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity. Communities often share a sense of place
that is situated in a given geographical area (for example. a country, village, town, or
neighborhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms’

Community development; refers to a process of strengthening a community human, economic

and environmental resources with the goal of creating a ‘hearth’ or ‘competent’ community
OR

Community Psychology; is the branch of psychology concerned with person environment

interactions and the ways society affects individual and community functioning.
It can be defined as a branch of psychology that involves the study of how individuals relate to
their communities and the reciprocal effect of communities on individuals. Researching
unpleasant, undesirable, or problem situations in a community allows these psychologists to
uncover ways to make improvements.

Community psychology focuses on social issues, social institutions, and other settings
that influence individuals, groups, and organizations. Community psychology as a
science seeks to understand relationships between environmental conditions and the
development of health and well-being of all members of a community. The practice of
community psychology is directed towards the design and evaluation of ways to
facilitate psychological competence and empowerment, prevent disorder, and promote
constructive social change. The goal is to optimize the well-being of individuals and
communities with innovative and alternative interventions designed in collaboration
with affected community members and with other related disciplines inside and outside
of psychology.
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Social order is a fundamental concept in sociology that refers to the way in which the various
components of society—social structures and institutions, social relations, social interactions
and behavior, and cultural features such as norms, beliefs, and values—work together to
maintain the status quo.

Sense of community is a concept in community psychology, social psychology, and community

social work, as well as in several other research disciplines, such as urban sociology, which
focuses on the experience of community rather than its structure, formation, setting, or other
features.
HISTORY OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY.
SWAMPSCOTT CONFERENCE
Community psychology was established in1960s in response to the limitations of psychology in
solving social problems. Community psychology was stimulated by the community mental
health movement. Among of member who attended in Swampscott conference was James Kelly
(1966).

The Swampscott Conference is considered the birthplace of community psychology.

Community psychologist or a social change agent refers as any person who involve in different
activities that improve the lives of individuals and communities locally and around the world. In
other word a social change agent can include any one who gives and advocates.

Characteristics (qualities) of community psychologists

 Impeccable communication skills

 Identifying with members of the society

 Ability to embrace diversity.

 Risk taker

 Compassion
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Community psychologists seek to create positive social change within a social structure. They
can achieve this through either first order change and second order change.

In general, there are a couple ways to change a community problem:

 First-order change involves changing the individuals themselves. Treating each

individual’s substance abuse problem, for instance.

 Second-order change involves researching and changing a system or structure, more or

less to help prevent problems before they start. In conjunction with the first example, this
may involve researching and understanding why so many community members are
abusing drugs or alcohol and working toward preventing it

Community psychologists seek to understand the quality of life of individuals within the groups,
organizations, institutions, communities and society. Their aim is to enhance quality of live
through collaborative research and action.
HISTORY OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY.
SWAMPSCOTT CONFERENCE
Community psychology was established in1960s in response to the limitations of psychology in
solving social problems. Community psychology was stimulated by the community mental
health movement. Among of member who attended in Swampscott conference was James Kelly
(1966).
The Swampscott Conference is considered the birthplace of community psychology.
Principles of community psychology
Community psychology has an identifiable set of principles that both define and guide the field

 Person wellness and access to resources

 Social justice and freedom from oppression

 A sense of community and connectedness

 Multiple dimensions of diversity eg gender, ethnicity, and disability)

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 Community collaboration, participation, self-determination and empowerment

The core values of community psychology.

 Prevention

 Social justices

 Ecological perspective

 Respect for diversity

 Active citizen participation

 Grounding in research and evaluation

 Interdisciplinary collaboration

 A sense of community

 Empowerment

 Policy

 Promoting wellness.
Roles or functions of community psychology
Due to the nature of this profession, people who work in this field often perform a range of
duties and take on a number of different roles.
 Researching problems within a community and assessing individual needs
 Finding ways to help disadvantaged or disenfranchised individuals feel more connected
with their local communities
 Understanding social issues among minority groups
 Developing, implementing and evaluating action –oriented community-based programs
 Building relationships between individuals and community groups
 Evaluate organizations, governments, and communities in order to promote participation
and diversity.
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

Social dominance theory is a multi - level theory of how societies maintain group - based
dominance. Nearly all stable societies can be considered group - based dominance hierarchies, in
which one social group – often an ethnic, religious, national, or racial one – holds
disproportionate power and enjoys special privileges, and at least one other group has relatively
little political power or ease in its way of life.
As examples, consider the relationship between contemporary Western European nations and
their immigrant groups and Roma, between the ruling elites of South America and their
indigenous peoples, or between Jewish Israelis and Palestinians. In all cases, the economic,
educational, and health outcomes are superior for members of the dominant groups from what
they are for members of the subordinate groups.
Social dominance theory describes how processes at different levels of social organization, from
cultural ideologies and institutional discrimination to gender roles and the psychology of
prejudice, work together to produce stable group - based inequality.

Social dominance theory states that stable inequality among groups is maintained in part
through the use of disproportionate force against subordinate groups. For example, as part of its
“war on terror, ” the United States has subjected foreign nationals to conditions of imprisonment
that would be illegal under American law if they were used against US citizens (and may be
illegal under International Humanitarian Law). Systematic force is also used by the criminal
justice system, which in many societies disproportionately punishes members of subordinate
groups, particularly men (Sidanius and Pratto, 1999)
Another major way in which dominance is maintained is through institutional discrimination in
the allocation of desirable resources. For example, public and private institutions typically
provide better education, financial services, healthcare, and jobs for members of dominant
groups rather than for members of subordinate groups. In contrast to the thesis that oppression is
maintained mainly by force and threat, as would be illustrated by police states such as Chile
under Pinochet, the USSR under Stalin, and Germany under Hitler, social dominance theory
claims that even democracies can function as group - based hierarchies. In fact, because forceful
oppression sometimes gives rise to nationalist liberation movements Nazism in German under
Adolf Hitler and Fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini
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Suggest that all people should be granted certain rights and freedoms regardless of their group
membership. By offering these rights to all people, these legitimizing myths argue for a
reduction of the disparities that exist between social groups in their access to resources, power,
and legitimacy. Other legitimizing myths suggest that some rights and privileges are reserved
only for certain groups, and these helps to increase group - based inequality and social hierarchy.

Community empowerment theory

Community empowerment refers to the process of enabling communities to increase control
over their lives. communities are groups of people that may or may spatially connected but who
share common interest, concerns or identities. These communities could be local, national or
international with specific or broad interests.
'Empowerment' refers to the process by which people gain control over the factors and
decisions that shape their lives. it is the process by which they increase assets and attributes and
build capacities to gain access, partners, network and voice in order to gain control. community
empowerment, therefore is more than the involvement, participation or engagement of
communities. It implies community ownership and action that explicitly aims at social and
political change. Community empowerment is a process of renegotiation power I order to gain
more control. It recognizes that if some people are going to be empowered than others will be
sharing their existing power and giving of it power. Power is a central concept in community
empowerment and health promotion invariably operates within the arena of a power struggle.
Also empowerment theory developing problem-solving capacity and competence that allows
individuals and communities to gain mastery over their lives. When community development
and empowerment are considered together, they demonstrate the potential for empowerment of
community people through the involvement of lay workers in promoting reciprocal health.

Social constructionist or Community constructionist theory

Social constructionist theory. The theory of social constructionism was introduced in the in
1966 by sociologists Peter L.Berger and Thomas Luckman. This theory starts that meaning
and knowledge are socially created. Social constructionists believe that are generally viewed or
perceived as natural or normal in the society, such as understandings of gender, race, class and
disability are socially constructed and consequelly aren’t accurate reflection of reality. Social
created within the specific institutions and cultures and come to prominence in a certain
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historical period. Social constructs dependence of historical, political, and economics can lead to
them to evolve and change.

PSYCHOLOGY THEORY
Concept of psychology theory
In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions
and behaviors. Throughout psychology history a number of theories have been proposed to
explain and predict various aspects of human behavior.
A psychological theory has two key components

a) It must describe a behavior.

b) It must make predictions about future behaviors

Each theory has helped contribute to our knowledge of the human mind and behavior

SOCIAL- PSYCHOLOGY CONCEPT IN INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Human Behavior refers to the full range of physical and
emotional behaviors that humans engage in; biologically, socially, intellectually and others.
Human behavior is influenced by Abilities, Gender, Race and culture, Attribution, Perception,
Attitude.
Moral behavior definition:
Morals are principles and beliefs concerning right and wrong behavior.
Moral behavior; means to act according to one’s moral beliefs, values or principles and
standards.
Example of moral behavior, always tell the truth, do not destroy the property, have courage keep
your promises, do not cheat, do not judge, be dependable and others.
Moral derived from the “mos” meaning custom.
Morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong.
Ethics refers to rules provided by external sources for example code of conduct in work places or
principles in religious.
Disputes
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According to Burton (1990), Dispute refers as a short-term disagreement that can be resolved. He
further elucidates that a Dispute can be resolved by considering and evaluating the interests of
the parties concerned and determining their rights through a reasonable solution.
In a legal context, a Dispute is defined as a disagreement on a point of law or fact, or over certain
legal rights, obligations, and interests between two or more parties.
It follows, then, that a Dispute refers to a disagreement that is specific, one in which the issues
can be resolved by applying relevant law or rules.
Thus, in the case of a Dispute, the parties can argue their case and come to some form of
settlement. Typically, a Dispute entails one party seeking to enforce certain rights or claims and
the other party opposing such a position.
Disputes can be heard in court or through other alternative forms such
as arbitration and mediation. An example of a Dispute is when an employee seeks to enforce a
certain right or claim against his or her employer. This claim can be in relation to working hours,
overtime or le

Conflict
Conflict refers to a state of disagreement or disharmony. This state of disharmony or opposition
is generally between persons, interests, ideas, principles or values.
Conflict as a long-term disagreement, a problem that runs so deep that its issues are generally
“non-negotiable”. Given that they are non-negotiable, it also indicates that the possibility of
resolving such issues is remote or difficult. Issues that are considered deep or extremely serious
include difference of opinion, morals or values, issues pertaining to security, authority, power,
and more. Conflicts with such issues, if not resolved, tend to transform into physical violence
and thereafter war (Burton, 1990).
CONFLICT. VS. DISPUTE
 A Dispute is a short-term disagreement while a Conflict is a long-term disagreement.
 Conflicts, unlike Disputes, cannot be easily resolved and the possibility of resolving them
is very remote. In contrast, a Dispute can be resolved through judicial or other means.
 A Conflict refers to a broad area of issues and within this broad area specific Disputes
can arise. While Disputes may stem from a Conflict.
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 Disputes can be easily resolved by dealing with the specific issue at hand and coming to a
final determination. This is not the same with Conflict. While Conflicts are more serious
and sensitive in nature and very volatile in terms of resolution.
Dispute resolution is a term that refers to a number of processes that can be used to resolve a
conflict, dispute or claim. Dispute resolution may also be referred to as alternative dispute
resolution, appropriate dispute resolution, or ADR for short

Dispute resolution processes are alternatives to having a court (state or federal judge or jury)
decide the dispute in a trial or other institution decide the resolution of the case or contract.
Dispute resolution processes can be used to resolve any type of dispute including family,
neighborhood, employment, business, housing, personal injury, consumer, and environmental
disputes.

In addition, the United States Federal Government utilizes dispute resolution processes to assist
government employees and private citizens resolve complaints and disputes in many areas
including workplace, employment, and contracting matters.
LEVELS OF DISPUTES
The “levels of” disputes are four types of disagreement that affect an individual or group of
individuals. Each level comes with its own unique challenges and solutions. The four levels of
disputes are:
1.intrapersonal disputes, this level refers to an internal dispute and involves only one
individual. This conflict arises out of your own thoughts, emotions, ideas, values and
predispositions. It can occur when you are struggling between what you “want to do” and what
you “should do.”
2. Interpersonal dispute, this conflict occurs between two or more people in a larger
organization. It can result from different personalities or differing perspectives on how to
accomplish goals. Interpersonal conflict may even occur without one party realizing there was
ever conflict.
3. Intragroup disputes, this level of dispute occurs between members of a single group when
there are multiple people with varying opinions, backgrounds and experiences working toward a
common goal. Even though they may all want to achieve the same goal, they may disagree about
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how to reach it. Intragroup dispute can also occur when team members have differences in
communication styles and personalities.
4. Intergroup disputes, this level of dispute occurs between different groups within a larger
organization or those who do not have the same overarching goals.
M ETHODS OF DISPUTES RESOLUTION.
1. Negotiation is the process where two parties in conflict or disputes reach an agreement or a
settlement between themselves that can both agree on. Negotiation are reached through
discussions made between the parties or their representatives without an involvement of their
party. Each party should consult or see a lawyer before settling down matters, so that they are
well aware of their rights and duties in respect to the matter or dispute their willing to solve.
2. Mediation; It involves the interventions and assistance of a third party as a facilitator in the
parties’ effort to resolve their disputes. Or is the process of in which a neutral or partial
(means not supporting any one side), third party assists the parties in conflict to reach a
solution. Or consensus. The third party is called mediator and the mediator facilitate
communication between parties. The mediators manage communication process between
parties fairly, honestly and impartially. The mediators do not take sides, give legal advice or
provide counseling. They do not act as judge or arbitrator.
3. Arbitration; Refers to the process where the decision is made by the third party. The
arbitrator hears the case as presented by the parties in conflict or dispute (fight) and makes a
decision or award in the same way as a judge would. Awards are generally final and binding
on all parties. Arbitrator arranges a meeting between the parties to determine what issues
need to resolved. The arbitrator then holds a hearing into the matter where both parties
present information and evidence they believe supports their case.
4. Litigation; The term litigation is the legal term, it the court method of resolving a dispute
where a judge decides the case. The litigation involves more formalized rules. if you have a
strong
STEPS OF DISPUTES RESOLUTION.
Conflict management is one of the core training courses we offer for managers and
supervisors. Learning how to handle disputes efficiently is a necessary skill for anyone in
management and the key to preventing it from hindering employees' professional growth. Here is
the conflict resolution process in five steps.
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Step 1: Define the source of the conflict.

The more information you have about the cause of the problem, the more easily you can help to
resolve it. To get the information you need, use a series of questions to identify the cause, like,
“When did you feel upset?” “Do you see a relationship between that and this incident?” “How
did this incident begin?”
As a manager or supervisor, you need to give both parties the chance to share their side of the
story. It will give you a better understanding of the situation, as well as demonstrate your
impartiality. As you listen to each disputant, say, “I see” or “uh huh” to acknowledge the
information and encourage them to continue to open up to you.

Step 2: Look beyond the incident.

Often, it is not the situation but the point of view of the situation that causes anger to fester and
ultimately leads to a shouting match or other visible and disruptive result.
The source of the conflict might be a minor issue that occurred months before, but the level of
stress has grown to the point where the two parties have begun attacking each other personally
instead of addressing the real problem. In the calm of your office, you can get them to look
beyond the triggering incident to see the real cause. Once again, probing questions will help,
like, “What do you think happened here?” or “When do you think the problem between you first
arose?

Step 3: Request solutions.

After getting each party’s viewpoint, the next step is to get them to identify how the situation
could be changed. Again, question the parties to solicit their ideas: “How can you make things
better between you?” As mediator, you have to be an active listener, aware of every verbal
nuance, as well as a good reader of body language.
You want to get the disputants to stop fighting and start cooperating, and that means steering the
discussion away from finger pointing and toward ways of resolving the conflict.

Step 4: Identify solutions both disputants can support.

You are listening for the most acceptable course of action. Point out the merits of various ideas,
not only from each other’s perspective, but in terms of the benefits to the organization. For
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instance, you might suggest the need for greater cooperation and collaboration to effectively
address team issues and departmental problems.

Step 5: Agreement.
The mediator needs to get the two parties to shake hands and accept one of the alternatives
identified in Step 4. The goal is to reach a negotiated agreement. Some mediators go as far as to
write up a contract in which actions and time frames are specified. However, it might be
sufficient to meet with the individuals and have them answer these questions: “What action plans
will you both put in place to prevent conflicts from arising in the future?” and “What will you do
if problems arise in the future
COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE.

Guidance refers to an advice and a relevant piece of information provided by a superior, to

resolve a problem or overcome from difficulty.

OR

Guidance is advice given to an individual concerning matters such as career. An expert in the field
in question, say career choices, advises individuals on how to go about everything. Guidance aims
at making people know the pros and cons of their decisions. It enlightens individuals on how to
make the right choices. The experts make individuals know that choices have consequences,
especially in the future. Guidance is the approach used to help learners choose their courses or
career paths wisely. It aims at helping the person develop themselves for their future. It serves
individuals with ready solutions

Counseling refers to a professional advice given by a counselor and an individual to help him in
overcoming from personal or psychological problems. The counseling situation arises when a
needy person is face to face with expert who makes available his assistance to the needy
individual to fulfill his needs.

In counseling, a client discusses freely with the counselor or therapist. They express their
emotions, fears, and problems to the counselor. The counselor then helps them deal with their
problems and other reasons people go to see a therapist. The primary purpose of counseling is to
have an individual open up so that they can get the help they need.
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The discussion between the client and counselor is often in a confidential environment.
Counseling digs into the root of the problems before identifying potential solutions. The counselor
works to help the client view life from a positive viewpoint.

The Differences between Guidance and Counseling

The differences between guidance and counseling are as discussed below:

 Guidance is preventive, while counseling is curative. You may seek guidance before
choosing careers, but you seek counseling to save a problematic marriage.

 Guidance helps an individual make the best choices, while counseling helps them change
their perspective. Guidance gives clients ready answers, while counseling helps them
come up with their well-informed solutions.

 Guidance uses an external approach to tackle the issue at hand while counseling uses an
in-depth approach to establish the root causes of the problem before tackling it.

 Guidance is the best approach for tackling educational and career problems while
counseling is best employed in tackling socio-psychological and other personal problems.

 Guidance is provided by an expert in the field at hand or anybody superior. It does not
require professional training. Counseling is given by people who have been trained
professionally to handle psychological problems.

 Guidance provides ready answers and decisions for clients while counseling empowers
individuals to create the most appropriate solutions to tackle an issue.

 In guidance, confidentiality is not a guarantee. It can be conducted for an individual or a

group. In counseling, you are guaranteed confidentiality since the sessions are always one
to one.
NOTE

The difference between counselling and guidance is clear. Both guidance and counseling aim at
solving problems. However, guidance’s main aim is giving a solution, while counseling focuses
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on finding problems, working on them before finding a solution through numerous methods such
as therapy, psychotherapy and more.

Steps or procedures to consider during counseling process.

1: Relationship Building
It involves building a relationship and focuses on engaging clients to explore issue that directly
affect them. The first interview is important because the client is reading the verbal and
nonverbal messages and make inferences about the counselor and the counseling situation.
There are several lists of non-helpful behaviors.

Some steps for Relationship Building for the Counsellor

i. Watch for nonverbal behavior as signs of client’s emotional state
ii. Invite social conversation to reduce anxiety
iii. Invite client to sit down
iv. Invite client to describe his or her reason for coming to talk
v. Introduce yourself
vi. Indicate that you are interested in the person
vii. Ensure client is comfortable
viii. Allow client time to respond
ix. Address the client by name
2. Problem Assessment
This step involves the collection and classification of information about the client’s life situation
and reasons for seeking counseling
3.GOAL SETTING
This is where goals play an important role in giving direction
 Sometimes, you hear both counselor and client complain that the counseling session is
going nowhere.
 Goals are the results or outcomes that client wants to achieve at the end of counseling.
 Like any other activity, counseling must have a focus.

GUIDELINES FOR SETTING GOALS

Goals should relate to the desired end or ends sought by the student.
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Goals should be defined in explicit t and measurable terms

. Goals should be feasible.
Goals should be within the range of the counsellor’s knowledge and skills.
Goals should be stated in positive terms that emphasize growth.
Goals should be consistent with the school’s mission and school health policy

4. INTERVENTION
The behavioral approach attempts to initiate
There are different points of view concerning what a good counselor should do with clients
depending on the theoretical positions that the counselor subscribes to
For example, the person-centered approach suggests that the counselor gets involved rather than
intervenes by placing emphasis on the relationship.

5. EVALUATION, FOLLOW-UP, TERMINATION 0R REFERAL

Terminating the counseling process will have to be conducted with sensitivity with the client
knowing that it will have to end.
 However, all counseling successful termination. aims towards
 For the beginning counselor, it is difficult to think of terminating the counseling process,
as they are more concerned with beginning the counseling

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COUNSELING
Things to be done by counselor during counseling process
 He should develop good relationship with counselee.
 Develop mutual understanding, respect for counselee.
 Be patient.
 Listen to the grievances carefully.
 Develop cooperative attitude
 Be simple and have sympathy with the counselee.
 Do make attempts to know the background of worries, threats, anxiety and others
 Make himself available to help the counselee.
 Be friendly with counselee and be frank.
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CONUSELLOR SHOULD OBSTAIN OR AVOID THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS

DURING COUNSELING PROCESS.
 Should not develop conflict with counselee.
 Do not have any vested interest in counselling.
 Do not be angry with the counselee.
 Don’t resist.
 Avoid being biased, be impartial.
 Don’t exploit the counselee for self-interest.
 Do not use pressure tactics.
TYPES OF COUNSELLING
There is a number of counselling which take place these days. They are mainly divided as per the
various fields. This allows people to choose the counsellor as per their specific problem.
Moreover, this assures the counsellor doing the work is a specialist in their respective field.

The following are the most common types of counseling:

i. Marriage and Family Counseling

ii. Educational Counselling
iii. Rehabilitation Counselling
iv. Mental Health Counselling
v. Substance Abuse Counselling
Marriage and Family Counseling
People often face a lot of problems in their marriage and family life. Sometimes, these troubled
people find it hard to come up with their life. This results in constant fights with their partners or
family members. Marriage and family counseling come in here. In other words, it helps people
with these problems. They take them into confidence and prescribe solutions that will help them
overcome their problems.
Educational Counselling
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A student who is fresh out of school or college is often clueless as to which career to choose.
This is completely normal for kids of that age to feel like that. Furthermore, sometimes even
working individuals feel like that in the midst of their careers. This is nothing to worry about.
Educational counselling helps these people in choosing their career path. They conduct seminars
and orientations or private sessions where they discuss the interest of their client and offer
solutions accordingly.
Rehabilitation Counselling
This type of counselling refers to a practice where the counsellor helps people with their
emotional and physical disabilities. Furthermore, these counsellors teach these people ways to
live independently and maintain gainful employment. It evaluates the strength and limitations of
their patients. In short, they help people in guiding them and assisting them to lead independent
lives.
Mental Health Counselling
Mental illnesses have become very common these days. Awareness has helped people identify
the symptoms of it and visit mental health counsellors. Mental health counselling helps people
deal with issues that impact their mental health and well-being. Some of the mental illnesses are
depression, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)Attention-Defector Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) Bipolar disorder, and more. This counselling focuses on these issues and
helps in resolving them for a healthier life.
Substance Abuse Counselling
Substance abuse counselling is a form of counselling which helps people in treating them and
supporting them from breaking free from their drug and alcohol addiction. It helps people
discuss the cause of this addiction and reach to the root of it.
The counsellor thereby suggests coping strategies which make a positive impact on their lives.
Moreover, they also provide them with practicing skills and behaviors which helps in their
recovery.
NOTE, All types of counselling carry equal importance. They allow people to work through
their problems and lead a happier and healthier life. There is no shame in
taking counseling sessions as it only helps in the growth of an individual. In addition,
counselling also helps save lives.
TYPES OF COUNSELLING APPROACHES OR METHODS
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There are 3 main types of Counselling approaches

1. Directive Counselling,
2. Non-directive Counselling,
3. Eclectic Counselling.
1. Directive Counseling:
This type if counseling is directive in its nature. The counselor plays an important role in it. He
or she is the authority which states a judgment over any problem. In this type of counseling
counselee has not any important role but counselor has problem in his or her main focus. Client
has to cooperate to his or her counselor. Since it is an authoritative type of counseling so students
communicate a little and counselor does most of talking. In it we cannot see democratic
environment. Client has to work under the counselor not with him. We can give counseling
regarding intellectual aspects in it.
2. Non-directive counseling:
In this type of counseling, client is provided a great opportunity for free expression in which he
or she could give information to counselor completely. In this type of counseling, client works
with counselor not under him or her.
It is democratic in behavior where counseling develops further insight, a more complete and
accurate understanding of the problem. Since client plays a central role in it so we can also say it
client centered counseling.
3. Eclectic counseling:
In this type of counseling, counselor offers many alternative solutions of a problem from which
client could select the most appropriate one.
Counselor has the need of individual in his or her view at the time of counseling. Counselor has
the effect of counseling on student in his or her mind.
A client should use this type of counseling according to need and nature of students as well as
problems
References
1. John McLeod (2004), An Introduction to Counseling (3rd ed.), New York, , USA
2. Robyn Eversole (2015), Knowledge Partnering for Community Development, 711 Third
Avenue, New York, NY 10017.
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3. URT (2000). Gender Development Policy. Ministry of Community Development Women

Affairs and Children. Dar es Salaam.
4. David V. Perkins (2005), Principles of Community Psychology: Perspectives and
Applications. 3rd Edition. New York Oxford University Press.
5. Stephanie M. Reich (2007), International Community Psychology; History and Theories.
University of California, Irvine Irvine, California, USA